Historical figures: “Alexander II. Biography of Emperor Alexander II Nikolaevich

Alexander II Nikolaevich(April 29, 1818, Moscow - March 13, 1881, St. Petersburg) - Emperor of All Russia, Tsar of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland (1855-1881) from the Romanov dynasty. The eldest son of first the grand ducal, and since 1825, the imperial couple Nikolai Pavlovich and Alexandra Feodorovna.

He entered Russian history as a conductor of large-scale reforms. Honored with a special epithet in Russian pre-revolutionary and Bulgarian historiography - Liberator(in connection with the abolition of serfdom according to the manifesto of February 19 (March 3), 1861 and the victory in the Russian-Turkish War (1877-1878), respectively). Died as a result of a terrorist attack organized by the secret revolutionary organization "People's Will".

Childhood, education and upbringing

Born on April 29, 1818 at 11 a.m. in the Nikolaevsky Palace of the Moscow Kremlin, where the entire imperial family arrived in early April to fast and celebrate Easter. Since Nikolai Pavlovich’s older brothers had no sons, the baby was already perceived as a potential heir to the throne. On the occasion of his birth, a 201-gun salvo was fired in Moscow. On May 5, Charlotte Lieven brought the baby into the Cathedral of the Chudov Monastery, where Moscow Archbishop Augustine performed the sacraments of baptism and confirmation on the baby, in honor of which Maria Feodorovna gave a gala dinner. Alexander is the only native of Moscow who has been at the head of Russia since 1725.

Received home education under the personal supervision of his parent, who paid attention to the issue of raising the heir Special attention. The first persons under Alexander were: from 1825 - Colonel K.K. Merder, from 1827 - Adjutant General P.P. Ushakov, from 1834 - Adjutant General H.A. Lieven. In 1825, court councilor V. A. Zhukovsky was appointed mentor (with the responsibility of leading the entire process of upbringing and education and the instruction to draw up a “teaching plan”) and teacher of the Russian language.

Archpriests G. P. Pavsky and V. B. Bazhanov (God’s Law), M. M. Speransky (legislation), K. I. Arsenyev (statistics and history), E. F. Kankrin (finance) took part in Alexander’s training. , F. I. Brunnov (foreign policy), E. D. Collins (physical and mathematical sciences), K. B. Trinius ( natural history), G.I. Hess (technology and chemistry). Alexander also studied military sciences; English, French and German languages, drawing; fencing and other disciplines.

According to numerous testimonies, in his youth he was very impressionable and amorous. So, during a trip to London in 1839, he had a fleeting crush on the young Queen Victoria (later, as monarchs, they experienced mutual hostility and enmity).

Until September 3 (15), 1831, he had the title “Imperial Highness the Grand Duke.” From this date he was officially called “Sovereign Heir, Tsarevich and Grand Duke.”

Beginning of government activities

On April 17 (29), 1834, Alexander Nikolaevich turned sixteen years old. Since this day fell on Tuesday of Holy Week, the celebration of the proclamation of adulthood and the taking of the oath was postponed until the Bright Resurrection of Christ. Nicholas I instructed Speransky to prepare his son for this important act, explaining to him the meaning and significance of the oath. On April 22 (May 4), 1834, Tsarevich Alexander was sworn in in the large church of the Winter Palace. After taking the oath, the Tsarevich was introduced by his father to the main state institutions of the empire: in 1834 to the Senate, in 1835 he was included in the Holy Governing Synod, from 1841 a member of the State Council, from 1842 - the Committee of Ministers.

In 1837 Alexander committed big Adventure throughout Russia and visited 29 provinces of the European part, Transcaucasia and Western Siberia, and in 1838-1839 he visited Europe. On these travels he was accompanied by his fellow pupils and adjutants of the sovereign A.V. Patkul and, in part, I.M. Vielgorsky.

The future emperor's military service was quite successful. In 1836 he already became a major general, and from 1844 a full general, commanding the guards infantry. Since 1849, Alexander was the head of military educational institutions, chairman of the Secret Committees on Peasant Affairs in 1846 and 1848. During the Crimean War of 1853-1856, with the declaration of martial law in the St. Petersburg province, he commanded all the troops of the capital.

The Tsarevich had the rank of adjutant general, was part of the General Staff of His Imperial Majesty, was the chieftain of all Cossack troops; was a member of a number of elite regiments, including the Cavalry Guards, Life Guards Horse, Cuirassier, Preobrazhensky, Semyonovsky, Izmailovsky. He was the Chancellor of Alexander University, Doctor of Laws of the University of Oxford, an honorary member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, the St. Petersburg Medical-Surgical Academy, the Society for the Encouragement of Artists, and the University of St. Petersburg.

Reign of Alexander II

Sovereign title

Large title: “By God's hastening grace, We, Alexander II, Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia, Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan, Tsar of Poland, Tsar of Siberia, Tsar of Tauride Chersonis, Sovereign of Pskov and Grand Duke of Smolensk, Lithuania, Volyn , Podolsk and Finland, Prince of Estland, Livland, Courland and Semigalsk, Samogitsky, Bialystok, Korelsky, Tver, Ugra, Perm, Vyatka, Bulgarian and others; Sovereign and Grand Duke of Novagorod Nizovsky lands, Chernihiv, Ryazan, Polotsk, Rostov, Yaroslavsky, Beloozersky, Udorsky, Obdorsky, Kondian, Vitebsky, Mstislav and all northern countries, lord and sovereign Iverskiy, Kartalinsky, Georgia and Kabardinsky lands and Armenian regions, Cherkassky regions. and the Mountain Princes and other hereditary Sovereign and Possessor, Heir of Norway, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, Stormarn, Ditmarsen and Oldenburg, and so on, and so on, and so on.”
Abbreviated title: “By God's favor, We, Alexander II, Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia, Tsar of Poland, Grand Duke of Finland, etc., and so on, and so on.”

The country faced a number of complex domestic and foreign policy issues (peasant, eastern, Polish and others); finances were extremely upset by the unsuccessful Crimean War, during which Russia found itself in complete international isolation.

Having ascended the throne on the day of his father’s death on February 18 (March 2), 1855, Alexander II issued a manifesto that read: “<…>in the face of the invisibly co-present God, we accept the sacred vow to always have as one goal the welfare of OUR Fatherland. May we, guided and protected by Providence, who has called US to this great service, establish Russia at the highest level of power and glory, may the constant desires and views of OUR August predecessors PETER, KATHERINE, ALEXANDER, the Blessed and Unforgettable, be fulfilled through US naked OUR Parent.<…>"

On the original His Imperial Majesty's own hand signed ALEXANDER

According to the journal of the State Council for February 19 (March 3), 1855, in his first speech to the members of the Council, the new emperor said, in particular: “<…>My unforgettable Parent loved Russia and all his life he constantly thought about its benefits alone.<…>In His constant and daily labors with Me, He told Me: “I want to take for myself everything that is unpleasant and everything that is difficult, just to hand over to You a Russia that is well-ordered, happy and calm.” Providence judged otherwise, and the late Emperor, in the last hours of his life, told me: “I hand over My command to You, but, unfortunately, not in the order I wanted, leaving You with a lot of work and worries.”

The first of important steps there was a conclusion Parisian world in March 1856 - on conditions that were not the worst in the current situation (in England there were strong sentiments to continue the war until complete defeat and dismemberment Russian Empire).

In the spring of 1856, he visited Helsingfors (Grand Duchy of Finland), where he spoke at the university and the Senate, then Warsaw, where he called on the local nobility to “give up dreams” (French pas de rêveries), and Berlin, where he had a very important meeting with the Prussian king Frederick William IV (his mother’s brother), with whom he secretly sealed a “dual alliance,” thus breaking the foreign policy blockade of Russia.

A “thaw” has set in in the socio-political life of the country. On the occasion of the coronation, which took place in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin on August 26 (September 7), 1856 (the ceremony was led by Metropolitan Philaret (Drozdov) of Moscow; the emperor sat on the ivory throne of Tsar Ivan III), the Highest Manifesto granted benefits and concessions to a number of categories of subjects, in particular, the Decembrists, Petrashevites, participants in the Polish uprising of 1830-1831; recruitment was suspended for 3 years; in 1857, military settlements were liquidated.

Great reforms

The reign of Alexander II was marked by reforms of an unprecedented scale, which were called “great reforms” in pre-revolutionary literature. The main ones are the following:

• Liquidation of military settlements (1857)
• Abolition of serfdom (1861)
• Financial reform (1863)
• Reform of higher education (1863)
• Zemstvo and Judicial reforms (1864)
• City government reform (1870)
• Reform of secondary education (1871)
• Military reform (1874)

These transformations solved a number of long-standing socio-economic problems, cleared the way for the development of capitalism in Russia, and expanded the borders civil society And rule of law, however, were not completed.

By the end of the reign of Alexander II, under the influence of conservatives, some reforms (judicial, zemstvo) were limited. The counter-reforms launched by his successor Alexander III also affected the provisions of the peasant reform and the reform of city government.

National politics

A new Polish national liberation uprising on the territory of the Kingdom of Poland, Lithuania, Belarus and Right Bank Ukraine flared up on January 22 (February 3), 1863. In addition to the Poles, there were many Belarusians and Lithuanians among the rebels. By May 1864, the uprising was suppressed by Russian troops. 128 people were executed for their involvement in the uprising; 12,500 were sent to other areas (some of them subsequently raised the Circum-Baikal Uprising of 1866), 800 were sent to hard labor.

The uprising accelerated the implementation of peasant reform in the regions affected by it, and on more favorable terms for the peasants than in the rest of Russia. The authorities took measures to develop primary schools in Lithuania and Belarus, hoping that educating the peasantry in the Russian Orthodox spirit would lead to a political and cultural reorientation of the population. Measures were also taken to Russify Poland. In order to reduce the influence of the Catholic Church on the public life of Poland after the uprising, the tsarist government decided to convert the Ukrainians of the Kholm region belonging to the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church to Orthodoxy. Sometimes these actions met with resistance. Residents of the village of Pratulin refused. On January 24 (February 5), 1874, believers gathered near the parish church to prevent the transfer of the temple to the control of the Orthodox Church. After this, a detachment of soldiers opened fire on the people. 13 people died and were canonized Catholic Church like the Pratulin martyrs.

At the height of the January Uprising, the emperor approved the secret Valuevsky circular on the suspension of the printing of religious, educational and intended for elementary reading literature in Ukrainian. Only such works in this language that belong to the field of fine literature were allowed to be passed by the censorship. In 1876, the Emsky Decree followed, aimed at limiting the use and teaching Ukrainian language in the Russian Empire.

After the uprising of part of Polish society, which did not receive significant support from the Lithuanians and Latvians (in Courland and partially Polished regions of Latgale), certain measures were taken to patronize the ethnocultural development of these peoples.

Part of the North Caucasian tribes (mainly Circassian) from the Black Sea coast, numbering several hundred thousand people, was deported to the Ottoman Empire in 1863-67. as soon as the Caucasian War ended.

Under Alexander II, significant changes took place regarding the Jewish Pale of Settlement. Through a series of decrees issued between 1859 and 1880, a significant portion of Jews received the right to freely settle throughout Russia. As A.I. Solzhenitsyn writes, the right of free settlement was given to merchants, artisans, doctors, lawyers, university graduates, their families and service personnel, as well as, for example, “persons of the liberal professions.” And in 1880, by decree of the Minister of Internal Affairs, it was allowed to allow those Jews who settled illegally to live outside the Pale of Settlement.

Autocracy reform

At the end of the reign of Alexander II, a project was drawn up to create two bodies under the tsar - the expansion of the already existing State Council (which included mainly large nobles and officials) and the creation of a “General Commission” (congress) with the possible participation of representatives from zemstvos, but mainly formed “by appointment" of the government. The discussion was not about a constitutional monarchy, in which the supreme body is a democratically elected parliament (which did not exist and was not planned in Russia), but about a possible limitation autocratic power in favor of bodies with limited representation (although it was assumed that at the first stage they would be purely advisory). The authors of this “constitutional project” were the Minister of Internal Affairs Loris-Melikov, who received emergency powers at the end of the reign of Alexander II, as well as the Minister of Finance Abaza and the Minister of War Milyutin. Alexander II, shortly before his death, approved this plan, but they did not have time to discuss it at the Council of Ministers, and a discussion was scheduled for March 4 (16), 1881, with subsequent entry into force (which did not take place due to the assassination of the Tsar).

The discussion of this project of reform of the autocracy took place already under Alexander III, on March 8 (20), 1881. Although the overwhelming majority of the ministers spoke in favor, Alexander III accepted the point of view of Count Stroganov (“power will pass from the hands of the autocratic monarch... into the hands of various rogues who think ... only about your personal benefit") and K. P. Pobedonostsev (“you need to think not about establishing a new talking shop, ... but about business”). The final decision was secured by a special Manifesto on the inviolability of autocracy, the draft of which was prepared by Pobedonostsev.

Economic development of the country

From the beginning of the 1860s, an economic crisis began in the country, which a number of economic historians associate with Alexander II’s refusal of industrial protectionism and the transition to a liberal policy in foreign trade (at the same time, the historian P. Bayrokh sees one of the reasons for the transition to this policy in the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War). The liberal policy in foreign trade continued after the introduction of the new customs tariff in 1868. Thus, it was calculated that, compared to 1841, import duties in 1868 decreased on average by more than 10 times, and for some types of imports - even by 20-40 times.

Evidence of slow industrial growth during this period can be seen in the production of pig iron, the increase of which was only slightly faster than population growth and noticeably lagged behind that of other countries. Contrary to the goals declared by the peasant reform of 1861, the country's agricultural productivity did not increase until the 1880s , despite the rapid progress in other countries (USA, Western Europe), and the situation in this most important sector of the Russian economy was also only getting worse.

The only industry that developed rapidly was railway transport: the country's railway network was growing rapidly, which also stimulated its own locomotive and carriage building. However, the development of railways was accompanied by many abuses and deterioration financial situation states. Thus, the state guaranteed the newly created private railway companies full coverage of their expenses and also the maintenance of a guaranteed rate of profit through subsidies. The result was huge budgetary expenses for maintaining private companies.

Foreign policy

During the reign of Alexander II, Russia returned to the policy of all-round expansion of the Russian Empire, previously characteristic of the reign of Catherine II. During this period, Central Asia, the North Caucasus, the Far East, Bessarabia, and Batumi were annexed to Russia. Victories in Caucasian War were won in the first years of his reign. The advance into Central Asia ended successfully (in 1865-1881, most of Turkestan became part of Russia). In 1871, thanks to A. M. Gorchakov, Russia restored its rights in the Black Sea, having achieved the lifting of the ban on keeping its fleet there. In connection with the war in 1877, a major uprising occurred in Chechnya and Dagestan, which was brutally suppressed.

After long resistance, the emperor decided to go to war with the Ottoman Empire in 1877-1878. Following the war, he accepted the rank of Field Marshal (April 30 (May 12), 1878).

The point of annexing some new territories, especially Central Asia, was incomprehensible to part of Russian society. Thus, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin criticized the behavior of generals and officials who used the Central Asian war for personal enrichment, and M. N. Pokrovsky pointed out the meaninglessness of the conquest of Central Asia for Russia. Meanwhile, this conquest resulted in great human losses and material costs.

In 1876-1877, Alexander II took personal part in concluding a secret agreement with Austria in connection with the Russian-Turkish War, the consequence of which, according to some historians and diplomats of the second half of the 19th century, was the Berlin Treaty (1878), which entered Russian historiography as “defective” in relation to the self-determination of the Balkan peoples (which significantly reduced the Bulgarian state and transferred Bosnia-Herzegovina to Austria). Examples of the unsuccessful “behavior” of the emperor and his brothers (grand dukes) at the theater of war aroused criticism from contemporaries and historians.

In 1867 Alaska (Russian America) was sold to the United States for $7.2 million. In addition, he concluded the St. Petersburg Treaty of 1875, according to which he transferred all the Kuril Islands to Japan in exchange for Sakhalin. Both Alaska and the Kuril Islands were remote overseas possessions, unprofitable from economic point vision. Moreover, they were difficult to defend. The concession for twenty years ensured the neutrality of the United States and the Empire of Japan in relation to Russian actions in the Far East and made it possible to free up the necessary forces to secure more habitable territories.

"They attack by surprise." Painting by V.V. Vereshchagin, 1871

In 1858, Russia concluded the Aigun Treaty with China, and in 1860, the Beijing Treaty, under which it received vast territories of Transbaikalia, Khabarovsk Territory, a significant part of Manchuria, including Primorye (“Ussuri Territory”).

In 1859, representatives of Russia founded the Palestine Committee, which was later transformed into the Imperial Orthodox Palestine Society (IPOS), and in 1861 the Russian Spiritual Mission in Japan arose. To expand missionary activity, on June 29 (July 11), 1872, the department of the Aleutian diocese was transferred to San Francisco (California) and the diocese began to extend its care to all of North America.

Refused the annexation and Russian colonization of the northeastern coast of Papua New Guinea, to which Alexander II was urged by the famous Russian traveler and explorer N. N. Miklouho-Maclay. Australia and Germany took advantage of Alexander II’s indecisiveness in this matter, and soon divided among themselves the “ownerless” territories of New Guinea and the adjacent islands.

Soviet historian P. A. Zayonchkovsky believed that the government of Alexander II pursued a “Germanophile policy” that did not meet the interests of the country, which was facilitated by the position of the monarch himself: “Revering before his uncle, the Prussian king, and later the German Emperor Wilhelm I, he contributed in every possible way to education a united militaristic Germany." During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, “St. George’s crosses were generously distributed to German officers, and insignia of the order to soldiers, as if they were fighting for the interests of Russia.”

Results of the Greek plebiscite

In 1862, after the overthrow of the ruling king Otto I (of the Wittelsbach family) in Greece as a result of an uprising, the Greeks held a plebiscite at the end of the year to choose a new monarch. There were no ballots with candidates, so any Greek citizen could propose his candidacy or type of government in the country. The results were published in February 1863.

Among those included by the Greeks was Alexander II, who took third place and received less than 1 percent of the votes. However, representatives of the Russian, British and French royal houses could not occupy the Greek throne, according to the London Conference of 1832.

Growing public discontent

Unlike the previous reign, which was almost not marked by social protests, the era of Alexander II was characterized by growing public discontent. Along with the sharp increase in the number of peasant uprisings, many protest groups emerged among the intelligentsia and workers. In the 1860s, the following arose: S. Nechaev’s group, Zaichnevsky’s circle, Olshevsky’s circle, Ishutin’s circle, the Earth and Freedom organization, a group of officers and students (Ivanitsky and others) preparing a peasant uprising. During the same period, the first revolutionaries appeared (Pyotr Tkachev, Sergei Nechaev), who propagated the ideology of terrorism as a method of fighting power. In 1866, the first attempt was made to assassinate Alexander II, who was shot by D. Karakozov.

In the 1870s these trends intensified significantly. This period includes such protest groups and movements as the circle of Kursk Jacobins, the circle of Chaikovites, the Perovskaya circle, the Dolgushin circle, the Lavrov and Bakunin groups, the circles of Dyakov, Siryakov, Semyanovsky, the South Russian Union of Workers, the Kiev Commune, the Northern Workers' Union, the new organization Earth and Freedom and a number of others. Most of these circles and groups until the end of the 1870s. engaged in anti-government propaganda and agitation only from the late 1870s. a clear shift towards terrorist acts begins. In 1873-1874 2-3 thousand people, mainly from among the intelligentsia, went to the countryside under the guise of ordinary people for the purpose of promoting revolutionary ideas (the so-called “going to the people”).

After the suppression of the Polish uprising of 1863-1864 and the attempt on his life by D.V. Karakozov on April 4 (16), 1866, Alexander II made concessions to the protective course, expressed in the appointment of Dmitry Tolstoy, Fyodor Trepov, Pyotr Shuvalov to senior government posts, which led to tougher measures in the field of domestic policy.

Increased repression by police authorities, especially in relation to “going to the people” (the process of one hundred and ninety-three populists), caused public outrage and marked the beginning of terrorist activities, which subsequently took on a massive scale. Thus, the assassination attempt by Vera Zasulich in 1878 on the St. Petersburg mayor Trepov was undertaken in response to the mistreatment of prisoners in the “trial of one hundred and ninety-three.” Despite the irrefutable evidence that the assassination attempt had been committed, the jury acquitted her, she was given a standing ovation in the courtroom, and on the street she was greeted by an enthusiastic demonstration of a large crowd of people gathered at the courthouse.

Alexander II. Photo between 1878 and 1881

Over the following years, assassination attempts were carried out:

• 1878: against the Kyiv prosecutor Kotlyarevsky, against the gendarme officer Geiking in Kyiv, against the chief of gendarmes Mezentsev in St. Petersburg;
• 1879: against the Kharkov governor Prince Kropotkin, against the police agent Reinstein in Moscow, against the chief of gendarmes Drenteln in St. Petersburg
• February 1880: an attempt was made on the life of the “dictator” Loris-Melikov.
• 1878-1881: a series of assassination attempts took place on Alexander II.

By the end of his reign, protest sentiments spread among different strata of society, including the intelligentsia, part of the nobility and the army. A new upsurge of peasant uprisings began in the countryside, and a mass strike movement began in the factories. The head of government, P. A. Valuev, giving a general description of the mood in the country, wrote in 1879: “In general, some vague displeasure is manifesting itself in all segments of the population. Everyone is complaining about something and seems to want and expect change.”

The public applauded the terrorists, the number of terrorist organizations themselves grew - for example, the People's Will, which sentenced the Tsar to death, had hundreds of active members. Hero of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. and the war in Central Asia, the commander-in-chief of the Turkestan army, General Mikhail Skobelev, at the end of Alexander’s reign showed sharp dissatisfaction with his policies and even, according to the testimony of A. Koni and P. Kropotkin, expressed his intention to arrest the royal family. These and other facts gave rise to the version that Skobelev was preparing a military coup to overthrow the Romanovs.

According to historian P. A. Zayonchkovsky, the growth of protest sentiments and the explosion of terrorist activity caused “fear and confusion” in government circles. As one of his contemporaries, A. Planson, wrote, “Only during an armed uprising that has already flared up can there be such a panic as took hold of everyone in Russia at the end of the 70s and in the 80s. Throughout Russia, everyone fell silent in clubs, in hotels, on the streets and in bazaars... And both in the provinces and in St. Petersburg, everyone was waiting for something unknown, but terrible, no one was sure of the future.”

As historians point out, against the backdrop of growing political and social instability, the government took more and more emergency measures: first, military courts were introduced, then, in April 1879, temporary governors-general were appointed in a number of cities, and finally, in February 1880 The “dictatorship” of Loris-Melikov was introduced (who was given emergency powers), which remained until the end of the reign of Alexander II - first in the form of the chairman of the Supreme Administrative Commission, then in the form of the Minister of Internal Affairs and the de facto head of government.

The emperor himself was on the verge of a nervous breakdown in the last years of his life. Chairman of the Committee of Ministers P. A. Valuev wrote in his diary on June 3 (15), 1879: “The Emperor looks tired and he himself spoke about nervous irritation, which he is trying to hide. Crowned half-ruin. In an era where strength is needed, obviously one cannot count on it.”

Assassinations and murder

History of failed assassination attempts

Several attempts were made on Alexander II's life:

• D. V. Karakozov April 4 (16), 1866. When Alexander II was heading from the gates of the Summer Garden to his carriage, a shot was heard. The bullet flew over the emperor’s head: the shooter was pushed by the peasant Osip Komissarov, who was standing nearby.

The gendarmes and some of the bystanders rushed at the shooter and knocked him down. "Guys! I shot for you!” - the terrorist shouted.

Alexander ordered him to be taken to the carriage and asked: “Are you a Pole?” “Russian,” answered the terrorist. - Why did you shoot at me? - You deceived the people: you promised them land, but didn’t give it. “Take him to the Third Department,” said Alexander, and the shooter, along with the one who seemed to prevent him from hitting the Tsar, was taken to the gendarmes. The shooter called himself peasant Alexei Petrov, and the other detainee called himself Osip Komissarov, a St. Petersburg cap holder who came from peasant background Kostroma province. It so happened that among the noble witnesses was the hero of Sevastopol, General E.I. Totleben, and he stated that he clearly saw how Komissarov pushed the terrorist and thereby saved the life of the sovereign.

• The assassination attempt on May 25, 1867 was carried out by Polish emigrant Anton Berezovsky in Paris; the bullet hit the horse.
• A.K. Solovyov April 2 (14), 1879 in St. Petersburg. Solovyov fired 5 shots from a revolver, including 4 at the emperor.

On August 26 (September 7), 1879, the executive committee of Narodnaya Volya decided to assassinate Alexander II.

• On November 19 (December 1), 1879, there was an attempt to blow up an imperial train near Moscow. The emperor was saved by the fact that the steam locomotive of the suite train, which was running half an hour earlier than the tsar’s train, broke down in Kharkov. The king did not want to wait and the royal train went first. Not knowing about this circumstance, the terrorists missed the first train, detonating a mine under the fourth carriage of the second.
• On February 5 (17), 1880, S. N. Khalturin carried out an explosion on the first floor of the Winter Palace. The emperor had lunch on the third floor; he was saved by the fact that he arrived later than the appointed time; the guards (11 people) on the second floor died.

To protect state order and fight the revolutionary movement, on February 12 (24), 1880, the Supreme Administrative Commission was established, headed by the liberal-minded Count Loris-Melikov.

Death and burial. Society's reaction

...There was an explosion
From the Catherine Canal,
Covering Russia with a cloud.
Everything foreshadowed from afar,
That the fateful hour will happen,
That such a card will appear...
And this century hour of the day -
The last one is named first of March.

Alexander Blok, “Retribution”

March 1 (13), 1881, at 3 hours 35 minutes in the afternoon, died in the Winter Palace as a result of a fatal wound received on the embankment of the Catherine Canal (St. Petersburg) at about 2 hours 25 minutes in the afternoon on the same day - from a bomb explosion (the second in the course of the assassination attempt ), thrown at his feet by Narodnaya Volya member Ignatius Grinevitsky; died on the day when he intended to approve the constitutional draft of M. T. Loris-Melikov. The assassination attempt occurred when the emperor was returning after a military divorce in the Mikhailovsky Manege, from “tea” (second breakfast) in the Mikhailovsky Palace with Grand Duchess Catherine Mikhailovna; The tea was also attended by Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich, who left a little later, having heard the explosion, and arrived shortly after the second explosion, giving orders and commands at the scene. The day before, February 28 (March 12), 1881 - (on Saturday of the first week of Lent), the emperor, in the Small Church of the Winter Palace, together with some other family members, received the Holy Mysteries.

On March 4, his body was transferred to the Court Cathedral of the Winter Palace; On March 7, it was solemnly transferred to the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg. The funeral service on March 15 was led by Metropolitan Isidore (Nikolsky) of St. Petersburg, co-served by other members Holy Synod and a host of clergy.

The death of the “Liberator”, killed by the Narodnaya Volya on behalf of the “liberated”, seemed to many to be the symbolic end of his reign, which led, from the point of view of the conservative part of society, to rampant “nihilism”; Particular indignation was caused by the conciliatory policy of Count Loris-Melikov, who was viewed as a puppet in the hands of Princess Yuryevskaya. Right-wing political figures (including Konstantin Pobedonostsev, Evgeny Feoktistov and Konstantin Leontyev) even said with more or less directness that the emperor died “on time”: had he reigned for another year or two, the catastrophe of Russia (the collapse of the autocracy) would have become inevitable.

Not long before, K.P. Pobedonostsev, appointed chief prosecutor of the Holy Synod, wrote to the new emperor on the very day of the death of Alexander II: “God ordered us to survive this terrible day. It was as if God's punishment had fallen on unfortunate Russia. I would like to hide my face, go underground, so as not to see, not to feel, not to experience. God, have mercy on us.<…>».

The rector of the St. Petersburg Theological Academy, Archpriest John Yanyshev, on March 2 (14), 1881, before the memorial service in St. Isaac's Cathedral, said in his speech: “<…>The Emperor not only died, but was also killed in His own capital... the martyr's crown for His sacred Head was woven on Russian soil, among His subjects... This is what makes our grief unbearable, the illness of the Russian and Christian heart incurable, our immeasurable misfortune ours eternal shame!

Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich, who at a young age was at the bedside of the dying emperor and whose father was in the Mikhailovsky Palace on the day of the assassination attempt, wrote in his emigrant memoirs about his feelings in the days following that: “<…>At night, sitting on our beds, we continued to discuss the disaster of last Sunday and asked each other what would happen next? The image of the late Sovereign, bending over the body of a wounded Cossack and not thinking about the possibility of a second assassination attempt, did not leave us. We understood that something incommensurably greater than our loving uncle and courageous monarch had gone with him irrevocably into the past. Idyllic Russia with the Tsar-Father and his loyal people ceased to exist on March 1, 1881. We understood that the Russian Tsar would never again be able to treat his subjects with boundless trust. He will not be able to forget the regicide and devote himself entirely to state affairs. The romantic traditions of the past and the idealistic understanding of Russian autocracy in the spirit of the Slavophiles - all this will be buried, along with the murdered emperor, in the crypt Peter and Paul Fortress. Last Sunday’s explosion dealt a mortal blow to the old principles, and no one could deny that the future of not only the Russian Empire, but the entire world, now depended on the outcome of the inevitable struggle between the new Russian Tsar and the elements of denial and destruction.”

An editorial in the Special Supplement to the right-wing conservative newspaper Rus on March 4 read: “The Tsar has been killed!... Russian tsar, in his own Russia, in his capital, brutally, barbarously, in front of everyone - with a Russian hand...<…>Shame, shame on our country!<…>Let the burning pain of shame and grief penetrate our land from end to end, and let every soul tremble in it with horror, sorrow, and the anger of indignation!<…>That rabble, which so impudently, so brazenly oppresses the soul of the entire Russian people with crimes, is not the offspring of our simple people themselves, nor their antiquity, nor even the truly enlightened newness, but the product of the dark sides of the St. Petersburg period of our history, apostasy from the Russian people, treason its legends, principles and ideals<…>».

At an emergency meeting of the Moscow City Duma, the following resolution was unanimously adopted: “An unheard-of and terrifying event occurred: the Russian Tsar, liberator of peoples, fell victim to a gang of villains among a people of many millions, selflessly devoted to him. Several people, the product of darkness and sedition, dared to encroach with a sacrilegious hand on the centuries-old tradition of the great land, to tarnish its history, the banner of which is the Russian Tsar. The Russian people shuddered with indignation and anger at the news of the terrible event.<…>».

In issue No. 65 (March 8 (20), 1881) of the official newspaper St. Petersburg Vedomosti, a “hot and frank article” was published, which caused “a stir in the St. Petersburg press.” The article, in particular, said: “Petersburg, located on the outskirts of the state, is teeming with foreign elements. Both foreigners, eager for the disintegration of Russia, and leaders of our outskirts have built their nest here.<…>[St. Petersburg] is full of our bureaucracy, which has long lost its sense of the people's pulse<…>That is why in St. Petersburg you can meet a lot of people, apparently Russians, but who talk as enemies of their homeland, as traitors to their people<…>».

An anti-monarchist representative of the left wing of the Cadets, V.P. Obninsky, in his work “The Last Autocrat” (1912 or later), wrote about the regicide: “This act deeply shook up society and the people. The murdered sovereign had too outstanding services for his death to pass without a reflex on the part of the population. And such a reflex could only be a desire for a reaction.”

At the same time, the executive committee of Narodnaya Volya, a few days after March 1, published a letter which, along with a statement of “execution of the sentence” to the tsar, contained an “ultimatum” to the new tsar, Alexander III: “If the government’s policy does not change, revolution will be inevitable. The government must express the will of the people, but it is a usurper gang.” A similar statement, which became known to the public, was made by the arrested leader of Narodnaya Volya, A.I. Zhelyabov, during interrogation on March 2. Despite the arrest and execution of all the leaders of Narodnaya Volya, Act of terrorism continued in the first 2-3 years of the reign of Alexander III.

On these same days in early March, the newspapers Strana and Golos were given a “warning” by the government for editorials “explaining the heinous crime last days system of reaction and as placing responsibility for the misfortune that befell Russia on those of the tsarist advisers who led the measures of reaction.” In the following days, on the initiative of Loris-Melikov, the newspapers Molva, St. Petersburg Vedomosti, Poryadok and Smolensky Vestnik, which published “harmful” articles from the government’s point of view, were closed.

In his memoirs, the Azerbaijani satirist and educator Jalil Mammadkulizade, who was a schoolboy at the time of the death of Alexander II, described the reaction as follows: local population to kill the emperor:

We were sent home. The market and shops were closed. The people were gathered into the mosque, and a forced funeral service was held there. The mullah climbed onto the minber and began to describe the virtues and merits of the murdered padishah in such a way that in the end he himself burst into tears and brought tears to the worshipers. Then the marsia was read, and grief for the murdered padishah merged with grief for the imam - the great martyr, and the mosque was filled with heartbreaking cries.

• Cornet of the Guard (17 (29) April 1825)
• Second Lieutenant of the Guard “for success in sciences shown during the examination in the presence of Their Majesties” (January 7 (19), 1827)
• Lieutenant of the Guard “for distinguished service” (July 1 (13), 1830)
• Staff captain of the guard "for success in sciences shown during the examination in the presence of Their Majesties" (May 13 (25), 1831)
• Adjutant Wing (17 (29) April 1834)
• Colonel (10 (22) November 1834)
• Major General of the Suite (6 (18) December 1836)
• Lieutenant General of the Suite "for distinguished service" (December 6 (18), 1840)
• Adjutant General (17 (29) April 1843)
• General of Infantry (17 (29) April 1847)
• Field Marshal "at the request of the army" (April 30 (May 12), 1878)
• Order of the Holy Apostle Andrew the First-Called (5 (17) May 1818)
• Order of St. Alexander Nevsky (5 (17) May 1818)
• Order of St. Anne 1st class. (5 (17) May 1818)
• Order of the White Eagle (Kingdom of Poland, May 12 (24), 1829)
• Insignia “For XV years of service in officer ranks” (April 17 (29), 1849)
• Order of St. George 4th class. for participation “in the case against the Caucasian highlanders” (November 10 (22), 1850)
• Insignia “For XX years of service in officer ranks” (April 4 (16), 1854)
• Gold medal “For labors in liberating the peasants” (April 17 (29), 1861)
• Silver medal “For the conquest of the Western Caucasus” (July 12 (24), 1864)
• Cross “For Service in the Caucasus” (July 12 (24), 1864)
• Order of St. Stanislaus 1st class. (11 (23) June 1865)
• Order of St. George 1st class. on the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the establishment of the order (November 26 (December 8) 1869)
• Golden saber, presented by officers of His Imperial Majesty's Own Convoy (December 2 (14), 1877)
• Order of Noble Bukhara - the first recipient of this order ( Bukhara Emirate, 1881)

foreign:

• Prussian Order of the Black Eagle at baptism (5 (17) May 1818)
• French Order of the Holy Spirit (13 (25) December 1823)
• Spanish Order of the Golden Fleece (13 (25) August 1826)
• Württemberg Order of the Württemberg Crown 1st class. (9 (21) November 1826)
• Bavarian Order of St. Hubert (13 (25) April 1829)
• Swedish Order of the Seraphim (8 (20) June 1830)
• Danish Order of the Elephant (23 April (5 May) 1834)
• Dutch Order of the Netherlands Lion 1st class. (2 (14) December 1834)
• Greek Order of the Savior 1st class. (8 (20) November 1835)
• Gold chain to the Danish Order of the Elephant (25 June (7 July) 1838)
• Hanoverian Royal Guelph Order (18 (30) July 1838)
• Saxe-Weimar Order of the White Falcon (30 August (11 September) 1838)
• Neapolitan Order of Saint Ferdinand and Merit (20 January (1 February) 1839)
• Austrian Royal Hungarian Order of St. Stephen, Grand Cross (20 February (4 March) 1839)
• Baden Order of Fidelity (11 (23) March 1839)
• Baden Order of the Zähringen Lion 1st class. (11 (23) March 1839)
• Hesse-Darmstadt Order of Ludwig 1st class. (13 (25) March 1839)
• Saxon Order of the Ruth Crown, Grand Cross (19 (31) March 1840)
• Hanoverian Order of St. George (3 (15) July 1840)
• Hesse-Darmstadt Order of Philip the Magnanimous 1st class. (14 (26) December 1843)
• Brazilian Order of the Southern Cross (15 (27) May 1845)
• Sardinian Supreme Order of the Holy Annunciation (19 (31) October 1845)
• Saxe-Altenburg Order of the House of Saxe-Ernestine, Grand Cross (18 (30) June 1847)
• Hesse-Kassel Order of the Golden Lion (5 (17) August 1847)
• Oldenburg Order of Merit of Duke Peter-Friedrich-Ludwig 1st class. (15 (27) October 1847)
• Persian Order of the Lion and the Sun 1st class. (7 (19) October 1850)
• Württemberg Order of Military Merit, 3rd class. (13 (25) December 1850)
• Parma Constantinian Order of St. George (1850)
• Dutch Military Order of Wilhelm, Grand Cross (15 (27) September 1855)
• Portuguese Triple Order (27 November (9 December) 1855)
• Portuguese Order of the Tower and Sword (27 November (9 December) 1855)
• Brazilian Order of Pedro I (14 (26) February 1856)
• Belgian Order of Leopold I 1st class. (18 (30) May 1856)
• French Legion of Honor (30 July (11 August) 1856)
• Prussian bronze medals for 1848 and 1849 (6 (18) August 1857)
• Hesse-Kassel Order of the Golden Lion 1st class. (1 (13) May 1858)
• Turkish Order of Medzhidiye 1st class. (1 (13) February 1860)
• Mecklenburg-Schwerin Order of the Wendish Crown on a gold chain (21 June (3 July) 1864)
• Mexican Imperial Order of the Mexican Eagle (6 (18) March 1865)
• British Order of the Garter (16 (28) July 1867)
• Prussian Order "Pour le Mérite" (26 November (8 December) 1869)
• Turkish Order of Osmaniye 1st class. (25 May (6 June) 1871)
• Golden oak leaves for the Prussian order "Pour le Mérite" (27 November (9 December) 1871)
• Monegasque Order of St. Charles, Grand Cross (3 (15) July 1873)
• Austrian Gold Cross for 25 years of service (2 (14) February 1874)
• Austrian bronze medal (7 (19) February 1874)
• Chain to the Swedish Order of the Seraphim (3 (15) July 1875)
• Austrian Military Order of Maria Theresa 3rd class. (25 November (7 December) 1875)
• Montenegrin Order of St. Peter of Cetinje

Results of the reign

Alexander II went down in history as a reformer and liberator. During his reign, serfdom was abolished, universal military service was introduced, zemstvos were established, judicial reform was carried out, censorship was limited, and a number of other reforms were carried out. The empire expanded significantly through the conquest and inclusion of Central Asian possessions, North Caucasus, Far East and other territories.

At the same time, the economic situation of the country worsened: industry was struck by a prolonged depression, and there were several cases of mass starvation. The foreign trade deficit and public external debt reached large sizes (almost 6 billion rubles), which led to disorder money circulation and public finance. The problem of corruption has worsened. A split has formed in Russian society and acute social contradictions, which reached their peak towards the end of the reign.

Other things negative aspects usually include the unfavorable results of the Berlin Congress of 1878 for Russia, exorbitant expenses in the war of 1877-1878, numerous peasant uprisings (in 1861-1863: more than 1150 uprisings), large-scale nationalist uprisings in the kingdom of Poland and the North-Western region (1863) and in Caucasus (1877-1878).

Assessments of some of Alexander II's reforms are contradictory. The liberal press called his reforms “great.” At the same time, a significant part of the population (part of the intelligentsia), as well as a number of government officials of that era, negatively assessed these reforms. Thus, K.P. Pobedonostsev, at the first meeting of the government of Alexander III on March 8 (20), 1881, sharply criticized the peasant, zemstvo, and judicial reforms of Alexander II, calling them “criminal reforms,” and Alexander III actually approved his speech . And many contemporaries and a number of historians argued that the real liberation of the peasants did not occur (only a mechanism for such liberation was created, and an unfair one at that); have not been canceled Physical punishment in relation to peasants (which remained until 1904-1905); the establishment of zemstvos led to discrimination against the lower classes; Judicial reform was unable to prevent the growth of judicial and police brutality. In addition, according to agricultural experts, peasant reform 1861 led to the emergence of serious new problems (landowner cuts, ruin of the peasants), which became one of the reasons for the future revolutions of 1905 and 1917.

The views of modern historians on the era of Alexander II were subject to dramatic changes under the influence of the dominant ideology, and are not settled. In Soviet historiography, a tendentious view of his reign prevailed, resulting from general nihilistic attitudes toward the “era of tsarism.” Modern historians, along with the thesis about the “liberation of the peasants,” state that their freedom of movement after the reform was “relative.” Calling the reforms of Alexander II “great,” they at the same time write that the reforms gave rise to “the deepest socio-economic crisis in the countryside,” did not lead to the abolition of corporal punishment for peasants, were not consistent, and economic life in 1860-1870 -e years was characterized by industrial decline, rampant speculation and farming.

Private life

“The sovereign’s hair was cut short and well framed his high and beautiful forehead. The facial features are amazingly regular and seem carved by an artist. Blue eyes especially stand out due to the brown tone of the face, weathered during long travels. The outline of the mouth is so fine and defined that it resembles Greek sculpture. The facial expression, majestically calm and soft, is decorated from time to time with a gracious smile,” Théophile Gautier - about the emperor, 1865.

Compared to other Russian emperors, Alexander II spent a lot of time abroad, mainly at the balneological resorts of Germany, which was explained by the poor health of the empress. It was at one of these resorts, in Ems, that the Marquis de Custine, who was heading to Russia in 1839, met the heir to the throne. There, forty years later, the emperor signed the Em Decree, which limited the use of the Ukrainian language. It was Emperor Alexander II who laid the foundation for the favorite summer residence of the last Russian emperors - Livadia. In 1860, the estate was bought together with a park, a wine cellar and a vineyard of 19 hectares from the daughters of Count Pototsky for the emperor’s wife, Maria Alexandrovna, who suffered from tuberculosis and, on the recommendation of doctors, had to recover from the healing air of the southern coast of Crimea. The court architect I. A. Monighetti was invited to Crimea and the Big and Small Livadia Palaces were rebuilt.

“The Emperor took daily walks in the morning - to Oreanda, Koreiz, Gaspra, Alupka, Gurzuf, to the forestry and to the Uchan-Su waterfall - in a carriage or on horseback, swam in the sea, walked. In moments of relaxation I listened to the beautiful poems of the poet [P. A.] Vyazemsky, who at that time was still at the Court, and, despite his 75 years, seemed vigorous and impressionable,” historian and writer Vasily Khristoforovich Kondaraki - about the emperor in the Crimea, 1867.

Alexander II was a particularly passionate lover of hunting. After his accession to imperial court bear hunting became fashionable. In 1860, such a hunt in Belovezhskaya Pushcha Representatives of the ruling houses of Europe were invited. The trophies obtained by the emperor decorated the walls of the Lisinsky pavilion. In the collection of the Gatchina Arsenal (weapon room Gatchina Palace) there is a collection of hunting spears with which Alexander II could personally go hunting for bears, although this was very risky. Under his patronage, the Moscow Hunting Society named after Alexander II was created in 1862.

The Emperor contributed to the popularization of ice skating in Russia. This hobby swept St. Petersburg high society after in 1860 Alexander ordered the construction of a skating rink near the Mariinsky Palace, where he loved to skate with his daughter in full view of the townspeople.

As of March 1 (13), 1881, Alexander II’s net worth was about 12 million rubles. (securities, State Bank tickets, shares of railway companies); In 1880, he donated 1 million rubles from personal funds. for the construction of a hospital in memory of the Empress.

Alexander II suffered from asthma. According to the recollections of Princess Yuryevskaya, she always had several pillows with oxygen on hand, which she gave Alexander Nikolaevich to inhale during attacks of illness.

Family

Alexander was an amorous man. In his youth, he was in love with the maid of honor Borodzina, who was urgently married off, after which he had a relationship with the maid of honor Maria Vasilyevna Trubetskoy (in her first marriage, Stolypina, in her second, Vorontsova), who later became the mistress of Alexander Baryatinsky and had a son, Nikolai, from him. The maid of honor Sofya Davydova was in love with Alexander, because of this she went to the monastery. When she was already Abbess Maria, Alexander Nikolaevich’s eldest son, Nikolai Alexandrovich, saw her during his trip to Russia in the summer of 1863.

Later he fell in love with the maid of honor Olga Kalinovskaya and flirted with Queen Victoria. But, having already chosen the Princess of Hesse as his bride, he again resumed relations with Kalinovskaya and even wanted to abdicate the throne in order to marry her. On April 16 (28), 1841, in the Cathedral Church of the Winter Palace, Alexander Nikolaevich married Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna, daughter Grand Duke Ludwig II of Hesse, who was called Princess Maximilian Wilhelmina Augusta Sophia Maria of Hesse-Darmstadt before her conversion to Orthodoxy. On December 5 (17), 1840, the princess, having received chrismation, converted to Orthodoxy and was given a new name - Maria Alexandrovna, and upon her betrothal to Alexander Nikolaevich on December 6 (18), 1840, she became known as the Grand Duchess with the title of Imperial Highness.

Alexander's mother opposed this marriage due to rumors that the real father of the princess was the duke's chamberlain, but the crown prince insisted on his own. Alexander II and Maria Alexandrovna were married for almost 40 years, and for many years the marriage was happy. A. F. Tyutcheva calls Maria Alexandrovna “a happy wife and mother, idolized by her father-in-law (Emperor Nicholas I).” The couple had eight children.

• Alexandra (1842-1849);
• Nicholas (1843-1865);
• Alexander III (1845-1894);
• Vladimir (1847-1909);
• Alexey (1850-1908);
• Maria (1853-1920);
• Sergei (1857-1905);
• Pavel (1860-1919).

But, as the observant Count Sheremetev writes, “it seems to me that Emperor Alexander Nikolaevich felt stuffy with her.” The count notes that since the 60s she was surrounded by friends of A. Bludov and A. Maltsev, who did not hide their disdain for the emperor and in every possible way contributed to the alienation of the spouses. The king, in turn, was also irritated by these women, which did not contribute to the rapprochement of the spouses.

After ascending the throne, the emperor began to have favorites, with whom, according to rumors, he had illegitimate children. One of them was the maid of honor Alexandra Sergeevna Dolgorukova, who, according to Sheremetev, “mastered the mind and heart of the sovereign and studied his character like no one else.”

In 1866, he became close and began to meet in the Summer Garden with 18-year-old Princess Ekaterina Mikhailovna Dolgorukova (1847-1922), who became the closest and most trusted person to the Tsar; over time, she settled in the Winter Palace and gave birth to the Emperor’s illegitimate children:

• His Serene Highness Prince Georgy Alexandrovich Yuryevsky (1872-1913);
• Your Serene Highness Princess Olga Alexandrovna Yuryevskaya (1873-1925);
• Boris (1876-1876), posthumously legitimized with the surname “Yuryevsky”;
• Your Serene Highness Princess Ekaterina Alexandrovna Yuryevskaya (1878-1959), married to Prince Alexander Vladimirovich Baryatinsky, and then to Prince Sergei Platonovich Obolensky-Neledinsky-Meletsky.

After the death of his wife, without waiting for the end of a year of mourning, Alexander II entered into a morganatic marriage with Princess Dolgorukova, who received the title Your Serene Highness Princess Yuryevskaya. The wedding allowed the emperor to legitimize their common children.

Memory of Alexander II

The memory of the “Tsar Liberator” was immortalized in many cities of the Russian Empire and Bulgaria by erecting monuments. After the October Revolution, most of them were demolished. Monuments in Sofia and Helsinki have remained intact. Some monuments were recreated after the fall of the communist regime. At the site of the death of the emperor at the hands of terrorists, the Church of the Savior on Spilled Blood was built. There is an extensive filmography. For more information about perpetuating the memory of the monarch, see the article Memory of Alexander II.

As noted in the literature dedicated to heroes historical memory Russian society, the image of Alexander II changed depending on the social order: “liberator” - “victim” - “serf owner”, but at the same time, which is typical, Alexander Nikolayevich almost always acted (and still acts today) in the information space rather in the “background” figure for the inevitable historical process, than its active figure. This is the striking difference between Alexander II and those historical figures, the image of which reflects the positive consensus of historical memory (such as Alexander Nevsky or Pyotr Stolypin) or, on the contrary, its conflicting objects (such as Stalin or Ivan the Terrible). The main feature of the emperor's image is constant doubt and indecision.

The head of the government of Alexander II, P. A. Valuev: “The sovereign did not and, however, could not have a clear concept of what was called the “reforms” of his time.”

Maid of honor A.F. Tyutchev: he had “a kind, warm and humane heart... he had a mind that suffered from a lack of breadth and outlook, and Alexander was also little enlightened... was not able to grasp the value and importance of the reforms he consistently carried out” .

Alexander II's Minister of War D. A. Milyutin: was a weak-willed emperor. “The late sovereign was completely in the hands of Princess Yuryevskaya.”

According to S. Yu. Witte, who knew Alexander III well, the latter did not approve of his father’s marriage to Princess Yuryevskaya “after the age of 60, when He already had so many fully grown children and even grandchildren,” and considered him weak-willed: “In in recent years, when He already had experience, he saw that ... this turmoil, which was at the end of His Father’s reign, ... stemmed from the insufficiently strong character of His Father, thanks to which Emperor Alexander II often hesitated, and finally fell into family sin.”

Historian N.A. Rozhkov: “Weak-willed, indecisive, always hesitant, cowardly, limited”; was distinguished by extravagance and “loose morals.”

Historian P. A. Zayonchkovsky: “he was a very ordinary person”; "often consigned to oblivion national interests the country he ruled"; “Alexander II did not understand the vital necessity of these reforms for the further development of Russia... In certain periods of history there are moments when insignificant people who are not aware of the significance of what is happening are at the head of events. This is what Alexander II was.”

Historian N. Ya. Eidelman: “was more limited than his father” (Nicholas I).

“Alexander II took the path of liberation reforms not because of his convictions, but as a military man who realized the lessons of the Crimean War, as an emperor and autocrat, for whom the prestige and greatness of the state were above all. The qualities of his character also played a big role - kindness, cordiality, receptivity to the ideas of humanism... Not being a reformer by vocation, by temperament, Alexander II became one in response to the needs of the time, as a man of sober mind and good will.”

Historian L. G. Zakharova

Filmography

• Lev Dobrovolsky - “Stepan Khalturin” (1925)
• Mikhail Nazvanov - “Taras Shevchenko” (1951)
• Ivan Kononenko - “Heroes of Shipka” (1954)
• Kurd Yurgens - “Katya - the Uncrowned Queen” (1959)
• Vladislav Strzhelchik - “Sofya Perovskaya” (1967)
• Vladislav Dvorzhetsky - “Yulia Vrevskaya” (1977)
• Mircea Angelescu - “For the Motherland” (Russian) rum. (1977)
• Alexander Lazarev - “The Mysterious Prisoner” (1986)
• Yuri Belyaev - “The Kingslayer” (1991)
• Nikolai Burov - “The Emperor's Romance” (1993)
• Georgy Taratorkin - “The Emperor's Love” (2003)
• Dmitry Isaev - television series “Poor Nastya” (2003)
• Evgeny Lazarev - “Turkish Gambit” (2005)
• Vadim Skvirsky - “The Romanovs” (2013)

Emperor Alexander 2nd was born on April 29, 1818. Being the son of Nicholas 1st and heir to the throne, he received an excellent, comprehensive education. Alexander's teachers were Zhukovsky and military officer Merder. His father also had a noticeable influence on the formation of the personality of Alexander II. Alexander ascended the throne after the death of Nicholas 1st - in 1855. By that time, he already had some management experience, since he acted as sovereign while his father was not in the capital. This ruler went down in history as Alexander the 2nd Liberator. When compiling a short biography of Alexander II, it is necessary to mention his reform activities.

The wife of Alexander 2nd in 1841 was Princess Maximilian Wilhelmina Augusta Sophia Maria of Hesse-Darmstadt, better known as Maria Alexandrovna. She bore Alexander seven children, the eldest two died. And since 1880, the tsar was married (in a morganatic marriage) to Princess Dolgorukaya, with whom he had four children.

The internal policy of Alexander the 2nd was strikingly different from the policy of Nicholas the 1st and was marked. The most important of them was the peasant reform of Alexander the 2nd, according to which in 1861, on February 19, it was. This reform caused an urgent need for further changes in many Russian institutions and led to the implementation of Alexander the 2nd.

In 1864, by decree of Alexander the 2nd, it was carried out. Its goal was to create a system of local self-government, for which the institution of district zemstvo was established.

The fate of this emperor is in many ways the fate of Russia, in many ways a game on the edge of the possible and the impossible. All his life, Alexander II did not act as he wanted, but as circumstances, relatives, and country required. Is it possible that the king named Liberator will be destroyed by those who considered themselves the best representatives of the people!

On April 17, 1818, the first-born son of Russian Emperor Nicholas I was born in the Chudov Monastery. Prominent teachers and scientists were involved in raising the heir to the throne: V.A. became a teacher of the Russian language. Zhukovsky, legislation was taught by M.M. Speransky, and finances E.F. Kankrin. The future emperor quickly developed a complete picture of the state of Russia and its potential future, and also developed state thinking.

Already in 1834-1635, Nicholas I introduced his son to the most important government bodies of the Empire: the Senate and the Holy Synod. Like his predecessors, Alexander is in military service and is responsible during the Russian-Turkish War of 1853-1856 for the combat effectiveness of the militia in St. Petersburg. An ardent champion of autocracy, Alexander very quickly comes to believe in the backwardness of Russia's socio-economic system, while launching a whole set of reforms that will forever change the face of the empire.

The reforms of Alexander II are called Great: Abolition of serfdom (1861), Judicial reform (1863), Education reform (1864), Zemstvo reform (1864), Military reform (1874). The transformations affected all spheres of activity of Russian society, shaping the economic and political contours post-reform Russia. The activities of Alexander II were largely aimed at breaking down the order that had been established for centuries, which led to a surge in social activity on the one hand, and also aroused a reaction on the part of the landowner class. As a result similar attitude to the Tsar-Liberator On March 1, 1881, on the embankment of the Catherine Canal (now the Griboyedov Canal), Emperor Alexander II died at the hands of Narodnaya Volya bombers. Historians are still arguing about what Russia would have become if the sovereign had lived for at least four days, when Loris-Melikov’s constitutional draft was to be discussed in the State Council.

During the reign of Alexander II, Russian society and the state reached its 1000th anniversary. Looking back, deep into the centuries, every Russian person saw years of struggle with stubborn nature for the harvest, 240 years Tatar yoke and Ivan the Great, who overthrew him, the campaigns of the Terrible against Kazan and Astrakhan, the first Emperor Peter and his associates, as well as Alexander I the Blessed, who brought peace and the triumph of law to Europe! The list of glorious ancestors and their deeds were captured in the monument “Millennium of Russia” (in the spirit of the times, it was not immortalized on the monument), which was installed in the first capital of the Russian state, Novgorod, in 1862.

Today there are many monuments to Alexander II the Liberator, one of them stands in Helsinki. In St. Petersburg on the embankment of the canal. Griboyedov, on the site of the mortal wound of the emperor-liberator, the Church of the Savior on Spilled Blood was built, where you can still see the cobblestones on which Alexander’s blood was spilled on March 1, 1881.

– Emperor of All Russia, the eldest son of Emperor Nikolai Pavlovich and Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, was born in Moscow on April 17, 1818. His educators were generals Merder and Kavelin. Merder attracted attention as a company commander at the School of Guards Ensigns established on August 18, 1823. Nikolai Pavlovich, then still the Grand Duke, having learned about him pedagogical abilities, a gentle disposition and a rare mind, decided to entrust him with the upbringing of his son. Merder assumed this important position on June 12, 1824, when the Grand Duke was barely 6 years old, and fulfilled it with tireless diligence for 10 years. There is no doubt that the influence of this highly humane educator on the young heart of his pupil was most beneficial. No less beneficial was the influence of another mentor of the Grand Duke - the famous poet Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky, the head of his class studies. The best characteristic of the education Alexander received can be the words spoken by Zhukovsky about his colleague in the matter of education, General Merder, which can entirely be attributed to him: “There was nothing artificial in the education given to him; the whole secret consisted in a beneficent, quiet, but the incessant action of his beautiful soul... His pet... heard one voice of truth, saw one unselfishness... could his soul not fall in love with goodness, could it at the same time fail to acquire respect for humanity, so necessary in any life, especially in life near the throne and on the throne." There is no doubt that Zhukovsky, through his overall influence, contributed to preparing the heart of his pupil for the future liberation of the peasants.

Upon reaching adulthood, the heir to the crown prince traveled around Russia, accompanied by Kavelin, Zhukovsky and the adjutant Yuryevich. He was the first of the royal family to visit Siberia (1837), and as a result of this visit, the fate of political exiles was mitigated. Later, while in the Caucasus, the Tsarevich distinguished himself during an attack by the highlanders, for which he was awarded the Order of St. George 4th degree. In 1838, Alexander Nikolaevich traveled around Europe and at that time, in the family of the Grand Duke Ludwig of Hesse-Darmstadt, he chose as his wife Princess Maximiliana Wilhelmina Augusta Sophia Maria (born July 27, 1824), who upon arrival in Russia received St. Confirmation according to the charter of the Orthodox Church, December 5, 1840, with the name Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna. The betrothal followed the next day, and on April 16, 1841 the marriage took place.

From the marriage of Emperor Alexander II with Empress Maria Alexandrovna the following children were born: led. book Alexandra Alexandrovna, b. August 19, 1842, d. June 16, 1849; led book heir Tsarevich Nikolai Alexandrovich, b. September 8, 1843, d. April 12, 1865; led book Alexander Alexandrovich - now safely reigning Emperor Alexander III (see), b. February 26, 1845; Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich, born on April 10, 1847, from August 16, 1874 in marriage with Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna, daughter of the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin Friedrich-Franz II, b. May 2, 1854; led book Alexey Alexandrovich, b. January 2, 1850; led book Maria Alexandrovna, b. 5 October 1853, married to Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, 11 January 1874; led book Sergey Alexandrovich, b. April 29, 1857, married since June 3, 1884 with Elisaveta Feodorovna, daughter of the Grand. hertz. Hesse, b. October 20, 1864; led book Pavel Alexandrovich, b. September 21, 1860, married since July 4, 1889 to the Greek royal Alexandra Georgievna, b. August 30, 1870

While still an heir, Alexander participated in management matters. In the last years of the reign of Emperor Nicholas and during his travels, Alexander repeatedly replaced his august parent; in 1848, during his stay at the Vienna, Berlin and other courts, he carried out various important diplomatic assignments. Having taken military educational institutions under his control, Alexander took special care of their needs and the gradual improvement of both scientific teaching and education.

The accession of Alexander II to the throne on February 19, 1855 occurred under very difficult circumstances. The Crimean War, where Russia had to deal with the combined forces of almost all the major European powers, took an unfavorable turn for us. The Allied forces by that time had increased even more due to the addition of 15 tons of Sardinian troops to them; the enemy fleet operated against Russia on all seas. Despite, however, his love of peace, which was also known in Europe, Alexander expressed his firm determination to continue the fight and achieve an honorable peace. Up to 360 thousand militia people were recruited, and 3 recruit sets were given the same amount. The steadfastness and courage of the Russian troops in defending Sevastopol aroused enthusiastic surprise even from their enemies; the names of Kornilov, Nakhimov and others became covered with unfading glory. Finally, however, the terrible action of enemy artillery, which destroyed our fortifications and carried away thousands of people every day, and the combined assault of Sevastopol by all allies, carried out on August 27, forced the Russian troops to leave the southern part of the city and move to the northern. The fall of Sevastopol, however, did not bring significant benefit to the enemy. On the other hand, the Russians were partly rewarded with success in Asia: Kars - this impregnable fortress, reinforced by the British - was taken by General Muravyov with his entire large garrison on November 16. This success gave us the opportunity to show our readiness for peace. The Allies, also tired of the war, were willing to enter into negotiations, which began through the Vienna Court. Representatives of 7 powers (Russia, France, Austria, England, Prussia, Sardinia and Turkey) gathered in Paris and on March 18, 1856 a peace treaty was concluded. The main conditions of this agreement were the following: navigation on the Black Sea and Danube is open to all merchant ships; the entrance to the Black Sea, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles is closed to warships, with the exception of those light warships that each power maintains at the mouth of the Danube to ensure free navigation on it. Russia and Türkiye, by mutual agreement, maintain an equal number of ships in the Black Sea. Russia, in order to ensure free navigation along the Danube, cedes to the Danube principalities part of its territory at the mouth of this river; she also promises not to fortify the Åland Islands. Christians in Turkey are compared in rights with Muslims, and the Danube principalities come under the general protectorate of Europe.

The Paris peace, although unfavorable for Russia, was still honorable for her in view of such numerous and strong opponents. However, its disadvantage is the limitation naval forces Russia on the Black Sea - was eliminated during the life of Alexander II with a statement on October 19, 1870.

But the disadvantages of the treaty were offset by the benefits of peace itself, which made it possible to turn all attention to internal reforms, the urgency of which became obvious.

Indeed, the Crimean War exposed many internal ulcers of our fatherland and showed the complete failure of our former way of life. It turned out that a complete reorganization of many parts was necessary, but serfdom stood as an inexorable obstacle to any improvement. The need for reform became palpable and urgent. And with the advent of peace, it was not long before the new era internal update. Already in the concluding words of the highest manifesto on March 19, 1856, which heralded the end of the Crimean War, it was expressed whole program future activity of the Tsar-Liberator: “With the help of heavenly Providence, which always benefits Russia, may its internal well-being be established and improved; may truth and mercy reign in its courts; may the desire for enlightenment and all useful activities develop everywhere and with new strength, and everyone under in the shadow of laws, equally fair and equally protective for everyone, may he enjoy in the world the fruit of the labors of the innocent. Finally, this is Our first living desire, the light of saving Faith, illuminating minds, strengthening hearts, may he preserve and improve more and more public morality, this. the surest guarantee of order and happiness."

In the same year, it was ordered to attend to the opening of women's gymnasiums and an academic committee was established to draw up and review teaching programs and educational manuals. On the day of coronation, August 26, the sovereign's new manifesto was marked by a number of favors. Recruitment was suspended for 3 years, all government arrears, charges, etc. were forgiven, the punishment of various criminals was released or at least commuted, including state criminals who participated in the rebellion on December 14, 1825 and in secret societies of that time, The admission of young Jews to recruits was canceled and recruitment between the latter was ordered to be carried out on a general basis, etc.

But all these private measures, greeted with enthusiasm by Russia, were only the threshold of those fundamental reforms that marked the reign of Alexander II. First of all and most urgently, it seemed to me to resolve the issue of serfdom, which, as was obvious to everyone, was the main root of all other shortcomings of our system. The idea of ​​the need to liberate the peasants and, moreover, with a land allotment, prevailed already during the time of Emperor Nicholas. The entire intelligentsia regarded serfdom as a terrible and shameful evil. Literature continuously continued in this sense the glorious tradition of Radishchev. It is enough to mention the names of Griboyedov, Belinsky, Grigorovich, I. S. Turgenev. But the mood of the intelligentsia, which was predominantly noble, did not prevent the fact that when the question in any form came up for class discussion among the nobles, in this environment it often met with rebuff. Imp. Alexander II, upon ascending the throne, was convinced that the liberation of the peasants should take place during his reign. This was the general mood of the intelligentsia, and even among the peasants themselves there was a vague premonition of the approaching “will.” The decrees on the militia of 1854 and at the beginning of 1855 caused significant unrest in as many as 9 provinces, as peasants en masse expressed their desire to join the militia, considering service in the militia to be a transition to “freedom.”

The question therefore seemed urgent. When the sovereign spoke in Moscow about the need and timeliness of the emancipation of the serfs, all of Russia was seized with enthusiastic, joyful hopes... And in 1856 a special secret committee was established, and on January 3, 1857 had its first meeting under the direct supervision and chairmanship of the the emperor, whose task was to review the decrees and assumptions about serfdom. This committee included: Prince Orlov, gr. Lanskoy, Count Bludov, Minister of Finance Brock, Count V.F. Adlerberg, Prince Vas. A. Dolgorukov, Minister of State Property M. N. Muravyov, Chevkin, Prince P. P. Gagarin, Baron M. A. Korf and Ya. I. Rostovtsev. Of these, only Lanskoy, Bludov, Rostovtsev and Butkov, who managed the affairs of the committee, spoke out in favor of the actual liberation of the peasants; the majority proposed only a number of measures to alleviate the situation of the serfs. The Emperor was dissatisfied with the progress of affairs and appointed Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich a member of the committee. Meanwhile, on August 18, a petition was received from the nobility of 3 Lithuanian provinces for the liberation of the peasants, but with the landowners retaining the right to land. In response to this petition, on November 20, the highest rescript was given to the Vilna military, Grodno and Kovno governor-generals, in which the sovereign allowed the nobility of each of the named provinces to establish a committee that would develop a project for improving the life of the peasants. In the same year, the same permission was given to the nobility of St. Petersburg and Nizhny Novgorod, and in next year- nobles of Moscow and other provinces; On January 8, 1858, the secret committee was transformed into the “main committee for peasant affairs,” which also included Count Panin, the Minister of Justice, and in March of the same year it was formed in the Ministry of Internal Affairs under the name “Zemstvo Department of the Central Statistical Committee” a purely administrative body that played an important role in this whole matter. It included such persons as N. A. Milyutin, Ya. A. Solovyov, zealous advocates of the idea of ​​liberation. Journalism of that time was also an energetic ally of the minority, and thanks to the positive will of the sovereign, the good cause, despite the opposition of the majority in the committee, quickly went forward and even assumed broader dimensions than those set in the original rescripts to the nobility. Instead of “improving the life of the peasants,” the question was raised directly on the basis of their complete liberation. 17 Feb In 1859, a decree was announced on the establishment of “editorial commissions”, of which Adjutant General Rostovtsev was appointed chairman. Projects developed by provincial committees were forwarded to these commissions. The project developed by the editorial committee was supposed to go to the commission, which was composed of gr. Lansky, Count Palen and General. Muravyov and Rostovtsev, where the head of affairs was D.S. With. Zhukovsky. Finally, this commission submits the draft with its own considerations to the main committee. When the provincial committees finally presented their projects to the editorial commissions, landowners were called from the provinces twice (in August and December 1859), two from each, to provide the necessary information. Between these latter there were many conservatives, the main committee was also willing to slow down the matter, but the decisive will of the sovereign, who demanded that the committee complete its studies by January 1861, and the influence of its new chairman, led. K. Konstantin Nikolaevich, who replaced Orlov, quickly moved things forward. On January 28, the provisions developed by the drafting commissions and passed through the main committee were subject to consideration by the State Council, which adopted them with some changes in the sense of reducing the size of the peasant allotment. Finally, on February 19, 1861, a great manifesto followed, constituting the glory of the Tsar-Liberator - a manifesto on the liberation of the 22 million peasant population from serfdom.

The liberation of the landowner peasants took place on the following principles. First of all, it was declared obligatory for the landowner to provide his former peasants, in addition to the estate land, with arable and hayfields, in the amounts specified in the regulations. Such an obligation for the landowner to allocate an allotment to the peasants was limited only to relatively small landowners, landowners of the Land of the Don Army, Siberian landowners and owners of private mining factories, for whom special allotment rules were established. Secondly, next to this obligation for the landowner to give allotments to the peasants, the obligation was declared for the peasants to accept the allotment and keep in their use, for the duties established in favor of the landowner, the secular land allocated to them for the first nine years (until February 19, 1870). After 9 years, individual members of the community were given the right to both leave it and refuse to use field lands and lands if they bought out their estate; society itself also receives the right not to accept for its use such plots that individual peasants refuse. Thirdly, with regard to the size of the peasant allotment and the payments associated with it, according to the general rules, it is customary to base it on voluntary agreements between landowners and peasants, for which a statutory charter is concluded through the mediators established by the state, their congresses and provincial presences on peasant affairs, and in zap. lips - and special verification commissions. Such a voluntary agreement is limited only by the requirement that no less than the amount of land remaining for the use of peasants is determined in local regulations, grouping provinces to determine the size of the per capita allotment in each of them, into three stripes; and then, in accordance with the amount of per capita allotment, local regulations determine the amount of duties that temporarily obliged peasants had to bear in favor of the landowners before the redemption was made. These duties are either monetary, or determined in the form of quitrent, or in the form of piecework, corvee. Until the temporarily obliged peasants redeem their lands and are in a guilty relationship with the former landowner, the latter is provided with patrimonial police in the rural society of temporarily obliged peasants.

The provision, however, is not limited to the rules for allocating land to peasants for permanent use, but makes it easier for them to buy out the allocated plots of land into their ownership using a state redemption operation, and the government gives peasants a loan for the lands they acquire with a payment in installments for 49 years and, by issuing this amount to the landowner in government interest-bearing securities, he takes upon himself all further settlements with the peasants. Upon approval of the redemption transaction by the government, all obligatory relations between the peasants and the landowner are terminated, and the latter enter the category of peasant-owners.

This happened peacefully and without significant upheaval of the state mechanism. great reform, which since the time of Catherine II was considered next in line, but which they were still afraid to begin. Instead of 22 mil. enslaved people created a free peasant class with significant self-government within the community and volost. The rights granted to the landowner peasants by the regulation of February 19, 1861 were gradually extended to the palace, appanage, assigned and state peasants.

After the peasant situation, the most important place in the series of administrative reforms occupies, without any doubt, the provision on zemstvo institutions. Back on March 25, 1859, the highest order was given to transform the provincial and district administrations, and the following leadership principle was indicated: “When establishing the executive and investigative parts, enter into the consideration of the economic and administrative management in the district, which is now divided between several committees and part of it is included in the composition of the police department; in this consideration, it is necessary to provide the economic administration in the district with greater unity, greater independence and greater trust; and the degree of participation of each class in the economic administration of the district must be determined.” On October 23, 1859, these principles were ordered to be distributed to the transformation of provincial institutions. As a result, a special commission was established at the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the activities of which were facilitated from the very beginning modern works, carried out in a special commission under the Ministry of Finance to revise the tax system. As a result of all this work, it was published on January 1. 1864 regulation on provincial and district zemstvo institutions, which are entrusted with the following matters: management of property, capital and monetary collections of the zemstvo, arrangement and maintenance of buildings and communications belonging to the zemstvo, management of mutual zemstvo property insurance, care for the development of local trade and industry, the affairs of national food and public charity for the poor, participation, mainly in economic terms, within the limits of the law, in the care of the building of churches, public education, public health and the maintenance of prisons, the allocation, purpose, collection and expenditure of local and some state levies to satisfy zemstvo needs of the province or district. To manage all these zemstvo affairs, they were established: in each district - district zemstvo assembly, meeting once a year and having its own permanent executive body called district zemstvo government; in the province there is provincial zemstvo assembly with its permanent executive body - provincial zemstvo council. In connection with the reform of zemstvo administration, it was approved on June 16, 1870. City Regulations, which gives our cities significant self-government. According to this Regulation, city public administration consists of city ​​electoral meetings, city duma And city ​​government chaired by the mayor. The scope of city government within the city is very extensive. The Duma independently organizes city administration and economy, elects officials and assigns them salaries, establishes city fees, manages city property, spends sums, takes care of the external improvement of the city, its health, education and industry, charitable institutions, etc. moreover, for the exact execution of those published by city public institutions regulations must be strictly observed by the police.

Among the reforms that marked the reign of Alexander II, one of the leading places undoubtedly belongs to judicial reform. This deeply thought-out reform had a strong and direct impact on the entire structure of state and public life, it introduced into it completely new, long-awaited principles - which are: complete separation of the judicial power from the administrative and prosecutorial power, publicity and openness of the court, independence of judges, advocacy and adversarial the procedure for legal proceedings, and criminal cases that are more important in terms of the gravity of the crimes are indicated to be transferred to the court of public conscience in the person of jurors. It's already September 29th. In 1862, the main provisions regarding the transformation of the judiciary, drawn up by the Second Department of His Own Imp., were reviewed and approved by the sovereign. Majesty's Office. Then a special commission was established under the direct chairmanship of the Secretary of State, which, developing these provisions, drew up draft judicial statutes, then discussed and amended in detail by the State Council, and finally, on November 24, 1864, the Charter of Criminal and Civil Procedure and the Charter were approved by the highest decree on punishments imposed by magistrates.

Essence judicial reform boils down to the following. The trial is oral and public; judicial power is separated from accusatory power and belongs to the courts without any participation of administrative power; the main form of legal proceedings is the adversarial process; a case on its merits can be examined in no more than two instances; it can be transferred to the third instance (the cassation department of the Senate) only upon requests for cassation of decisions in cases of obvious violation of the direct meaning of laws or rituals and forms of proceedings; in cases of crimes entailing punishment, coupled with the deprivation of all or some special rights and benefits of the state, the determination of guilt is left to jurors elected from local inhabitants of all classes; clerical secrecy is eliminated, and for the petition in cases and the defense of defendants, there are sworn attorneys in the courts, who are under the supervision of special councils composed of the same corporation. New judicial institutions received the following types: magistrates' courts, congresses of magistrates, district courts and judicial chambers. The county, constituting a world district, is divided into world sections, the number of which is determined by a special schedule. Each magistrate's precinct has a local magistrate, and within the district there are several honorary magistrates; all of them are elected for 3 years from local residents who meet the conditions prescribed by law, and are approved by the Governing Senate. For the final decision of a case subject to amicable proceedings, district and honorary magistrates of the district hold regular congresses at the appointed time, the chairman of which is elected for 3 years from among them. - A district court is established for several districts, consisting of a chairman and a certain number of members appointed by the government, and a high judicial district is constituted from one or more provinces, in which a judicial chamber is established, divided into departments, and both the chairman and their regular members are appointed government. At district courts and judicial chambers, to determine the guilt or innocence of the defendant in criminal cases, there are jurors elected from local inhabitants of all classes. Then, each of these two institutions has a special prosecutor and a certain number of his comrades. The prosecutor of the district court is subordinate to the prosecutor of the judicial chamber, and the latter is directly dependent on the Minister of Justice, as the prosecutor general.

Military Administration has also undergone transformations. Already at the beginning of the reign, military settlements were destroyed, the length of military service was reduced from 25 to 15 years, humiliating corporal punishment was abolished, and special attention was paid to raising the level of general education of army officers through reforms of military educational institutions. Further, due to the noticed shortcomings in the structure of military command, which stemmed from its excessive centralization, in 1862 the Ministry of War was given the highest order to subject the system of military command to a radical revision, bearing in mind the absolute need to strengthen management at the locations of troops. As a result of this revision, the Regulations on Military District Directorates, approved on August 6, 1864, were issued. Based on this provision, initially 10 military districts were established, and then (Aug. 6, 1865) 4 more. In each district, a chief commander was appointed at the immediate highest discretion, bearing the name of the commander of the troops of such and such a military district. This position may also be assigned to the local governor-general. In some districts, an assistant commander of the troops is also appointed. - Another significant measure for the transformation of our military system was the Charter on January 1, 1874. conscription, according to which the entire male population of the empire, without distinction of condition, is subject to military service, and this service consists of remaining in the ranks for 6 years, 9 years in discharge and up to 40 years of age in the militia. It must also be borne in mind that in 1867 a public court was also introduced in the army; judicial power is distributed between regimental courts, district courts and the main military court in St. Petersburg. The composition of the courts, excluding regimental ones, was supposed to be replenished with officers completing a course at the Military Law Academy.

Public education also attracted the attention of the sovereign. Of particular importance in this regard was the publication of a new and general charter of Russian universities on June 18, 1863, in the development of which, on the initiative of the Minister of Public Education A.V. Golovnin, a special commission under the Main Board of Schools, composed mainly of St. Petersburg professors, participated. university. According to this charter, each university (under the main command of the Minister of Public Education) is entrusted to the trustee of the educational district, who is entrusted with government control, within the limits determined by the charter, over the independent orders of the university. Each university consists of a certain number of faculties, like components one whole. Control educational part entrusted to the faculties and council of the university. Each faculty constitutes an independent faculty assembly of ordinary and extraordinary professors under the chairmanship of a dean, elected by them for 3 years. The council is composed of all ordinary and extraordinary professors under the chairmanship of the rector, elected by the council for 4 years and confirmed in rank by the highest order. The rector is also entrusted with the immediate management of the university. The charter defines which matters the faculties and council can decide by their own authority and which must be approved by the trustee and the minister. For economic affairs, a board was established under the chairmanship of the rector, consisting of deans and an inspector (invited only for student affairs). A university court of three judges, annually elected by a council of professors, has been established to deal with student misconduct. In addition, the content of professors, the number of departments and the funds of the university are increased.

On November 19, 1864, a new charter on gymnasiums also appeared, significantly modified and supplemented by the charter on June 19, 1871. According to these charters, secondary educational institutions are divided into classical ones, in which classical system, and real. Public education in the full sense was regulated by the highest approval of June 14, 1864. Regulations on primary public schools. Attention was also paid to women's education. Already in the 60s, instead of the previous closed women's institutions, open ones began to be established, with the admission of girls of all classes, and these new institutions were under the department of the Institutions of Empress Maria. The Ministry of Public Education began to establish similar gymnasiums. In 1870, on May 24, a new Regulations on women's gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums of the Ministry of Public Education. These educational institutions were accepted under the highest patronage of the Empress. They are allowed to be established with the permission of the trustees of educational districts in such cities where it is possible to ensure their existence through public or private donations, and the ministry is allowed to provide benefits to these institutions, for which it is given a certain amount annually in accordance with the funds of the treasury, but not more than, however, 150 t.r. in year. Finally, the need for higher education for women led to the establishment pedagogical courses and higher women's courses in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kyiv, Kazan and Odessa.

The press reform also had a profound and beneficial influence on the development of public consciousness. Already in 1862, the main censorship department was closed and part of its responsibilities were assigned to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and the other directly to the Minister of Public Education. Finally, on April 6, 1865, Temporary Rules for Press Affairs. The Central Administration for Press Affairs is entrusted to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, within which the Main Directorate for Press Affairs has been opened. This department is entrusted with three types of affairs: 1) monitoring print works published without censorship permission; 2) supervision of printing houses, lithographs and bookstores, and 3) administration of the remaining preliminary censorship. All periodicals and works of at least 10 sheets published in the capitals, as well as all publications of scientific institutions, drawings, plans and maps are universally exempt from preliminary censorship.

The reign of Alexander II, so rich in terms of internal reforms, was also marked in terms of foreign policy a whole series of military actions, which ultimately again raised the temporarily diminished importance of Russia after the Crimean War and again gave it its rightful position in the host of European powers. As a matter of fact, despite the fact that the matter of internal renewal absorbed almost all the government’s attention, especially in the first half of Alexander’s reign, the war with external enemies went on almost continuously on the outskirts of the state. First of all, upon his accession to the throne, Alexander II had to end another war, which he inherited from his previous reign along with the Crimean one. It was a war with the Caucasian highlanders. This struggle, which has been going on for a long time, costing us a lot of effort and resources, has not yet produced any decisive results. Shamil, the leader of the highlanders, even pushed us away from Dagestan and Chechnya. At the end of the Crimean War, the sovereign appointed Prince Baryatinsky as commander-in-chief in the Caucasus, and things moved faster. Already in April 1859, Vedeno, the seat of Shamil, was taken, which entailed the subjugation of almost all of Dagestan. Shamil and his followers retired to the impregnable heights of Gunib, but were surrounded on all sides by Russian troops and on August 25, after their decisive attack, he was forced to surrender. Eastern Caucasus, was thus subdued; the conquest of the West still remained. The latter was all the more difficult because the mountaineers were actively supported by all our enemies, who did not want to allow the end of the Caucasian War. Despite the peace concluded with us, Turkey accepted the mountaineers, as Muslims, under its protection, and delivered weapons and reinforcements through its emissaries. England also collected money for the Circassians, and the French ambassador in Constantinople clearly took their side. In Trebizond, a committee for “assistance to the highlanders” was even formed by the European consuls (with the exception of the Prussian one). Despite, however, all these out-of-town electoral meetings, city deliberations, the work of conquering and gradually pushing the highlanders to the sea moved forward, albeit slowly, thanks to the energy and familiarity with the local conditions of General Evdokimov. At the beginning of 1863, Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich was appointed governor of the Caucasus, and things moved quickly, so that on May 21, 1864, the Grand Duke could telegraph to the sovereign about the complete conquest of the Western Caucasus.

In the same year, 2 more major events took place - the pacification of Poland and the conquest of Turkestan.

After the suppression of the Polish uprising in 1831, Poland was in the position of a rebellious country, so that, next to the ordinary administration, there was also a special military-police department. Emperor Alexander II, having ascended the throne, destroyed this difference between the Poles and other Russian subjects. Amnesty was granted to political criminals, the Poles were given many benefits, and the establishment of an Agricultural Society with an unlimited number of members, chaired by Count Zamoyski, was allowed. Despite, however, all these benefits, the revolutionary party did not give up its aspirations. The agricultural society also began to pursue the goals of national unification. The success of the Italian national movement, the unrest in the Austrian possessions - all this increased the hopes of Polish patriots. In 1860, a series of demonstrations began against the Russians, which especially intensified in 1861. Despite, however, these demonstrations, which even reached the point of clashes between people and troops, the government continued its restrained and peaceful policy. The Poles were even announced the appointment of the famous Polish patriot, the Marquis of Wielepolsky, as director of education and spiritual affairs, the establishment in the Kingdom of new schools and the State Council of eminent persons of the region, elected councils in the provinces and districts and elected municipal government in Warsaw. But all this could not satisfy the revolutionary party. An attempt was even made on the life of the newly appointed governor of the kingdom, Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich, and the establishment of a new Polish government (Zhond) with a central people's committee. In view of all these threatening actions, the government resorted to a decisive measure - it announced a general recruitment in the Kingdom not by lot, but by personal call, limiting it to the urban population and those rural residents who are not engaged in arable farming. This measure brought the revolutionary party to the last degree of irritation, and at the beginning of 1863, when the recruitment announcement followed, revolutionary committee called all Poles to arms. On the night of January 10-11, an attack was made on our troops located in different places in the Kingdom. This enterprise was generally unsuccessful. When last try Since the government's efforts towards reconciliation, namely the granting of forgiveness to those who would lay down arms before May 1, did not lead to anything, the government took vigorous measures to suppress the uprising. The intercession of the Western powers, who sent their notes on the Polish question, was rejected, and the general indignation that gripped Russia thanks to the importunate and provocative tone of these notes and expressed in a whole mass of addresses from all the noble assemblies, expressing their devotion to the sovereign and their readiness to die for him, forced the uninvited intercessors to give up their demands. The uprising was suppressed thanks to the energetic actions of the governor of Warsaw, Count. Berg and the Vilna Governor-General gr. Muravyova. Following this, a number of measures were taken to contribute to the final pacification of Poland, and the main figures in this field were Prince Cherkassky and N.A. Milyutin. Polish peasants were granted land ownership and secular self-government, cities and towns were freed from patrimonial dependence in relation to the landowners, in the provinces (of which the number was increased from 5 to 10) and districts, administration similar to that in force in the empire was introduced, etc. In 1869 (March 28) the highest will was announced to take measures to completely merge the Kingdom with other parts of the empire and to abolish for this purpose all government institutions central to the Kingdom. Finally, in 1869, the Imperial University was established in place of the Main School in Warsaw.

At the same time as all these events, there was a struggle on our Asian border. Already during the reign of Emperor Nicholas I, the Russians had a firm foothold in Turkestan thanks to the subjugation of the Kirghiz. In 1864, as a result of the energetic and intensified actions of General Verevkin and Colonel Chernyaev, our border forefront significantly advanced: Chernyaev took Aulieta and Chekment by storm, and Verevkin, for his part, conquered Turkestan. Having learned that the Emir of Bukhara intended to occupy Tashkent, which depended on Kokand, Chernyaev in 1865 quickly moved to this city, protected by 30 troops. garrison, and, having only 2000 people. and 12 guns, took it by open assault. The fight with the emir continued until 1868, when Samarkand and Uzhgut were taken. The emir was forced to reconcile and conclude an agreement according to which he provided Russian merchants with complete freedom of trade and abolished slavery in his possessions. Back in 1867, the Turkestan Governor-General was established from the Turkestan region with the addition of the Semirechensk region to it again. In 1871, Russian possessions were enriched by the annexation of Kuldja, and in 1875 Kokand itself, which now makes up the Fergana region, was occupied. Even before the conquest of Kokand, the struggle with the Khiva Khan began. Under the protection of his unfortunate, waterless steppes, this latter did not pay attention to the treaty concluded with the Russians in 1842, attacked Russian merchants, robbed them and took them captive. I had to resort to drastic measures. In 1873, three detachments moved to Khiva from three different directions: a detachment led by General Markozov came from the shores of the Caspian Sea, General Verevkin came from Orenburg, and General Kaufman, the main commander of the entire expedition, came from Tashkent. The first detachment was supposed to return, but the remaining two, despite the 45° heat, lack of water and all sorts of difficulties, reached Khiva, took it and conquered the entire state in 2 weeks. The Khan was forced to admit his dependence on the White Tsar and cede part of his possessions at the mouth of the Amu Darya; further, he granted Russian merchants complete freedom of trade and exclusive navigation along the Amu Darya; their disputes with the Khivans were to be resolved by the Russian authorities; under the khan himself, a council of noble Khivans and Russian officers was established, and, finally, he had to pay an indemnity of 2,200,000 rubles. After the subjugation of the Kirghiz and Turkmens, the annexation of Samarkand and Kokand and the bringing of Khiva and Bukhara into dependence, the Russians had only one more enemy left in Central Asia - this was the Khan of Kashgar Yakub, protected by the British, who gave him the title of emir from the Sultan of Constantinople. When the Russians occupied Gulja in 1870 and thus approached his possessions, he tried to resist, supported by the British. Yakub died in 1877, and the Chinese laid claim to his possessions, demanding that the Russians also return Gulja. After long negotiations in St. Petersburg, on February 24, 1881, through the Chinese commissioner Marquis Tzenga, an agreement was concluded with the Chinese, according to which the Russians ceded Gulja to them and renounced their claims to Kashgar in exchange for various trade privileges.

To punish the Turkmen who lived on the borders of Afghanistan and owned the cities of Geok-Tepe and Merv for their predatory raids, an expedition was launched against them. On December 20, 1880, General Skobelev took Yanshkale by storm, then Dengil-Tepe and Geok-Tepe, and on January 30, 1881 he took Askhabad. The concession of Ahal-Teke by the Shah in connection with the acquisition of Lekhabad and Geok-Tepe gave us, however, very advantageous positions in northern border Afghanistan. (Wed. I. Strelbitsky"Land acquisitions of Russia during the reign of Emperor Alexander II from 1855 to 1881", St. Petersburg, 1881).

On the eastern outskirts of Asia, during the reign of Alexander II, Russia also made quite important acquisitions, and also peacefully. According to the Aigun Treaty, concluded with China in 1857, the entire left bank of the Amur went to us, and the Beijing Treaty of 1860 also provided us with part of the right bank between the river. Ussuri, Korea and the sea. Since then, the rapid settlement of the Amur region began, and various settlements and even cities began to emerge one after another. In 1875, Japan ceded the part of Sakhalin that did not yet belong to us in exchange for the Kuril Islands, which we did not need at all. In the same way, in order not to scatter its forces and round the Asian border, the government decided to abandon our former possessions in North America and for a monetary reward ceded them to the United States of North America, which served as the basis of our friendship with the latter.

But the largest, most glorious military enterprise of the reign of Alexander II is the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878.

After the Crimean War, Russia, busy with its own internal affairs, completely withdrew from Western European affairs for some time. Thus, in 1859, during the Austro-Italian conflict, Russia limited itself only to armed neutrality. The latter responded to the interference of the Roman Curia in the government's relations with its Catholic subjects by canceling the concordat of 1847 on December 4, 1866, and in June 1869 it forbade the Catholic bishops of the empire to take part in the council convened by Pius IX. During the Danish-Prussian War, the emperor tried to be only a mediator and remained in the same neutral position during Austro-Prussian War 1866 The Franco-Prussian War of 1870 gave rise to the abolition of the unfavorable article of the Paris Peace, which did not allow us to have a fleet in the Black Sea.

Taking advantage of the defeat of France and the isolation of England, the Russian Chancellor, Prince Gorchakov, in a circular dispatch dated October 19, stated that Russia no longer intended to constrain itself with the mentioned article, and the London Conference on March 1 (13), 1871 recognized this change by striking out the article from the treaty. After the fall of Napoleon, the 3 emperors entered into a close alliance with each other, called the “Triple Alliance”. The Berlin Congress of 1872, the visit of the German Emperor to St. Petersburg in 1873 and frequent meetings of the 3 emperors further strengthened this alliance. The Eastern question, however, soon put this Western friendship towards us to a severe test.

The fate of our kindred Slavic tribes on the Balkan Peninsula has always attracted the attention and sympathy of the Russian people and government. Of these tribes, the Serbs, Romanians and Montenegrins achieved some independence in the 60s; This was not the fate of the Slavs in Bosnia, Herzegovina and Bulgaria. Here Turkish oppression and tyranny reigned in all its unbridledness, causing frequent desperate uprisings of the inhabitants, driven to extremes. In 1874, an uprising broke out in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Turks suffered defeat after defeat. To calm the rebels, representatives of Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary drew up a reform program for Turkey in Berlin. But the Turks, relying on England’s obvious sympathy for them, not only rejected this program, but boldly killed the French and German consuls in Thessaloniki, who stood up for one Bulgarian girl, and then, not being able to defeat the rebels in Bosnia and Herzegovina, attacked the defenseless Bulgaria. Since 1864, the Porte began to settle here Circassians who were evicted from the Caucasus in order to avoid Russian domination. Accustomed to living by robbery and robbery in their homeland, these predators, called bashi-bazouks, began to oppress the Bulgarian peasants, forcing them to work for themselves, like serfs. The ancient hatred between Christians and Muslims flared up with renewed vigor. The peasants took up arms. And so, to take revenge for this uprising, Turkey sent thousands of Circassians, Bashi-Bazouks and other irregular troops against Bulgaria. Civilians were treated equally with the rebels. Terrible rampages and massacres began. In Batak alone, out of 7,000 inhabitants, 5,000 people were beaten. An investigation undertaken by the French envoy showed that 20 thousand Christians died within 3 months. All of Europe was gripped by indignation. But this feeling had the strongest impact in Russia and in all Slavic lands. Serbia and Montenegro stood up for the Bulgarians. General Chernyaev, the winner of Tashkent, took command of the Serbian army as a volunteer. Russian volunteers from all classes of society flocked to help the rebels; Society's sympathy was expressed through all sorts of voluntary donations. Serbia, however, was not successful due to the numerical superiority of the Turks. Public opinion Russia loudly demanded war. Emperor Alexander II, due to his characteristic peacefulness, wanted to avoid it and reach an agreement through diplomatic negotiations. But neither the Constantinople Conference (November 11, 1876) nor the London Protocol led to any results. The Turks refused to fulfill even the mildest demands, counting on the support of England. War became inevitable. On April 12, 1877, our troops stationed near Chisinau were given the order to enter Turkey. On the same day, our Caucasian troops, of which Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich was appointed commander-in-chief, entered the borders of Asian Turkey. Started Eastern War 1877- 78G.(see this next), which covered the Russian soldier with such loud, unfading glory of valor.

Treaty of San Stefano 19 Feb. In addition to its direct goal - the liberation of the Balkan Slavs - 1878 brought brilliant results to Russia. The intervention of Europe, which jealously followed Russia's successes, with the Berlin Treaty significantly narrowed the size of these results, but they still remain very significant. Russia acquired the Danube part of Bessarabia and the Turkish regions bordering Transcaucasia with the fortresses of Kars, Ardahan and Batum, converted into a free port.

Emperor Alexander II, who sacredly and courageously did the work assigned to him by fate - the construction and rise of a huge monarchy, aroused delight true patriots and the surprise of enlightened people of the whole world, he also met evil ill-wishers. With madness and fury, they pursued no one clear goals, the destructive organizers created a whole series of attempts on the life of the sovereign, who was the pride and glory of Russia, attempts that so greatly interfered with his great undertakings, disturbed his peace and bewildered a large kingdom, completely calm and devoted to the tsar. Various police measures, created one after another, and enormous powers given at the end of the reign to the Minister of Internal Affairs, Count. Loris-Melikov, to the great sadness of the Russian people, did not achieve their goal. On March 1, 1881, the sovereign, for whom a large population was ready to lay down their lives, died a martyr’s death from a villainous hand that threw an explosive shell. On scary place After the assassination of the great sovereign, the Church of the Resurrection was erected in St. Petersburg, the same temples and various monuments in memory of the Tsar-Liberator were built in different places of the Russian land, and the Russian people, remembering the name of the Tsar-Liberator, always make the sign of the cross.

Encyclopedia Brockhaus-Efron

Few monarchs in history have been honored with the epithet “liberator.” Alexander Nikolaevich Romanov deserved such an honor. Alexander II is also called the Tsar-Reformer, because he managed to get off the ground many old problems of the state that threatened riots and uprisings.

Childhood and youth

The future emperor was born in April 1818 in Moscow. The boy was born on a holiday, Bright Wednesday, in the Kremlin, in the Bishop's House of the Chudov Monastery. Here, on that festive morning, the entire Imperial family gathered to celebrate Easter. In honor of the boy’s birth, the silence of Moscow was broken by a 201-volley cannon salute.

Archbishop of Moscow Augustine baptized the baby Alexander Romanov on May 5 in the church of the Chudov Monastery. His parents were Grand Dukes at the time of their son's birth. But when the grown-up heir turned 7 years old, his mother Alexandra Feodorovna and father became the imperial couple.

The future Emperor Alexander II received an excellent education at home. His main mentor, responsible not only for training, but also for education, was. sacred history and the Law of God was taught by Archpriest Gerasim Pavsky himself. Academician Collins taught the boy the intricacies of arithmetic, and Karl Merder taught the basics of military affairs.

Alexander Nikolaevich had no less famous teachers in legislation, statistics, finance and foreign policy. The boy grew up very smart and quickly mastered the sciences taught. But at the same time, in his youth, like many of his peers, he was amorous and romantic. For example, during a trip to London, he fell in love with a young British girl.

Interestingly, after a couple of decades, it turned into the most hated European ruler for the Russian Emperor Alexander II.

The reign and reforms of Alexander II

When Alexander Nikolaevich Romanov reached adulthood, his father introduced him to the main state institutions. In 1834, the Tsarevich entered the Senate, the following year - into the Holy Synod, and in 1841 and 1842 Romanov became a member of the State Council and the Committee of Ministers.

In the mid-1830s, the heir made a long familiarization trip around the country and visited 29 provinces. In the late 30s he visited Europe. He also completed his military service very successfully and in 1844 became a general. He was entrusted with the guards infantry.

The Tsarevich headed military educational institutions and chaired the Secret Committees on Peasant Affairs in 1846 and 1848. He delves quite well into the problems of the peasants and understands that changes and reforms are long overdue.

The outbreak of the Crimean War of 1853-56 becomes a serious test for the future sovereign on his maturity and courage. After martial law was declared in the St. Petersburg province, Alexander Nikolaevich assumed command of all the troops of the capital.

Alexander II, having ascended the throne in 1855, received a difficult legacy. During his 30 years of rule, his father failed to resolve any of the many pressing and long-standing issues of the state. In addition, the country's difficult situation was aggravated by the defeat in the Crimean War. The treasury was empty.

It was necessary to act decisively and quickly. Foreign policy Alexander II's goal was to use diplomacy to break through the tight ring of blockade that had closed around Russia. The first step was the conclusion of the Paris Peace in the spring of 1856. Conditions, adopted by Russia, cannot be called very profitable, but the weakened state could not dictate its will. The main thing is that they managed to stop England, which wanted to continue the war until the complete defeat and dismemberment of Russia.

That same spring, Alexander II visited Berlin and met with King Frederick William IV. Frederick was the emperor's maternal uncle. They managed to conclude a secret “dual alliance” with him. The foreign policy blockade of Russia was over.

The domestic policy of Alexander II turned out to be no less successful. The long-awaited “thaw” has arrived in the life of the country. At the end of the summer of 1856, on the occasion of the coronation, the tsar granted amnesty to the Decembrists, Petrashevites, and participants in the Polish uprising. He also suspended recruitment for another 3 years and liquidated military settlements.

The time has come to resolve the peasant issue. Emperor Alexander II decided to abolish serfdom, this ugly relic that stood in the way of progress. The sovereign chose the “Baltsee option” of landless emancipation of peasants. In 1858, the Tsar agreed to a reform program developed by liberals and public figures. According to the reform, peasants received the right to purchase the land allocated to them as their own.

The great reforms of Alexander II turned out to be truly revolutionary at that time. He supported the Zemstvo Regulations of 1864 and the City Regulations of 1870. The Judicial Statutes of 1864 were put into effect and the military reforms of the 1860s and 70s were adopted. Reforms took place in public education. Finally, the shameful for developing country Physical punishment.

Alexander II confidently continued the traditional line of imperial policy. In the first years of his reign, he won victories in the Caucasian War. He successfully advanced in Central Asia, annexing most of Turkestan to the territory of the state. In 1877-78, the tsar decided to go to war with Turkey. He also managed to fill the treasury, increasing the total income of 1867 by 3%. This was done by selling Alaska to the United States.

But in the last years of the reign of Alexander II, the reforms “stalled.” Their continuation was sluggish and inconsistent. The emperor dismissed all the main reformers. At the end of his reign, the Tsar introduced limited public representation in Russia under the State Council.

Some historians believe that the reign of Alexander II, for all its advantages, had a huge disadvantage: the tsar pursued a “Germanophile policy” that did not meet the interests of the state. The monarch was in awe of the Prussian king - his uncle, and in every possible way contributed to the creation of a united militaristic Germany.

A contemporary of the tsar, chairman of the Committee of Ministers Pyotr Valuev, wrote in his diaries about the strong nervous disorder sovereign in the last years of his life. Romanov was on the verge of a nervous breakdown and looked tired and irritated. “Crown half-ruin” - such an unflattering epithet given by Valuev to the emperor, accurately explained his condition.

“In an era where strength is needed,” the politician wrote, “obviously, one cannot count on it.”

Nevertheless, in the first years of his reign, Alexander II managed to do a lot for the Russian state. And he really deserved the epithets “Liberator” and “Reformer”.

Personal life

The emperor was a passionate man. He has many novels to his credit. In his youth, he had an affair with his maid of honor Borodzina, whom his parents urgently married off. Then another novel, and again with the maid of honor Maria Trubetskoy. And the connection with the maid of honor Olga Kalinovskaya turned out to be so strong that the Tsarevich even decided to abdicate the throne for the sake of marrying her. But his parents insisted on breaking off this relationship and marrying Maximilianna of Hesse.

However, the marriage with, nee Princess Maximiliana Wilhelmina Augusta Sophia Maria of Hesse-Darmstadt, was a happy one. 8 children were born there, 6 of whom were sons.

Emperor Alexander II mortgaged the favorite summer residence of the last Russian tsars, Livadia, for his wife, who was sick with tuberculosis, by purchasing the land along with the estate and vineyards from the daughters of Count Lev Pototsky.

Maria Alexandrovna died in May 1880. She left a note containing words of gratitude to her husband for a happy life together.

But the monarch was not a faithful husband. Personal life Alexander II was constantly the subject of gossip at court. Some favorites gave birth to illegitimate children from the sovereign.

An 18-year-old maid of honor managed to firmly capture the heart of the emperor. The Emperor married his longtime lover the same year his wife died. It was a morganatic marriage, that is, concluded with a person of non-royal origin. The children from this union, and there were four of them, could not become heirs to the throne. It is noteworthy that all the children were born at a time when Alexander II was still married to his first wife.

After the tsar married Dolgorukaya, the children received legal status and a princely title.

Death

During his reign, Alexander II was assassinated several times. The first assassination attempt occurred after the suppression of the Polish uprising in 1866. It was committed in Russia by Dmitry Karakozov. The second is next year. This time in Paris. Polish emigrant Anton Berezovsky tried to kill the Tsar.

A new attempt was made at the beginning of April 1879 in St. Petersburg. In August of the same year, the executive committee of Narodnaya Volya sentenced Alexander II to death. After this, the Narodnaya Volya members intended to blow up the emperor’s train, but mistakenly blew up another train.

The new attempt turned out to be even bloodier: several people died in the Winter Palace after the explosion. As luck would have it, the emperor entered the room later.

To protect the sovereign, the Supreme Administrative Commission was created. But she did not save Romanov’s life. In March 1881, a bomb was thrown at the feet of Alexander II by Narodnaya Volya member Ignatius Grinevitsky. The king died from his wounds.

It is noteworthy that the assassination attempt took place on the day when the emperor decided to launch the truly revolutionary constitutional project of M. T. Loris-Melikov, after which Russia was supposed to follow the path of the constitution.