Speech. Analysis of means of expression.
It is necessary to distinguish between tropes (visual and expressive means of literature) based on the figurative meaning of words and figures of speech based on the syntactic structure of the sentence.
Lexical means.
Typically, in a review of assignment B8, an example of a lexical device is given in parentheses, either as one word or as a phrase in which one of the words is in italics.
| synonyms(contextual, linguistic) – words close in meaning | soon - soon - one of these days - not today or tomorrow, in the near future |
| antonyms(contextual, linguistic) – words with opposite meanings | they never said you to each other, but always you. |
| phraseological units– stable combinations of words that are close in lexical meaning to one word | at the end of the world (= “far”), tooth does not touch tooth (= “frozen”) |
| archaisms- outdated words | squad, province, eyes |
| dialectism– vocabulary common in a certain territory | smoke, chatter |
| bookstore, colloquial vocabulary |
daring, companion;
corrosion, management; waste money, outback |
Paths.
In the review, examples of tropes are indicated in parentheses, like a phrase.
Types of tropes and examples for them are in the table:
| metaphor– transferring the meaning of a word by similarity | dead silence |
| personification- likening any object or phenomenon to a living being | dissuadedgolden grove |
| comparison– comparison of one object or phenomenon with another (expressed through conjunctions as if, as if, comparative degree of adjective) | bright as the sun |
| metonymy– replacing a direct name with another by contiguity (i.e. based on real connections) | The hiss of foamy glasses (instead of: foaming wine in glasses) |
| synecdoche– using the name of a part instead of the whole and vice versa | a lonely sail turns white (instead of: boat, ship) |
| paraphrase– replacing a word or group of words to avoid repetition | author of “Woe from Wit” (instead of A.S. Griboyedov) |
| epithet– the use of definitions that give the expression figurativeness and emotionality | Where are you going, proud horse? |
| allegory– expression of abstract concepts in specific artistic images | scales – justice, cross – faith, heart – love |
| hyperbola- exaggeration of the size, strength, beauty of the described | at one hundred and forty suns the sunset glowed |
| litotes- understatement of the size, strength, beauty of the described | your spitz, lovely spitz, no more than a thimble |
| irony- the use of a word or expression in a sense contrary to its literal meaning, for the purpose of ridicule | Where are you, smart one, wandering from, head? |
Figures of speech, sentence structure.
In task B8, the figure of speech is indicated by the number of the sentence given in brackets.
| epiphora– repetition of words at the end of sentences or lines following each other | I'd like to know. Why do I titular councilor? Why exactly titular councilor? |
| gradation– construction of homogeneous members of a sentence with increasing meaning or vice versa | I came, I saw, I conquered |
| anaphora– repetition of words at the beginning of sentences or lines following each other | Irontruth - alive to envy,
Ironpestle, and iron ovary. |
| pun– pun | It was raining and there were two students. |
| rhetorical exclamation (question, appeal) – exclamatory, interrogative sentences or sentences with appeals that do not require a response from the addressee | Why are you standing there, swaying, thin rowan tree?
Long live the sun, may the darkness disappear! |
| syntactic parallelism– identical construction of sentences | young people are welcome everywhere,
We honor old people everywhere |
| multi-union– repetition of redundant conjunction | And the sling and the arrow and the crafty dagger
The years are kind to the winner... |
| asyndeton– construction of complex sentences or a series of homogeneous members without conjunctions | The booths and women flash past,
Boys, benches, lanterns... |
| ellipsis- omission of an implied word | I'm getting a candle - a candle in the stove |
| inversion– indirect word order | Our people are amazing. |
| antithesis– opposition (often expressed through conjunctions A, BUT, HOWEVER or antonyms | Where there was a table of food, there is a coffin |
| oxymoron– a combination of two contradictory concepts | living corpse, ice fire |
| citation– transmission in the text of other people’s thoughts and statements indicating the author of these words. | As it is said in the poem by N. Nekrasov: “You have to bow your head below a thin epic…” |
| questionably-response form presentation– the text is presented in the form of rhetorical questions and answers to them | And again a metaphor: “Live under minute houses...”. What does this mean? Nothing lasts forever, everything is subject to decay and destruction |
| ranks homogeneous members of the sentence– listing homogeneous concepts | A long, serious illness and retirement from sports awaited him. |
| parcellation- a sentence that is divided into intonational and semantic speech units. | I saw the sun. Over your head. |
Remember!
When completing task B8, you should remember that you are filling in the gaps in the review, i.e. you restore the text, and with it both semantic and grammatical connections. Therefore, an analysis of the review itself can often serve as an additional clue: various adjectives of one kind or another, predicates consistent with the omissions, etc.
It will make it easier to complete the task and divide the list of terms into two groups: the first includes terms based on changes in the meaning of the word, the second - the structure of the sentence.
Analysis of the task.
(1) The Earth is a cosmic body, and we are astronauts making a very long flight around the Sun, together with the Sun across the infinite Universe. (2) The life support system on our beautiful ship is so ingeniously designed that it is constantly self-renewing and thus allows billions of passengers to travel for millions of years.
(3) It is difficult to imagine astronauts flying on a ship through outer space, deliberately destroying a complex and delicate life support system designed for a long flight. (4) But gradually, consistently, with amazing irresponsibility, we are putting this life support system out of action, poisoning rivers, destroying forests, and spoiling the World Ocean. (5) If on a small spaceship the astronauts begin to fussily cut wires, unscrew screws, and drill holes in the casing, then this will have to be classified as suicide. (6) But there is no fundamental difference between a small ship and a large one. (7) The only question is size and time.
(8) Humanity, in my opinion, is a kind of disease of the planet. (9) They started, multiplied, and swarmed with microscopic creatures on a planetary, and even more so on a universal scale. (10) They accumulate in one place, and immediately deep ulcers and various growths appear on the body of the earth. (11) One has only to introduce a drop of a harmful (from the point of view of the earth and nature) culture into the green coat of the Forest (a team of lumberjacks, one barracks, two tractors) - and now a characteristic, symptomatic painful spot spreads from this place. (12) They scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste.
(13) Unfortunately, such concepts as silence, the possibility of solitude and intimate communication between man and nature, with the beauty of our land, are just as vulnerable as the biosphere, just as defenseless against the pressure of so-called technological progress. (14) On the one hand, a person, delayed by the inhuman rhythm of modern life, overcrowding, a huge flow of artificial information, is weaned from spiritual communication with the outside world, on the other hand, this external world itself has been brought into such a state that sometimes it no longer invites a person to spiritual communication with him.
(15) It is unknown how this original disease called humanity will end for the planet. (16) Will the Earth have time to develop some kind of antidote?
(According to V. Soloukhin)
“The first two sentences use the trope of ________. This image of the “cosmic body” and “astronauts” is key to understanding the author’s position. Reasoning about how humanity behaves in relation to its home, V. Soloukhin comes to the conclusion that “humanity is a disease of the planet.” ______ (“scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste”) convey the negative actions of man. The use of _________ in the text (sentences 8, 13, 14) emphasizes that everything said to the author is far from indifferent. Used in the 15th sentence, ________ “original” gives the argument a sad ending that ends with a question.”
List of terms:
- epithet
- litotes
- introductory words and plug-in constructions
- irony
- extended metaphor
- parcellation
- question-and-answer form of presentation
- dialectism
- homogeneous members of the sentence
We divide the list of terms into two groups: the first – epithet, litotes, irony, extended metaphor, dialectism; the second – introductory words and inserted constructions, parcellation, question-answer form of presentation, homogeneous members of the sentence.
It is better to start completing the task with gaps that do not cause difficulties. For example, omission No. 2. Since a whole sentence is presented as an example, some kind of syntactic device is most likely implied. In a sentence “they scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste” series of homogeneous sentence members are used : Verbs scurrying around, multiplying, doing business, participles eating away, exhausting, poisoning and nouns rivers, oceans, atmosphere. At the same time, the verb “transfer” in the review indicates that a plural word should take the place of the omission. In the list in the plural there are introductory words and inserted constructions and homogeneous clauses. A careful reading of the sentence shows that the introductory words, i.e. Those constructions that are not thematically related to the text and can be removed from the text without loss of meaning are absent. Thus, in place of gap No. 2, it is necessary to insert option 9) homogeneous members of the sentence.
Blank No. 3 shows sentence numbers, which means the term again refers to the structure of sentences. Parcellation can be immediately “discarded”, since authors must indicate two or three consecutive sentences. The question-answer form is also an incorrect option, since sentences 8, 13, 14 do not contain a question. What remains are introductory words and plug-in constructions. We find them in the sentences: In my opinion, unfortunately, on the one hand, on the other hand.
In place of the last gap, it is necessary to substitute a masculine term, since the adjective “used” must be consistent with it in the review, and it must be from the first group, since only one word is given as an example “ original". Masculine terms – epithet and dialectism. The latter is clearly not suitable, since this word is quite understandable. Turning to the text, we find what the word is combined with: "original disease". Here the adjective is clearly used in a figurative sense, so we have an epithet.
All that remains is to fill in the first gap, which is the most difficult. The review says that this is a trope, and it is used in two sentences where the image of the earth and us, people, is reinterpreted as the image of a cosmic body and astronauts. This is clearly not irony, since there is not a drop of mockery in the text, and not litotes, but rather, on the contrary, the author deliberately exaggerates the scale of the disaster. Thus, the only possible option remains - metaphor, the transfer of properties from one object or phenomenon to another based on our associations. Expanded - because it is impossible to isolate a separate phrase from the text.
Answer: 5, 9, 3, 1.
Practice.
(1) As a child, I hated matinees because my father came to our kindergarten. (2) He sat on a chair near the Christmas tree, played his button accordion for a long time, trying to find the right melody, and our teacher sternly told him: “Valery Petrovich, move up!” (3) All the guys looked at my father and choked with laughter. (4) He was small, plump, began to go bald early, and although he never drank, for some reason his nose was always beet red, like a clown’s. (5) Children, when they wanted to say about someone that he was funny and ugly, said this: “He looks like Ksyushka’s dad!”
(6) And I, first in kindergarten and then at school, bore the heavy cross of my father’s absurdity. (7) Everything would be fine (you never know what kind of fathers anyone has!), but I didn’t understand why he, an ordinary mechanic, came to our matinees with his stupid accordion. (8) I would play at home and not disgrace either myself or my daughter! (9) Often getting confused, he groaned thinly, like a woman, and a guilty smile appeared on his round face. (10) I was ready to fall through the ground from shame and behaved emphatically coldly, showing with my appearance that this ridiculous man with a red nose had nothing to do with me.
(11) I was in third grade when I caught a bad cold. (12) I started getting otitis media. (13) I screamed in pain and hit my head with my palms. (14) Mom called an ambulance, and at night we went to the district hospital. (15) On the way, we got into a terrible snowstorm, the car got stuck, and the driver, shrilly, like a woman, began to shout that now we would all freeze. (16) He screamed piercingly, almost cried, and I thought that his ears also hurt. (17) Father asked how long was left to the regional center. (18) But the driver, covering his face with his hands, kept repeating: “What a fool I am!” (19) Father thought and quietly said to mother: “We will need all the courage!” (20) I remembered these words for the rest of my life, although wild pain swirled around me like a snowflake in a snowstorm. (21) He opened the car door and went out into the roaring night. (22) The door slammed behind him, and it seemed to me as if a huge monster, clanging its jaws, swallowed my father. (23) The car was rocked by gusts of wind, and snow rustled down on the frost-covered windows. (24) I cried, my mother kissed me with cold lips, the young nurse looked doomedly into the impenetrable darkness, and the driver shook his head in exhaustion.
(25) I don’t know how much time passed, but suddenly the night was illuminated by bright headlights, and the long shadow of some giant fell on my face. (26) I closed my eyes and saw my father through my eyelashes. (27) He took me in his arms and pressed me to him. (28) In a whisper, he told his mother that he had reached the regional center, raised everyone to their feet and returned with an all-terrain vehicle.
(29) I dozed in his arms and through my sleep I heard him coughing. (30) Then no one attached any importance to this. (31) And for a long time afterwards he suffered from double pneumonia.
(32)…My children are perplexed why, when decorating the Christmas tree, I always cry. (33) From the darkness of the past, my father comes to me, he sits under the tree and puts his head on the button accordion, as if he secretly wants to see his daughter among the dressed-up crowd of children and smile cheerfully at her. (34) I look at his face shining with happiness and also want to smile at him, but instead I start crying.
(According to N. Aksenova)
Read a fragment of a review compiled on the basis of the text that you analyzed while completing tasks A29 - A31, B1 - B7.
This fragment examines the linguistic features of the text. Some terms used in the review are missing. Fill in the blanks with numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list. If you do not know which number from the list should appear in the blank space, write the number 0.
Write down the sequence of numbers in the order in which you wrote them down in the text of the review where there are gaps in answer form No. 1 to the right of task number B8, starting from the first cell.
“The narrator’s use of such a lexical means of expression as _____ to describe the blizzard (“terrible blizzard", "impenetrable darkness"), gives the depicted picture expressive power, and such tropes as _____ (“pain circled me” in sentence 20) and _____ (“the driver began to scream shrilly, like a woman” in sentence 15), convey the drama of the situation described in the text . A device such as ____ (in sentence 34) enhances the emotional impact on the reader.”
A polysemantic word other than its direct meaning, i.e. primary, directly related to an object or phenomenon of reality ( varnish- “to varnish”), can also have a figurative meaning, secondary, not directly related to the real object ( varnish- “to embellish, to present something in a better form than it actually is”).
Tropes are figures of speech in which a word or expression is used figuratively for the purpose of greater artistic expressiveness and imagery.
Types of trails:
1. Epithet is a figurative definition that allows you to more vividly characterize the properties, qualities of objects or phenomena: deceived steppe, tanned hills, dissolute wind, drunken expression of a cloud(Chekhov).
General linguistic epithets that are constantly used are identified ( biting frost, quiet evening), folk poetic ( beautiful maiden, clear field, damp earth), individually-authored: marmalade mood(Chekhov), globe belly(Ilf, Petrov), the rough smell of mothballs(Nabokov).
2. Metaphor is a type of trope that is based on the transfer of meaning based on the similarity of objects in shape, color, nature of action, quality, etc. Metaphor is usually defined as a hidden comparison.
According to the degree of imagery, metaphors that are erased and general language are distinguished ( bow of the ship, gold hair, speech flows) and original, individually authored, speech: I open the pages of my palms(Okudzhava); this roach lives(about a human ) on his wife's estate(Chekhov).
According to the composition of words, metaphors can be simple (see above) and complex, expanded, cf. metaphorical image of a storm: Now the wind embraces flocks of waves with a strong embrace and throws them with wild anger onto the cliffs, smashing the emerald masses into dust and splashes.(Bitter).
3. Metonymy is a type of trope, which is based on transfer through contiguity, contact of objects, phenomena, their close connection in space and time. This is the connection between a) an object and the material from which it is made: If not on silver, I ate on gold(Griboyedov); b) content and containing: The theater is already full: the boxes are shining, the stalls and chairs, - everything is boiling(Pushkin); c) action and instrument of action: His pen breathes revenge(A.K. Tolstoy); d) the author and his work: Readily read Apuleius, but did not read Cicero(Pushkin), etc.
4. Synecdoche - transfer of meaning from a part to the whole or vice versa: All flags will visit us(Pushkin); using the singular instead of the plural or vice versa: And you could hear how the Frenchman rejoiced until dawn(Lermontov).
5. Comparison is a figurative expression based on the likening of one object to another based on a common characteristic. Comparison is expressed: a) instrumental case of a noun: Ippolit Matveyevich, unable to withstand all the shocks of night and day, laughed a rat laugh(Ilf, Petrov); b) using the words “similar”, “similar”: song that sounds like crying(Chekhov); c) phrases with comparative conjunctions “as”, “as if”, “exactly”: Tables, chairs, creaky cabinets were scattered throughout the rooms... like the bones of a dismantled skeleton(Nabokov); Life turned out to be rough and low, like a bass clef(Ilf, Petrov); d) form of comparative degree of adjectives, adverbs: Beneath him is a stream of lighter azure(Lermontov).
6. Allegory - allegory, depiction of an abstract concept using a concrete image, for example, in fables, cowardice appears in the image of a hare, cunning - in the image of a fox, carelessness - in the image of a dragonfly, etc.
7. Hyperbole – strong exaggeration: A rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper(Gogol); Oh, spring without end and without end - Without end and without end, a dream!(Block).
8. Litotes - understatement of the size, strength, significance of any object, phenomenon (this is a reverse hyperbole): Your Spitz, lovely Spitz, No more than a thimble(Griboyedov).
9. Irony is an allegory in which words acquire the opposite meaning, denial and ridicule under the guise of approval and agreement. Often used in fables: Break away, smart one, you're delirious, head(about a donkey)? (Krylov).
10. Personification – attributing to inanimate objects the properties of living beings: And star speaks to star(Lermontov); What are you howling about, night wind, Why are you complaining so madly?(Tyutchev); The steppe threw off the morning penumbra, smiled, sparkled(Chekhov).
11. Oxymoron – a combination of words with contrasting meanings: Mother! Your son is perfectly ill(Mayakovsky); And the snow burned and froze all around(Parsnip).
Types of figures of speech
In addition to tropes, stylistic syntax (figures of speech) techniques can be used to enhance the imagery and emotionality of artistic speech:
1. Antithesis - a sharp opposition of any phenomena, signs, etc. to give speech special expressiveness: They got along. Wave and stone, Poems and prose, Ice and fire are not so different from each other...(Pushkin); I see sad eyes, I hear cheerful speech(A.K. Tolstoy).
2. Inversion is an indirect word order that has a certain stylistic and semantic meaning: The servants do not dare to breathe, waiting for you around the table(Derzhavin); Smooth horns make noise in the straw. The sloping head of a cow(Zabolotsky).
3. Repetitions (words, several words, whole sentences) - are used to strengthen the statement, give the speech dynamism, a certain rhythm.
There are repetitions:
a) at the beginning of sentences (anaphora):
I know there will be a city
I know that the garden will bloom,
When such people
In the Soviet country there is(Mayakovsky);
b) at the end of phrases (epiphora):
Dear friend, and in this quiet house
The fever hits me.
I can't find a place in a quiet house
Near the peaceful fire(Block);
c) at the junction of poetic lines (anadiplosis), which gives the effect of “enlarging” the overall picture of what is depicted:
He fell onto the cold snow,
On the cold snow, like a pine(Lermontov).
4. A rhetorical question that does not require an answer, serves to emotionally affirm or deny something: What Russian doesn't like driving fast?(Gogol); Was it not you who at first so viciously persecuted His free, bold gift?(Lermontov).
5. Rhetorical appeal - an appeal to an absent person, an inanimate object to enhance the expressiveness of speech: Greetings, deserted corner, Shelter of tranquility, work and inspiration.(Pushkin).
6. Gradation – alignment of homogeneous members according to the principle of strengthening (ascending gradation) or weakening (descending gradation) of a characteristic, action: You were, you are, you will forever be!(Derzhavin).
Tropes and figures of speech are used not only in fiction, but also in journalism, in oratory, as well as in proverbs and sayings, in works of oral folk art.
Self-study assignments
1. Indicate the tropes and stylistic figures used in this text.
I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.
Withered in gold,
I won't be young anymore.
Now you won't fight so much,
A heart touched by a chill,
And the country of birch chintz
It won't tempt you to wander around barefoot.
The wandering spirit! You are less and less often
You stir up the flame of your lips.
Oh my lost freshness
A riot of eyes and a flood of feelings.
I have now become more stingy in my desires,
My life, did I dream about you?
As if I were a booming early spring
He rode on a pink horse.
All of us, all of us in this world are perishable,
Copper quietly flows from the maple leaves...
May you be blessed forever,
What has come to flourish and die.
(S. Yesenin)
2. Determine in what functional style the passage of this text is written, and justify your answer.
This day was preserved in me as a memory of the gentle smell of dusty homespun rugs with a cozy, clumsy old-age pattern, the feeling of warmth that the recently whitewashed walls were thoroughly saturated with, and the image of a huge stove, like a menacing black motor ship, grown into one of the white walls.
We drank fragrant, village-smelling tea from dull glasses, sipping it with the city cookies we had brought, and raspberry jam flowed down like thick waterfalls onto the striped oilcloth of the table. Glasses clinked festively on the cup holders, a freshly woven silver web glittered slyly in the corner, and somehow a familiar haze of worn, frosty felt boots and wicker mushroom baskets floated into the room from the cold entryway.
We are going into the forest, a winter forest frozen in crystal. I was given an earflap hat that had been eaten by more than one generation of moths, felt boots that once belonged to Pukhov’s deceased grandfather, and a coat of Cheburashka fur that belonged to Pooh himself. We follow the drizzle-bound path leading to Nowhere, because near the forest it stops winding and ends up in the snowdrift pulp. Then only on skis. The skis are also Pooh, with one stick, covered in scales of peeling paint, like two flat, skinny fish.
The frost burns my bare arms, pitifully peeking out from the short ones, not tall enough for my quilted jacket. The branches covered with mirror blue ring above our heads like a theatrical chandelier. And silence. (S.-M. Granik “My Pooh”)
Fine and expressive means of language allow not only to convey information, but also to clearly and convincingly convey thoughts. Lexical means of expression make the Russian language emotional and colorful. Expressive stylistic means are used when an emotional impact on listeners or readers is necessary. It is impossible to make a presentation of yourself, a product, or a company without using special language tools.
The word is the basis of visual expressiveness of speech. Many words are often used not only in their direct lexical meaning. The characteristics of animals are transferred to the description of a person’s appearance or behavior - clumsy like a bear, cowardly like a hare. Polysemy (polysemy) is the use of a word in different meanings.
Homonyms are a group of words in the Russian language that have the same sound, but at the same time carry different semantic loads, and serve to create a sound game in speech.
Types of homonyms:
- homographs - words are written the same way, change their meaning depending on the emphasis placed (lock - lock);
- Homophones - words differ in one or more letters when written, but are perceived equally by ear (fruit - raft);
- Homoforms are words that sound the same, but at the same time refer to different parts of speech (I’m flying on an airplane - I’m treating a runny nose).
Puns are used to give speech a humorous, satirical meaning; they convey sarcasm well. They are based on the sound similarity of words or their polysemy.
Synonyms - describe the same concept from different sides, have different semantic load and stylistic coloring. Without synonyms it is impossible to construct a bright and figurative phrase; speech will be oversaturated with tautology.
Types of synonyms:
- complete - identical in meaning, used in the same situations;
- semantic (meaningful) - designed to give color to words (conversation);
- stylistic - have the same meaning, but at the same time relate to different styles of speech (finger);
- semantic-stylistic - have a different connotation of meaning, relate to different styles of speech (make - bungle);
- contextual (author's) - used in the context used for a more colorful and multifaceted description of a person or event.
Antonyms are words that have opposite lexical meanings and refer to the same part of speech. Allows you to create bright and expressive phrases.
Tropes are words in Russian that are used in a figurative sense. They give speech and works imagery, expressiveness, are designed to convey emotions, and vividly recreate the picture.
Defining Tropes
| Definition | |
| Allegory | Allegorical words and expressions that convey the essence and main features of a particular image. Often used in fables. |
| Hyperbola | Artistic exaggeration. Allows you to vividly describe properties, events, signs. |
| Grotesque | The technique is used to satirically describe the vices of society. |
| Irony | Tropes that are designed to hide the true meaning of an expression through slight ridicule. |
| Litotes | The opposite of hyperbole is that the properties and qualities of an object are deliberately understated. |
| Personification | A technique in which inanimate objects are attributed the qualities of living beings. |
| Oxymoron | Connection of incompatible concepts in one sentence (dead souls). |
| Periphrase | Description of the item. A person, an event without an exact name. |
| Synecdoche | Description of the whole through the part. The image of a person is recreated by describing clothes and appearance. |
| Comparison | The difference from metaphor is that there is both what is being compared and what is being compared with. In comparison there are often conjunctions - as if. |
| Epithet | The most common figurative definition. Adjectives are not always used for epithets. |
Metaphor is a hidden comparison, the use of nouns and verbs in a figurative meaning. There is always no subject of comparison, but there is something with which it is compared. There are short and extended metaphors. Metaphor is aimed at external comparison of objects or phenomena.
Metonymy is a hidden comparison of objects based on internal similarity. This distinguishes this trope from a metaphor.
Syntactic means of expression
Stylistic (rhetorical) - figures of speech are designed to enhance the expressiveness of speech and artistic works.
Types of stylistic figures
| Name of syntactic structure | Description |
| Anaphora | Using the same syntactic constructions at the beginning of adjacent sentences. Allows you to logically highlight a part of the text or a sentence. |
| Epiphora | Using the same words and expressions at the end of adjacent sentences. Such figures of speech add emotionality to the text and allow you to clearly convey intonation. |
| Parallelism | Constructing adjacent sentences in the same form. Often used to enhance a rhetorical exclamation or question. |
| Ellipsis | Deliberate exclusion of an implied member of a sentence. Makes speech more lively. |
| Gradation | Each subsequent word in a sentence reinforces the meaning of the previous one. |
| Inversion | The arrangement of words in a sentence is not in direct order. This technique allows you to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Give the phrase a new meaning. |
| Default | Deliberate understatement in the text. Designed to awaken deep feelings and thoughts in the reader. |
| Rhetorical appeal | An emphatic reference to a person or inanimate objects. |
| A rhetorical question | A question that does not imply an answer, its task is to attract the attention of the reader or listener. |
| Rhetorical exclamation | Special figures of speech to convey expression and tension of speech. They make the text emotional. Attract the attention of the reader or listener. |
| Multi-Union | Repeated repetition of the same conjunctions to enhance the expressiveness of speech. |
| Asyndeton | Intentional omission of conjunctions. This technique gives the speech dynamism. |
| Antithesis | A sharp contrast of images and concepts. The technique is used to create contrast; it expresses the author’s attitude towards the event being described. |
Tropes, figures of speech, stylistic means of expression, and phraseological statements make speech convincing and vivid. Such phrases are indispensable in public speeches, election campaigns, rallies, and presentations. In scientific publications and official business speech, such means are inappropriate - accuracy and persuasiveness in these cases are more important than emotions.
Trope is the use of words and expressions in a figurative meaning in order to create an artistic image, which results in an enrichment of meaning. The tropes include: epithet, oxymoron, comparison, metaphor, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, pun, irony, sarcasm, periphrasis. No work of art is complete without tropes. The artistic word is multi-valued; the writer creates images, playing with meanings and combinations of words, using the environment of the word in the text and its sound.
Metaphor - the use of a word in a figurative meaning; a phrase that characterizes a given phenomenon by transferring to it features inherent in another phenomenon (due to one or another similarity of the related phenomena), which is so. arr. replaces him. The uniqueness of metaphor as a type of trope is that it represents a comparison, the members of which have merged so much that the first member (what was compared) is repressed and completely replaced by the second (what it was compared with).
“A bee from a wax cell / Flies for a field tribute” (Pushkin)
where honey is compared with tribute and a beehive with a cell, and the first terms are replaced by the second. Metaphors, like any trope, are based on the property of a word that in its meaning it is based not only on the essential and general qualities of objects (phenomena), but also on the entire wealth of its secondary definitions and individual qualities and properties. For example, in the word “star”, along with the essential and general meaning (celestial body), we also have a number of secondary and individual characteristics - the radiance of the star, its distance, etc. M. arises through the use of “secondary” meanings of words, which allows you to establish new connections between them (the secondary sign of tribute is that it is collected; the cells are its cramped space, etc.). For artistic thinking, these “secondary” signs, which express moments of sensory clarity, are a means of revealing through them the essential features of the reflected class reality. M. enriches our understanding of a given object, attracting new phenomena to characterize it, expanding our understanding of its properties.
Metonymy is a type of trope, the use of a word in a figurative meaning, a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, like a metaphor, with the difference from the latter that this replacement can only be made by a word denoting an object (phenomenon) located in one or another (spatial, temporary, etc.) connection with the object (phenomenon), which is denoted by the replaced word. The meaning of metonymy is that it identifies a property in a phenomenon that, by its nature, can replace the others. Thus, metonymy essentially differs from metaphor, on the one hand, by a greater real interconnection of substitute members, and on the other, by greater restrictiveness, the elimination of those features that are not directly given in a given phenomenon. Like metaphor, metonymy is inherent in language in general, but it has a special meaning in artistic and literary creativity, receiving its own class saturation and use in each specific case.
“All flags will visit us,” where flags replace countries (a part replaces the whole). The meaning of metonymy is that it identifies a property in a phenomenon that, by its nature, can replace the others. Thus, metonymy essentially differs from metaphor, on the one hand, by a greater real relationship between the replacing members, and on the other, by greater restrictiveness, the elimination of those features that are not directly noticeable in a given phenomenon. Like metaphor, metonymy is inherent in language in general (cf., for example, the word “wiring,” the meaning of which is metonymically extended from an action to its result), but it has a special meaning in artistic and literary creativity.
Synecdoche is a type of trope, the use of a word in a figurative meaning, namely, the replacement of a word denoting a known object or group of objects with a word denoting a part of the named object or a single object.
Synecdoche is a type of metonymy. Synecdoche is a technique consisting of transferring meaning from one object to another based on the quantitative similarity between them.
"The buyer chooses quality products." The word "Buyer" replaces the entire set of possible buyers.
"The stern has moored to the shore." A ship is implied.
Hyperbole is a technique in which an image is created through artistic exaggeration. Hyperbole is not always included in the set of tropes, but by the nature of the use of the word in a figurative meaning to create an image, hyperbole is very close to tropes.
"I've said this a thousand times"
“We have enough food for six months”
“We spent four years preparing our escape, we saved three tons of food.”
Litotes is the reverse of hyperbole, a stylistic figure of explicit and deliberate understatement, belittlement and destruction, with the goal of enhancing expressiveness. Essentially, litotes is extremely close to hyperbole in its expressive meaning, which is why it can be considered as a type of hyperbole.
"A horse as big as a cat"
"A person's life is one moment"
"Waist no thicker than a bottleneck"
Personification is an expression that gives an idea of a concept or phenomenon by depicting it in the form of a living person endowed with the properties of this concept (for example, the Greek and Roman depiction of happiness in the form of a capricious goddess of fortune, etc.).
Very often, personification is used to depict nature, which is endowed with certain human traits and “animated”:
"the sea laughed"
"... The Neva rushed to the sea all night against the storm, unable to overcome their violent foolishness... and argue
it became impossible for her... The weather became even more ferocious, the Neva swelled and roared... and suddenly, like a frenzied beast, it rushed at the city... Siege! Attack! evil waves, like thieves, climb into the windows,” etc.
Allegory is a conventional depiction of abstract ideas (concepts) through a specific artistic image or dialogue. Thus, the difference between an allegory and related forms of figurative expression (tropes) is the presence in it of specific symbolism, subject to abstract interpretation; therefore, the fairly common definition of allegory as an extended metaphor is essentially incorrect (J. P. Richter, Fischer, Richard Meyer), since the metaphor lacks that logical act of reinterpretation, which is integral to allegory. Of the literary genres based on allegory, the most important are: fable, parable , morality But allegory can become the main artistic device of any genre in cases where abstract concepts and relationships become the subject of poetic creativity.
“I wrung out such allegories and equivocations that, it seems, a century would not have made any sense.”
Antonomasia is a figure of speech expressed in replacing a title or name with an indication of some significant feature of the subject (for example: a great poet instead of Pushkin) or its relationship to something (the author of "War and Peace" instead of Tolstoy; Peleus' son instead of Achilles). In addition, antonomasia is also considered the replacement of a common noun with a proper name (Aesculapius instead of doctor).
Epithet - refers to tropes; it is a figurative definition that gives an artistic description of an object or phenomenon. An epithet is a hidden comparison and can be expressed as an adjective, an adverb, a noun, a numeral or a verb. Thanks to its structure and special function in the text, the epithet acquires some new meaning or semantic connotation, helps the word (expression) gain color and richness.
Nouns: “Here he is, a leader without squads,” “My youth! My dark dove!”
Periphrasis is a syntactical-semantic figure consisting of replacing a one-word name of an object or action with a descriptive multi-word expression. School and classical stylistics distinguishes several types of periphrases:
I. As a grammatical figure:
- a) the property of an object is taken as a control word, and the name of the object is taken as a controlled word: “The poet used to amuse the khans of poetry with rattling pearls” (a paraphrase of the word “verse”);
- b) the verb is replaced by a noun formed from the same stem with another (auxiliary) verb: “an exchange is made” instead of “is exchanged.”
II. As a stylistic figure:
c) the name of the object is replaced by a descriptive expression, which is an expanded trope (metaphor, metonymy, etc.): “send me, in Delisle’s language, a twisted steel piercing the tarred head of the bottle, i.e. a corkscrew”
Comparison is a comparison of one object or phenomenon with another, giving the description a special imagery, clarity, and figurativeness.
Examples: trope fiction
“There, like a black iron leg, the poker ran and jumped.”
"White drifting snow rushes along the ground like a snake"
In the Russian language, additional expressive means are widely used, for example, tropes and figures of speech
Tropes are speech patterns that are based on the use of words in a figurative meaning. They are used to enhance the expressiveness of the speech of the writer or speaker.
The tropes include: metaphors, epithets, metonymy, synecdoche, comparisons, hyperbole, litotes, periphrasis, personification.
Metaphor is a technique in which words and expressions are used in a figurative meaning based on analogy, similarity or comparison.
And my tired soul is enveloped in darkness and cold. (M. Yu. Lermontov)
An epithet is a word that defines an object or phenomenon and emphasizes any of its properties, qualities, or characteristics. Usually an epithet is a colorful definition.
Your thoughtful nights are transparent twilight. (A S. Pushkin)
Metonymy is a means that is based on replacing one word with another based on contiguity.
The hiss of foamy glasses and the blue flame of punch. (A.S. Pushkin)
Synecdoche is one of the types of metonymy - transferring the meaning of one object to another based on the quantitative relationship between them.
And you could hear the Frenchman rejoicing until dawn. (M.Yu. Lermontov)
Comparison is a technique in which one phenomenon or concept is explained by comparing it with another. Typically comparative conjunctions are used.
Anchar, like a formidable sentinel, stands alone in the entire universe. (A.S. Pushkin).
Hyperbole is a trope based on excessive exaggeration of certain properties of the depicted object or phenomenon.
For a week I won’t say a word to anyone, I keep sitting on a stone by the sea... (A. A. Akhmatova).
Litotes is the opposite of hyperbole, an artistic understatement.
Your Spitz, lovely Spitz, is no more than a thimble... (A.S. Griboyedov)
Personification is a means based on the transfer of the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones.
The silent sadness will be consoled, and the joyful joy will reflect. (A.S. Pushkin).
Periphrasis is a trope in which the direct name of an object, person, or phenomenon is replaced by a descriptive phrase in which the characteristics of an object, person, or phenomenon not directly named are indicated.
"King of beasts" instead of lion.
Irony is a technique of ridicule that contains an assessment of what is being ridiculed. Irony always has a double meaning, where the truth is not what is directly stated, but what is implied.
Thus, the example mentions Count Khvostov, who was not recognized as a poet by his contemporaries due to the mediocrity of his poems.
Count Khvostov, a poet beloved by heaven, was already singing in immortal verses the misfortunes of the Neva banks. (A.S. Pushkin)
Stylistic figures are special expressions that go beyond the necessary norms for creating artistic expressiveness.
It is necessary to emphasize once again that stylistic figures make our speech informationally redundant, but this redundancy is necessary for the expressiveness of speech, and therefore for a stronger impact on the addressee
These figures include:
And you, arrogant descendants... (M.Yu. Lermontov)
A rhetorical question is a structure of speech in which a statement is expressed in the form of a question. A rhetorical question does not require an answer, but only enhances the emotionality of the statement.
And will the desired dawn finally rise over the fatherland of enlightened freedom? (A S. Pushkin)
Anaphora - repetition of parts of relatively independent segments.
It’s as if you curse days without light,
As if gloomy nights scare you...
(A. Apukhtin)
Epiphora - repetition at the end of a phrase, sentence, line, stanza.
Dear friend, and in this quiet house
The fever hits me
I can't find a place in a quiet house
Near the peaceful fire. (A.A. Blok)
Antithesis is an artistic opposition.
And day, and hour, and in writing, and orally, for the truth, yes and no... (M. Tsvetaeva)
An oxymoron is a combination of logically incompatible concepts.
You, who loved me with the falsehood of truth and the truth of lies... (M. Tsvetaeva)
Gradation is a grouping of homogeneous members of a sentence in a certain order: according to the principle of increasing or decreasing emotional and semantic significance
I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry... (With A. Yesenin)
Silence is a deliberate interruption of speech based on the guesswork of the reader, who must mentally complete the phrase.
But listen: if I owe you... I own a dagger, I was born near the Caucasus... (A.S. Pushkin)
Polyunion - repetition of a conjunction, perceived as redundant, creates emotionality in speech.
And for him they were resurrected again: deity, inspiration, life, tears, and love. (A.S. Pushkin)
Non-union is a construction in which unions are omitted to enhance expression.
Swede, Russian, chops, stabs, cuts, drumming, clicks, grinding... (A.S. Pushkin)
Parallelism is the identical arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text.
Some houses are as long as the stars, others as long as the moon.. (V.V. Mayakovsky).
Chiasmus is a cross arrangement of parallel parts in two adjacent sentences.
Automedons (coachman, driver - O.M.) are our fighters, our troikas are indomitable... (A.S. Pushkin). The two parts of the complex sentence in the example, according to the order of the members of the sentence, are as if in a mirror image: Subject - definition - predicate, predicate - definition - subject.
Inversion is the reverse order of words, for example, placing the definition after the word being defined, etc.
At the frosty dawn, under the sixth birch tree, around the corner, near the church, wait, Don Juan... (M. Tsvetaeva).
In the example given, the adjective frosty is in the position after the word being defined, which is inversion.
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