Latin, or Latin, is the language of the Latin-Faliscan branch of the Italic languages of the Indo-European language family.
Latin is one of the most ancient written languages Indo-European languages.
Nowadays, Latin is official language The Holy See, the Order of Malta and the Vatican City State, as well as, in part, the Roman Catholic Church.
The name “Latin” comes from a small tribe of Latins (Latini), who inhabited ancient region Latium (now Lazio), located in the very center of the Apennine Peninsula. It was here, according to legend, that Rome was founded by the brothers Romulus and Remus in 753 BC.
The Latin alphabet is the basis for writing many modern languages.
Today, the study of Latin remains relevant for a number of humanities and natural sciences: philologists, historians, lawyers, as well as doctors, pharmacists and biologists in varying degrees master the basics of Latin, its vocabulary and grammar.
In literary Latin There are 4 periods. The first period is the period of archaic Latin: from the first surviving written sources until the beginning of the 1st century. BC. The second period is the period of classical Latin: from the first speeches of Cicero (80-81 BC) until the death of Augustus in 14 AD. Cicero played a huge role in the formation of classical Latin. It was in his prose that the Latin language acquired that grammatical and lexical norm, which made it “classic”. In most higher educational institutions Classical Latin is being studied in our country.
The period of post-classical Latin extends to the 1st-2nd centuries. AD This period is almost no different from the previous one: grammatical rules classical Latin is almost not violated. Therefore, the division into the classical and post-classical periods is more literary than linguistic meaning. The fourth period is the period of late Latin - III-IV centuries. During this period, the fall of the Roman Empire and the emergence of barbarian states after its fall took place. In the works of late Latin authors, many morphological and syntactic phenomena already find their place, preparing the transition to new ones. Romance languages.
The spread of Latin in the western Mediterranean occurred in the following way: by the end of the 2nd century BC. The Latin language no longer dominated not only throughout Italy, but also penetrated as the official state language to the Roman-conquered regions of the Iberian Peninsula and modern southern France, where the Roman province of Narbonese Gaul was then located (it is noteworthy that the name of the modern French region of Provence comes from Latin word provincia).Conquest of the rest of Gaul ( modern territories France, Belgium, partly the Netherlands and Switzerland) ended in the late 50s. I century BC.
Latin belongs to the family of Indo-European languages of Italic origin. Latin was originally the language of a small branch of the Italic tribe of Latins, who lived in prehistoric times in the region above the Tiber and known as Latium. The center of this area is VIII century BC e. became the city of Rome (according to ancient historians, the year of its foundation was 753 BC). To the north-west of the Romans lived the Etruscans - a people of an ancient and highly developed culture who had a huge influence on cultural development throughout Italy, especially Rome. Many Etruscan words entered the Latin language, and Etruscan very different from Latin: numerous Etruscan inscriptions have not yet been deciphered. Other languages of Italy (the most important of them are Os and Umbrian), related to Latin, were gradually supplanted by it.
In literary Latin there are 4 period. The first period is the period of archaic Latin: from the first surviving written sources to the beginning I V. BC. The second period is the period of classical Latin: from the first speeches of Cicero ( 80-81 gg. BC) until the death of Augustus in 14 AD. Cicero played a huge role in the formation of classical Latin. It was in his prose that the Latin language acquired the grammatical and lexical norm that made it “classical”. In most higher educational institutions in our country, classical Latin is studied.
The period of post-classical Latin extends to I-II centuries AD This period is almost no different from the previous one: the grammatical norms of classical Latin are almost not violated. Therefore, the division into the classical and post-classical periods has more literary than linguistic significance. The fourth period - the period of late Latin - III-IV centuries. During this period, the fall of the Roman Empire and the emergence of barbarian states after its fall took place. In the works of late Latin authors, many morphological and syntactic phenomena already find their place, preparing the transition to new Romance languages.
The spread of the Latin language in the western Mediterranean occurred as follows: towards the end II century BC The Latin language no longer dominated not only throughout Italy, but also penetrated as the official state language into the regions of the Iberian Peninsula and modern southern France conquered by the Romans, where the Roman province of Narbonese Gaul was then located (it is noteworthy that the name of the modern French region of Provence comes from the Latin word province). The conquest of the rest of Gaul (modern territories of France, Belgium, parts of the Netherlands and Switzerland) was completed at the end 50s I century BC.
In all these territories, the Latin language is spreading, not only through official institutions, but also as a result of communication local population with Roman soldiers, traders, settlers. Thus, the Romanization of the provinces occurred in two ways: from above - in particular through the opening of Roman schools for the children of the local nobility, and from below - through live communication with speakers of spoken Latin. As a result of this, the so-called Vulgar (folk) Latin was formed - a colloquial version of the Latin language, which became the basis language for the Romance languages. Romance languages include Italian, Sardinian, French, Provencal (Occitan), Spanish, Catalan, Galician. Portuguese, Romanian, Moldavian, Romansh, and also disappeared in 19th century Dalmatian.
The influence of Latin on the languages of the Germanic tribes and the British was not so noticeable and was expressed primarily in a number of borrowings from Latin. Even after the fall of the Roman Empire, Latin retained its leading value as the language of state, science, culture, school and church. Also in 18 century, Newton, Spinoza and even Lomonosov wrote their works in Latin.
Today, the study of the Latin language remains relevant for a number of humanities and natural sciences: philologists, historians, lawyers, as well as doctors, pharmacists and biologists, to varying degrees, master the basics of Latin, its vocabulary and grammar.
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Interesting facts about the Latin language
The almost exclusive uniqueness of word-formation makes the Latin language (along with Greek) the most convenient means of replenishing the international scientific terminology in the most various areas science and life.
The stress of the Latin language, according to most scholars, is defined as« musical with rapidly growing dynamic tendencies».
Features of language and translation from Latin into Russian and from Russian into Latin
Modern pronunciation The Latin language is very different from the ancient one. But this is not so important, since it is mainly written.
The lexical structure of the Latin language is characterized by great archaism, showing similarities with the Indo-Iranian and Hittite languages and, thus,encourages meticulous translation with elements of historiography.
It still remains a mystery. However, the first historical reference the appearance of tongues is given in the biblical story about Tower of Babel. Babylon was a place where people lived in harmony and peace and spoke the same language. The inhabitants of Babylon decided to build a tower “high to the heavens... so as not to be scattered over the face of the earth,” thereby challenging God. As a result, God punished them and scattered them across the face of the earth and confused their languages. This, however, is all that we know about the origin of languages.
Do you know how many languages exist on planet Earth today? Apparently, in the world 2700 spoken languages And 7000 dialects. There are 365 in Indonesia alone various languages, while in Africa there are more than 1000 of them. The most complex language in the world is the Basque language, which is spoken in North-West Spain and South-West France. Its main feature is that it is unlike any other language in the world and is classified as an isolated language. The self-name of the language is Euskara.
The youngest language- Afrikaans, spoken in South Africa. One of the world's oldest languages, Aka-Bo or Bo, is now considered an extinct language as the last native speaker of Bo died on January 26, 2010, at the age of about 85. Bo is ancient language, once common in the Andaman Islands in India. The languages of the Andaman Islands are believed to have their origins in Africa, and some may even be as old as 70,000 years.
The Chinese language, or more precisely the Putonghua dialect, is the most widely spoken language in the world after English, and probably one of the most interesting and most complex. Among China's many other languages, Mandarin is by far the dominant one: it is spoken by about 800 million people, and another 200 million recognize it as a second language. Putonghua is spoken in much of northern and southwestern China. If you ever find yourself there to say hello to your interlocutors, all you have to do is say: “Nĭ hăo.”
Rotokas is the language of the province of Bougainville, on an island east of New Guinea. This language is known for having the smallest range of sounds. In the Rotokas language, the alphabet consists of twelve letters that represent eleven phonemes (AEIKOPRSTUV). The language has six consonants (K, P, R, S, T, V) and five vowels (A, E, I, O, U). The letters "T" and "S" represent the same phoneme /t/, while the letter "V" is sometimes written as "B".
The Vatican is the only state in the world where Latin is the official language. In addition, the Vatican has the only ATM in the world, where you can read the instructions on Latin. And yet Latin counts dead tongue, since there are no people who would consider it their native language. Latin is still taught in schools and universities and is spoken fluently by various scholars and clergy. It is enough to cite well-known Latin phrases: alea jacta est (“the die is cast”), veni vidi vici (“came, saw, conquered”), carpe diem (“break the day”), divide et impera (“divide and conquer”).
“Latin has gone out of fashion now,” wrote Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin in “Eugene Onegin.” And I was wrong - Latin expressions often appear in our speech to this day! “Money doesn’t smell”, “bread and circuses”, “in healthy body healthy mind"... We all use these aphorisms, some of which are twenty centuries old! We have selected the 10 most famous ones.
1. Ab ovo
According to Roman customs, lunch began with eggs and ended with fruit. It is from here that the expression “from the egg” is usually derived, or in Latin “ab ovo”, meaning “from the very beginning”. It is they, eggs and apples, that are mentioned in Horace’s satires. But the same Roman poet Quintus Horace Flaccus clouds the picture when he uses the expression “ab ovo” in “The Science of Poetry” in relation to a too long preface. And here the meaning is different: to start from time immemorial. And the eggs are different: Horace cites as an example a story about Trojan War, started from Leda's eggs. From one egg, laid by this mythological heroine from a relationship with Zeus in the form of a Swan, Elena the Beautiful was born. And her abduction, as is known from mythology, became the reason for the Trojan War.
2. O tempora! Oh more!
On October 21, 63 BC, consul Cicero gave a fiery speech in the Senate, and it had a fateful significance for Ancient Rome. The day before, Cicero received information about the intentions of the leader of the plebs and youth Lucius Sergius Catilina to carry out a coup and assassinate Marcus Tullius Cicero himself. The plans became public, the plans of the conspirators were thwarted. Catiline was expelled from Rome and declared an enemy of the state. On the contrary, Cicero was given a triumph and awarded the title “Father of the Fatherland.” So, this confrontation between Cicero and Catiline enriched our language: it was in speeches against Catiline that Cicero first used the expression “O tempora! O mores!”, which in Russian means “Oh times! Oh morals!
3. Feci quod potui faciant meliora potentes
Feci quod potui faciant meliora potentes, that is, “I did everything I could, let those who can do better.” The elegant formulation does not obscure the essence: here are my achievements, judge, says someone, summing up his activities. However, why someone? At the source the expressions are found to be completely specific people- Roman consuls. This was their verbal formula, with which they ended their reporting speech when they transferred powers to their successors. It was not just these words - the phrase acquired precision in a poetic retelling. And it is in this finished form that it is engraved on the tombstone of the famous Polish philosopher and writer Stanislaw Lem.
4. Panem et circenses
This people has been around for a long time, since we began to use our voices
We don’t sell, I forgot all my worries, and Rome, that once
He distributed everything: legions, and power, and a bunch of lictors,
Now he is restrained and restlessly dreams of only two things:
Meal'n'Real!
In the original of the 10th satire of the ancient Roman satirical poet Juvenal there is “panem et circenses”, that is, “bread and circus games”. Decimus Junius Juvenal, who lived in the 1st century AD, truthfully described the mores of contemporary Roman society. The mob demanded food and entertainment, politicians gladly corrupted the plebs with handouts and thus bought support. Manuscripts do not burn, and in Juvenal’s presentation the cry of the Roman mob from the times of Octavian Augustus, Nero and Trajan, overcame the thickness of centuries and still means the simple needs of thoughtless people who are easily bought by a populist politician.
5.Pecunianonolet
Everyone knows that money has no smell. Much fewer people know who said this famous phrase, and where the topic of smells suddenly emerged. Meanwhile, the aphorism is almost twenty centuries old: according to the Roman historian Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, “Pecunia non olet” is the answer of the Roman emperor Vespasian, who ruled in the 1st century AD, to the reproach of his son Titus. The son reproached Vespasian for introducing a tax on public latrines. Vespasian brought the money received as this tax to his son's nose and asked if it smelled. Titus answered in the negative. “And yet they are made of urine,” Vespasian stated. And thus provided an excuse for all lovers of unclean income.
6.Memento mori
When the Roman commander returned from the battlefield to the capital, he was greeted by a jubilant crowd. The triumph could have gone to his head, but the Romans prudently included a state slave in the script with a single line. He stood behind the commander, held a golden wreath above his head and repeated from time to time: “Memento mori.” That is: “Remember death.” “Remember that you are mortal,” the Romans implored the triumphant, “remember that you are a man, and you will have to die. Fame is temporary, but life is not eternal.” There is, however, a version that real phrase sounded like this: “Respice post te! Hominem te memento! Memento mori”, translated: “Turn around! Remember that you are human! Memento Mori". In this form, the phrase was found in the “Apologetics” of the early Christian writer Quintus Septimius Florence Tertullian, who lived at the turn of the 2nd and 3rd centuries. “Instantly at sea,” they joked in the film “ Caucasian captive».
7. Mens sana in corpore sano
When we want to say that only physically healthy man energetic and can accomplish a lot, we often use the formula: “a healthy mind in a healthy body.” But its author had something completely different in mind! In his tenth satire, the Roman poet Decimus Junius Juvenal wrote:
We must pray for a healthy mind in a healthy body.
Ask for a cheerful spirit that knows no fear of death,
Who considers the limit of his life to be a gift of nature,
That he is able to endure any difficulties...
Thus, the Roman satirist did not in any way connect the health of the mind and spirit with the health of the body. Rather, he was sure that a mountain of muscles did not contribute to good spirits and mental alertness. Who edited the text created in the 2nd century AD? The English philosopher John Locke repeated Juvenal's phrase in his work “Thoughts on Education,” giving it the appearance of an aphorism and completely distorting the meaning. This aphorism was made popular by Jean-Jacques Rousseau: he inserted it into the book “Emile, or On Education.”
8. Homo sum, humani nihil a me alienum puto
In the 2nd century BC, the Roman comedian Publius Terence Afr presented to the public a remake of the comedy of the Greek writer Menander, who lived in the 4th century BC. In a comedy called “The Self-Tormentor,” old man Medenem reproaches old man Khremet for interfering in other people’s affairs and retelling gossip.
Don't you have enough to do, Khremet?
You're getting into someone else's business! Yes it is for you
Doesn't matter at all.
Khremet justifies himself:
I am human!
Nothing human is alien to me.
Khremet's argument has been heard and repeated for more than two thousand years. The phrase “Homo sum, humani nihil a me alienum puto,” that is, “I am a man, and nothing human is alien to me,” has become part of our speech. And it usually means that anyone, even a highly intelligent person, carries within himself all the weaknesses human nature.
9. Veni, vidi, vici
On August 2, according to the current calendar, 47 BC, Gaius Julius Caesar won a victory near the Pontic city of Zela over the king of the Bosporan state Pharnaces. Pharnaces got into trouble himself: after the recent victory over the Romans, he was self-confident and desperately brave. But fortune changed for the Black Sea people: Pharnaces’ army was defeated, the fortified camp was stormed, and Pharnaces himself barely managed to escape. Having caught his breath after a short battle, Caesar wrote a letter to his friend Matius in Rome, in which he announced his victory in literally three words: “I came, I saw, I conquered.” "Veni, vidi, vici" in Latin.
10. In vino veritas
And these are Latin rehashes of Greek philosophical thought! The phrase “Wine is a sweet child, but it is also truth” is attributed to Alcaeus, who worked at the turn of the 7th – 6th centuries BC. Alcaeus repeated it in Book XIV “ Natural history"Pliny the Elder: "According to the proverb, the truth is in the wine." The ancient Roman encyclopedist writer wanted to emphasize that wine loosens tongues and the secret comes out. The judgment of Pliny the Elder is confirmed, by the way, by Russian folk wisdom: “What’s on the sober mind is on the drunk’s tongue.” But in pursuit of a catchy word, Gaius Pliny Secundus cut off the proverb, which in Latin is longer and means something completely different. “In vino veritas, in aqua sanitas,” that is, loosely translated from Latin, “Truth may be in wine, but health is in water.”
We all sometimes want to impress the attention of our interlocutor in a conversation or to show off in a beautiful phrase correspondence. Good way to do this is to use phrases from the Latin language. The Latin tribe, which once inhabited the territory of modern central Italy, communicated with each other in Latin. According to legend, the most famous representatives This tribe - the brothers Romulus and Remus - are the founders of Rome. Sometimes we use Latin expressions without even knowing their origin. They are so firmly entrenched in the Russian language that we use these phrases without realizing their origin. For example, these are the words “alibi”, “alter ego”, “alma mater”. What other phrases will be of interest to those who would like to show off their oratory skills? We present to your attention several such expressions.
Achieve success from scratch
Authorship of one of the most popular Latin aphorisms often attributed to the philosopher Seneca: Per aspera ad astra, which literally translates as “Through thorns to the stars.” What does it mean? Each person goes through many stages on the path of his development. For some they are easy, but for others they have to make serious efforts in order to move to a new level. This expression can be used, for example, in cases where a person has managed to open own business, not having large amount for start-up capital. A year ago, he was “counting pennies,” but through hard and long work he managed to make his life and the life of his family comfortable. In this case, we can say that he went to his success through thorns and to the stars.
Man to man...
And here is another Latin aphorism, firmly rooted in ordinary speech: Homo homini lupus est. It is translated as “man is a wolf to man.” This expression is usually used when a speaker or letter writer wants to emphasize that people are usually strangers to each other. Few people will help to a stranger, and someone else’s misfortune rarely bothers anyone. This expression was first heard in the comedy “Donkeys” by the ancient Roman playwright named Plautus. In one of the most everyday scenes in this comedy, a man was supposed to transfer money to another through a slave, but refused to do so.
When asked again, he said, “You can’t convince me to put money in the hands of a stranger. A man is a wolf to a man if he does not know him.” We see that initially it was a matter of simple mistrust. But more late time this Latin aphorism acquired a slightly different meaning. It began to be applied to a society where everyone fights only for their own interests. This phrase was also used in T. Hobbes’s work “Leviathan”.
A beard is not an indicator of intelligence
Here's another Latin aphorism that the Romans liked to use to make a point: age is not always prerequisite mind. Barba crescit, caput nescit, which means "The beard grows, the head does not know." It often happens that a person, having reached a certain age, still has not gained enough practical knowledge. In this case, age is just a mark in the passport, which in no way indicates the presence life experience. The ancient Romans had another analogue of this aphorism: Barba non facit philosophum, which means “the beard has grown, but there is no intelligence.”
Forgive mistakes of yourself and others
And the following Latin aphorism is well suited for those who tend to take a philosophical view of things: Errare humanum est, which means “to err is human” (or “to err is human”). With the help of mistakes, a person really has a chance to gain invaluable experience. We also often say that only those who do nothing make no mistakes - that is, insurance against committing wrong actions can only be their complete absence. They knew about this back in Ancient Rome. Why not use this Latin aphorism when the opportunity arises?
The principle of power
Divide et impera - and this phrase translates as “divide and conquer.” This phrase can often be heard when we're talking about about governing a country divided into several parts. But it is often used in cases where we are talking about managing a group of people, for example in an enterprise. Who was the author of these words? Scientists have long wanted to find out who first said them. These words were a maxim in the Roman Senate, but are absent from classical Latin texts. But the expression “divide and conquer” is often found in French literature, for example, in the work “Roman History” by the author Charles Rollin.
The meaning of this phrase boils down to the following: a large team needs to be divided into several small ones - this will make it much easier to manage. Small groups are unlikely to be able to fight back existing form board.
Carpe diem
But here is a Latin aphorism with a translation, which is probably known to everyone who is more or less familiar with English language: Carpe diem, which means “seize the day.” This phrase is often translated as “seize the day” or “enjoy life.” For many, the ability to live in the present moment is a certain psychological difficulty. But in fact, every person who wants to live a full life must master the ability to “seize the moment.” healthy life. People, unlike our smaller brothers, have the gift of abstract thinking. This allows us not only to perceive the situation around us, but also to analyze it. Thanks to abstract thinking, we are able to adequately assess the situation and make the right decisions.
However, this same gift is also an obstacle, which makes it difficult for a person to relax and enjoy the current moment.
Failure to live according to the advice of the Romans always results in trouble. For example, if a young man wants to approach a girl, but begins to feel shy, then no matter how attractive he may be in appearance, most likely it will be very, very difficult to start a conversation. The same thing happens in interviews. When an applicant constantly pays attention to how he looks, whether he says everything correctly and appropriately, then the focus of his attention is constantly lost, which leads to unpleasant consequences. Most likely, the employer will not be interested in the personality of such a candidate and is unlikely to consider his ideas seriously.
Carpe noctem
There is another aphorism in Latin, which is the antonym of the above: Carpe noctem, or “catch the night.” This expression can be used to get additional motivation to adhere to the daily routine. It is better to finish all work before dark, and devote the evening and night to rest. Night rest is no less important than daytime work - after all, if a person does not rest in the dark, then he is unlikely to work productively during the day.
Useful phrases
Latin aphorisms in modern culture occupy an important place - and first of all they can be found in literary works. The widespread distribution of phrases from the Latin language is a consequence of the literacy of the population, mass education. But earlier, in the Middle Ages and even in modern times, knowledge of the Latin language and various phrases was the privilege of a few words of the population.
Here is a list of several aphorisms that will be useful both in writing a letter and for those who would like to create some kind of work of art - for example, write a book, a script for a movie, and possibly a song:
- Alea jacta est - [Alea jacta est]. “The die is cast,” in other words, there is no turning back.
- Docendo discimus - [docendo discimus]. This phrase translates as “by teaching, we learn.”
- Festina lente - [festina lente]. "Hurry slowly."
- Tertium non datur - [tertium non datur]. "There is no third".
These Latin aphorisms with translation and transcription will help you demonstrate your erudition and decorate any speech.
History of Archimedes
Both the ancient Greeks and Romans valued education very highly. Often learned men were under the tutelage of rulers. This position was occupied by one of the most famous mathematicians and engineers of that time - Archimedes. The fact is that during the Second Punic War, Archimedes’ inventions more than once saved the city of Syracuse, where the scientist lived, from enemy attacks.
But, unfortunately, respect for the scientist was not universal. According to historical sources, Archimedes was killed at the age of 75 by a Roman soldier for alienating him while immersed in work. Then the mathematician uttered one of the phrases that turned into an aphorism: “Don’t touch my circles!” (Noli turbare circulos meos!).
Latin aphorisms about medicine
Catchphrases that relate to human health, may be of interest to both the common man and those who are somehow connected with medicine.
For example, here is one of these expressions: Hygiena amica valetudinis. It is translated as “hygiene is the friend of health.” Of course, it’s hard to argue with this phrase: where there is unsanitary conditions, there is always a risk of various diseases.
And here is another Latin medical aphorism: Medica mente, non medicamentis. Its literal translation is: “Heal with your mind, not with medicine.” Indeed, if a person is simply prescribed medications that will affect one or another symptom, it will be extremely difficult to cure the disease once and for all. For example, many diseases have psychological roots. In this case, it is necessary to treat the root cause. By eliminating the psychological component that causes a person to experience constant stress, you can achieve a noticeable improvement in his condition. Moreover, if the disease is treated with conventional medications, then perhaps an improvement will occur, but the remission is unlikely to be long. Once the person is under the influence again negative factor, which will cause stress, the symptoms of the disease will make themselves felt again.
Phrases about love
There are also many Latin aphorisms about love. An example is the phrase Amor Caecus, which means “love is blind.” Another phrase is also known - Amor vincit omnia. It translates as “love conquers all.” Yes, the ancient Romans knew a lot about love. And therefore, Latin expressions can be successfully used in romantic correspondence.