Before the advent of the 21st century it seemed, that in the world of the future only technology will evolve, but with its transformation into the world of the present, it became clear that it is still far from ideal. Even after seeing the sixth iPhone, we still continue to dress boys in blue and girls in pink, and when they grow up, expect “masculine” and “feminine” actions from them. However, in society new round a slow but steady process of revising established standards and connections began - it turned out that following it was no less interesting than the adventures of the Higgs boson. We talk a lot about the perception of physicality, with ourselves, and how important it is to our overall comfort and love for the diversity and uniqueness of people in a multicultural global reality. However, this process is impossible without understanding how existing patterns of relationships have developed, how ideas about “correct” or “traditional” have become entrenched in our minds, and why change is inevitable. Begin big talk about gender roles - social perception gender - and about what is happening in the modern world with the concepts of “man” and “woman”.
Text: Alisa Taiga
Photos: Vera Mishurina
Walk in my shoes:
How gender roles work
To understand how strongly our behavior is dictated by gender roles, it is enough to analyze a day in the life modern man. Unless, of course, you live as a hermit, then those around you, guided by the understandable and learned experience of thousands of years of patriarchy, most likely expect you to be included in the generally accepted system of values and concepts. A determined son and an attentive daughter, a disciplined husband and a calm wife, an authoritative father and an affectionate mother, an initiative subordinate and an understanding boss - we unconsciously integrate into this coordinate system so as not to be strangers among our own.
The dramaturgy of comedy and tragedy is built on gender roles. Remember episode“Friends” is about a male nanny: everyone becomes more comfortable when the nanny is a girl, and not the sentimental and often crying guy Sandy with an ideal education and amazing characteristics. Or remember what happens to Betty Draper in Mad Men, when a single mother arrives in a peaceful village of housewives who divorced her husband, works a lot and raises children on her own.
We call unbalanced men “hysterical” behind our backs, and decisive girls with principles - “chicks with balls”; we compete in a sense of humor, using gender stereotypes, and laugh deafeningly at the same jokes Barney Stinson or Michael Scott. In our speech, we constantly choose emotionally charged and far from gender neutral descriptions of ourselves, the people and phenomena around us, and it is these descriptions that demonstrate and reinforce the perception of one gender or another.
Who Benefits from Shifting Gender Roles?
Can gender role
be a free choice
IN late XIX century Great Britain - the main and strongest empire, - and after her, the whole of Europe canonizes the role of a woman in Coventry Patmore’s poem “An Angel in the House,” which he dedicated to his virtuous wife, and John Everett Millais will paint her idealized portrait. Around the same time and in this city, Jack the Ripper will brutally kill a huge number of London prostitutes, who had been humiliated and raped by the police for a decade before for forced tests for sexually transmitted diseases, and Oscar Wilde will undermine his health in prison, serving on charges of sodomy. Reactionary laws and private stories show that even now female images in culture they mask, but do not change the state of things. Two world wars and three waves of feminism were not enough for the system to stop reproducing itself: gender stereotypes in 2014 make it difficult not only to take your wife’s surname after marriage, but also to calculate your strengths in your career and earnings when meeting the “glass ceiling.”
Are gender stereotypes still alive?
If the power and influence of gender stereotypes seems to have weakened over time, try an experiment. Open Dahl's dictionary of proverbs, collected by the mid-19th century, and then read reader comments on popular materials on your favorite website. “My husband is only as big as a fist, but I don’t sit behind my husband’s head like an orphan.” “Don’t beat your wife and don’t be nice.” “A woman is dear - from the stove to the threshold.” “The hair is long, but the mind is short.” “A dog is smarter than a woman: it doesn’t bark at its owner.” “A chicken is not a bird, and a woman is not a person.” “Wherever the devil dares, he’ll send a woman there.” We no longer use most of them, but their meaning is firmly entrenched in the collective unconscious and comes to light at every opportunity.
Dialogues between men and women on pressing issues on forums or in comments are most often built on the basis of repeatedly played gender roles. These scenarios were exposed by John Money and Robert Stoller, who tried to popularize and explain them John Gray in "Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus", the theme of gender is constantly heard in contemporary art and news, but most often news, even on problematic sites like Jezebel or PolicyMic, are designed to spread viral content, reproduce ready-made meanings and rarely open their eyes to the other side of the problem.
Why gender is last
and the most persistent bastion of tradition
The problem of gender is included in the spectrum of modern existential and economic problems in which our unstable, over-consuming and competitive society is immersed. Ethnically mixed marriages and migration are changing the demographic composition of seemingly stable communities: whether Hong Kong can be called European and Marseille Asian and whether it is generally correct to use the terms Europe and Asia in the 21st century remains a question. Alternative sources income and the modern economy with contract work and bitcoins are changing labor Relations. But books on success and life hacks continue to be bestsellers, only now Dale Carnegie’s advice is being replaced by instructive biographies of tech tycoons.
At the same time, both the ideal of a communist future and American dream. One discredited itself with ineffective regimes with double standards, the other creates destructive competition and objectively cannot stop the next one economic crisis. And if with political ideologies or professional choice, people can still take risks by presenting these systems to the outside, then gender is one of the most basic, intimate and permanent constants- seems to be the last link this man and this woman with the idea of man in general.
Prejudice against women in careers exists regardless of the gender of the person evaluating them.
“It happened historically” is one of the easiest ways to justify and connect a person here and now with a million long-dead anonymous people, to whom the thread of repeatedly rewritten history from textbooks, confused traces of genealogy and global cultural monuments that are impossible to ignore, be it the pyramids, the Bible or Hollywood.
Experiment about labor characteristics Transgenders talks infinitely about the verdicts that most of us have prepared in advance regarding both sexes and their acceptable behavior. A biological woman, having undergone sex reassignment surgery, finds herself in a comfortable and practically invulnerable position. But a “man” who “becomes” a woman immediately raises doubts about his professionalism and receives several derogatory comments about his work. Other research shows that bias against women in careers exists regardless of the gender of the person evaluating them. Comments directed at men contain a lot of constructive criticism and positive comments about the need to work on oneself, comments to women always have an emotional and harsh evaluative overtones with a personal touch.
Gender scientist Londa Schiebinger talks about the general tendency of young children to make choices based on the reactions of their environment:
In children, according to her impressions, parents still encourage different qualities and inclinations. Her books partially explain the division into male and female professions and answer, among other things, the question “why were there no great women scientists” or even one of the most frequently asked questions “why are there no great women artists”, which at one time was answered Linda Nochlin answered well. This, however, does not negate the fact that in some societies the issue of gender roles is obviously not so acute (for example, Scandinavia) and the existence of women in power and men in the family, as well as a wide range of LGBTI relations, does not require additional argumentation there .
Can the modern family free us from the trap of gender roles?
As Time both frightens and reassures us, there is no such thing as a typical family anymore. Indeed, if the number of divorced parents with joint custody, separated spouses and same-sex couples raising children reaches significant percentages, it is strange and illogical to be programmed into gender roles that cannot be realized in life. Most likely, a man in a sling and a woman working on maternity leave are not the main and certainly not the last result of changing social roles. But, considering how late different forms of life in the family and society receive their names (some appeared in the language a couple of decades ago), one can only be convinced that the most leisurely mutations occur with gender roles. A complete abandonment of them is at the same distance as the construction of a new economic system or hyperintense global cataclysm: now no expert will take upon himself the responsibility to predict the exact shelf life of the current state of affairs.
In addition, having abandoned the usual gender roles, we have to rebuild our attitude towards daily habits, friends and relatives, change very funny sexist jokes to some others no worse, come up with a new cinema without the usual genres, heroes and plots, voluntarily abandon the majority gender-specific products and boycott jobs that pay us unequally. We will have to forget about going to the psychoanalyst who revere Freud's theories, and accept the possibility that hormone therapy and experimentation with the body will become general practice after years of public resistance. Utopian consciousness is completing a scenario unlike modern times, in which gender can be changed almost as often as hairstyle, professions as hobbies, partners as books at the bedside, and these books themselves at the bedside will have to write about something else and on another language in order to be interesting to us in our not yet invented new roles.
IN modern sociology The concept of “gender role” has acquired two meanings.
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In the first case, the gender role understood as the way in which a person expresses his gender identity. In other words, how much he is a real man or ideal woman. In some cases, a person finds it difficult to identify himself with which gender, alternately playing the role of a man, then the role of a woman. Then they use the term “third gender” or talk about transsexuals And transgender people |
In the second meaning, gender role implies role repertoire , i.e. totality various models behavior, activities or functions that a person has to perform when he has already decided on his gender identity. Let's say a modern woman (social role) should be a housewife, mother, wife, worker (role repertoire). |
It is known that in addition to biological differences between people belonging to the two sexes, there are also social differences, conditioned by the division of labor, delimitation of social roles, distribution of activities and occupations. Anthropologists, ethnographers and historians have long established the relativity of ideas about “typically male” or “typically female”. What is considered in one society male occupation(behavior, character trait), in another it can be defined as feminine. To be a man or a woman in society does not simply mean having certain anatomical features. This means fulfilling certain tasks prescribed to us. gender roles- models of behavior that society prescribes for men and women, as well as the set of expectations that others place on people performing these roles. External signs, allowing to distinguish the subjects of one, female, from another, male, role are the biological differences between the two sexes, as well as the characteristics of speech (tone, pitch, loudness, intonation of the voice) and language (a set of words used), behavior, adherence to etiquette, culture of gestures, clothing, orientation of interests, attitudes, inclinations and hobbies.
Male and female gender roles are, according to experts, mutually exclusive, and in some societies the patterns role behavior may even be polarized.
Gender roles determine, for example, that human individuals with female sexual characteristics should wear lipstick and cook cabbage soup, while those without such characteristics should wear a tie and earn money. On the contrary, in modern culture a so-called universal style of clothing and behavior is being formed - unisex(English unisex - [about fashion] asexual), which is equally characteristic of men and women, and therefore is not able to clearly distinguish representatives of different sexes.
Today, the relationship between the sexes and the definition of the roles of each of them are changing radically. New conditions, on the one hand, provide greater equality between the sexes, and on the other, erase the differences between them. Passivity, patience, loyalty and altruism are no longer considered just feminine traits. They are very beneficial to men who have learned to exploit these qualities, but do not always show equal masculine virtues in return - chivalry or nobility. Ambition, activity and independence are increasingly becoming feminine traits as well. And the introduction of men to the process of childbirth and the responsibilities of motherhood forms in them traits that have traditionally been considered purely feminine: tenderness, affection, the desire to take care of babies.
Women today find it much easier to enter social life than their mothers and grandmothers. Now they have more freedom of movement: gone are the days when a woman could only leave the house with a companion, friend or relative. But it seems that they are forced to pay for this too. Statistics show that young women often become victims of sexual aggression from men.
The gender role, according to the Russian sociologist I. S. Kon, refers to the normative prescriptions and expectations that the corresponding culture places on “correct” male or female behavior and which serve as a criterion for assessing the masculinity/femininity of a child or adult. The prescriptions adopted by society in relation to each role are determined by gender and age division and the different participation of women and men in economic life. This has been the case since ancient times.
In particular, everything connected with the religious and magical side of community life was considered an exclusively male activity in traditional society: the performance of religious rites and rituals, the assimilation and transmission of sacred myths to other generations, magic spells, religious chants. Men perform all sacred rituals in secret from women and severely punish (including murder) those men who cannot keep a secret and those women who show excessive curiosity. Women are prohibited from approaching places of sacred rituals, looking at religious emblems, touching objects involved in rituals, knowing sacred myths, songs, and the history of the tribe. According to views primitive people, men, during their religious activities, communicate with the spirits of ancestors, sacred animals, creatures - patrons of the tribe or clan, in a word, they mediate between the world of people and the sacred world, trying to ensure the well-being of all members of the team. Witchcraft and black magic are also the domain of men. With their help, both ensuring success in various endeavors and taking revenge on enemies are achieved.
Mostly a man's business is the organization of intra-community life. In men's houses, separately from women, men make decisions related to the most important issues in the life of the collective. This includes the distribution of food, the use of community territory, the organization of festivities, the resolution of marriage issues, the settlement of internal disputes and conflicts, control over team members and punishment of offenders, etc.
Since ancient times, men have monopolized the sphere of intercommunity, and then international relations, turning a purely female (by name) field of activity - diplomacy - into his own domain. Whether it was the establishment of friendly inter-tribal relations and the subsequent multi-day feast, where again only males were allowed, or a declaration of war and distant conquests, all the weights of which could only be endured by the stronger sex. Primitive men searched and explored new territories, were the first to develop future sites, and were the first to plow land. Men in to a greater extent, than women, are bound by external obligations: they are involved in a complex of kinship and community relationships that involve the exchange of food, things or certain services. Women, as a rule, are not involved in these matters.
It is not surprising that men occupied all the most important activities for the community - from politics, religion, economics to decisions social problems. That's why they made up core primitive society, which performed a cementing function, organizing the primitive collective from the inside. The entire life of women is concentrated within the community, and they cement it from the inside not through organizational decisions and control, but through numerous interpersonal contacts and connections.
Women's sphere peripheral and is limited mainly to family, home, caring for children and husband. If the position of a man is dual: he is, as it were, between the community and the family, then the position of a woman is definite - she belongs to the family, being its center. The goal of all her activity is the well-being of this “female” world. This is achieved by maintaining economic support own family, as well as establishing proper interaction with similar groups (women’s cells) within the community, in particular through the exchange of food, mutual assistance in caring for children, participation in joint work with other women to deliver water and fuel and other collective activities.
Elements of the gender role are also clothing, gestures, and manner of speech. One person’s wardrobe, as well as the system of rules, can change throughout the day: in the morning she is a housewife (robe, curlers, nervous getting ready for work), in the afternoon she is a businesswoman (strict suit, bossy tone, makeup), in the evening she is a theatergoer (evening dress, free manners, different image) or caring mother(Fig. 8.2).
In marriage, a woman performs whole line roles necessary for a man: the role of a friend with whom you can consult on important life issues and “pour out your soul”, spend time together free time or vacation with whom you can share everyday problems, trust her; the role of a quasi-mother who bestows attention and care on him, the role of a housewife who takes care of order, comfort, and cleanliness. One of the important roles of a woman is that of a lover.
The topic of gender roles will not be fully explored if we limit ourselves to two genders and begin to consider the role
Rice. 8.2.
only as a model of behavior defined by the biological boundaries of one sex. The phenomenon has been known since ancient times gender change, which can occur both surgically (through genital surgery) and symbolically (through dressing up and changing the cultural image). In anthropological and sociological literature this phenomenon received the general generic name of the “third gender”.
Ritual dressing of men in women's clothing has been preserved to this day in various tribes that have inherited the customs of ancient cultures. For example, in the Namshi tribe, young men wear skirts for the initiation rite, and in the Maasai tribes, boys wear skirts from the moment of the circumcision ritual until the wounds are completely healed. Kathakali dancers in Ceylon wear precious jewelry and paint, thus trying to evoke the favor of the gods, the Zulus in such attire cause rain, and the Indian Bhotas dance in women's clothing to scare away scarlet spirits.
Performers of female roles in Japanese Kabuki theater wear very careful makeup, speak in falsetto and move, imitating women's walking and gestures. The culture of Kabuki men is so high that many Japanese women, paradoxically, people still come to the theater to learn from men the art of being a woman. They try to adopt their way of holding their back, copy gestures and much more.
From about the 16th century. In many European countries there was a tradition of dressing boys in dresses and calling them by their maiden names until they were seven years old. In this way, apparently, the parents tried to protect their sons from evil spirits. Only after seven years were boys allowed to change their dresses to pantaloons and become members of male society. This tradition extended to all classes of society. Thus, in family portraits depicting children, it was possible to distinguish who it was, a boy or a girl, only by the toys that the children held in their hands. For boys it was either a whip or a wooden horse, for girls it was a doll. This tradition was so stable that in some places it survived until the middle of the 20th century.
- Cm.: Badinter E. Decree. op. P. 56.
- For more details, see: History of primitive society. Primitive era tribal community. M., 1986; Manager L. N. Gender as a cultural historical phenomenon: the era of primitiveness. URL: irbis.asu.ru
- maya.cltn.ru
Gender roles
One type of social role, a set of expected behavior patterns (or norms) for men and women. Role in social psychology defined as a set of norms that determine how people in a given social position should behave. The first representative role theory Shakespeare can rightfully be considered as having written:
The whole world is a theater
There are women, men - all actors.
They have their own exits and exits;
And everyone plays more than one role.
Currently, there is no unified theory of social roles as such. Gender roles, their characteristics, origin and development are considered within the framework of various sociological, psychological and biosocial theories. But existing research allows us to conclude that their formation and development in humans is influenced by society and culture, and the ideas about the content and specifics of gender roles enshrined in them. And in the course of the historical development of society, the content of gender roles undergoes changes. A blow to the belief that men and women are naturally designed to perform certain roles was dealt by Margaret Mead in her book Sex and Temperament. Her observations of tribal life in New Guinea convincingly refute this. The women and men she observed performed completely different roles, sometimes directly opposite to the stereotypes accepted for each gender. One of the ideas declared by the women's movement of the 70s was that traditional gender roles were holding back personal development and realizing existing potential. It served as an impetus for the concept of Sandra Bem (S. Bem), which is based on the concept of androgyny, according to which any person, regardless of his biological sex, can combine traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine qualities (such people are called androgynes). And this allows people to adhere less rigidly to gender role norms and freely move from traditionally feminine activities to traditionally masculine ones and vice versa. Developing this idea, Pleck began to talk in his works about the splitting or fragmentation of gender roles. There is no single role for a man or a woman. Each person performs a series various roles, for example, wife, mother, student, daughter, friend, etc. Sometimes these roles do not combine, which leads to role conflict. The conflict between the role of a businesswoman and the role of a mother is well known to everyone. There is now evidence that performing multiple roles contributes to psychological well-being person.
The diversity of gender roles across cultures and eras supports the hypothesis that our gender roles are shaped by culture. According to Hofstede's theory, differences in gender roles depend on the degree of gender differentiation in cultures or the degree of masculinity or femininity in a particular culture. Based on cross-cultural research, Hofstede showed that people from masculine cultures have more high motivation They see achievements and the meaning of life in work and are able to work a lot and hard. A number of cross-cultural studies have also found that feminine cultures with low power distance (Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden) have person-oriented families that promote equality in gender roles. While cultures with high power distance and pronounced masculinity (Greece, Japan, Mexico) have families focused on strict gender role positions. Such families ultimately contribute to strict differentiation in gender roles.
Gender roles depend not only on culture, but also on historical era. I. S. Kon noted that traditional system differentiation of sex roles and associated stereotypes of femininity and masculinity was distinguished by the following characteristic features: women's and male species activities and personal qualities differed very sharply and seemed polar; these differences were sanctified by religion or references to nature and presented as inviolable; female and male functions were not just complementary, but also hierarchical; women were assigned a dependent, subordinate role. Nowadays, in almost all cultures, radical changes are taking place in relation to gender roles, in particular in the post-Soviet space, but not as quickly as we would like.
Gender roles
Literature:
Kon I. S. Psychology of sexual differences // Questions of psychology. 1981. N 2. P. 53.
Lebedeva N. M. Introduction to ethical and cross-cultural psychology. M.: Klyuch, 1999. pp. 141-142.
Bem S. The measurement of psychological androgyny // Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1974. 42. R. 165-172.
Hofstede G. Culture's consequences: international differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills, 1984.
Mead M. Sex and temperament in three primitive societies. New York: Morrow, 1935.
Pleck J. The theory of male sex role identity: its rise and fall from 1936 to the present // The making of masculinities: the new men's studies. Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1987. P. 221-38.
© E. F. Ivanova
Terminology thesaurus gender studies. - M.: East-West: Women's Innovation Projects. A. A. Denisova. 2003.
See what “Gender roles” are in other dictionaries:
Gender roles- ... Wikipedia
Gender roles (sex roles)- – attitudes, as well as types of activities that society associates with one gender or another... Dictionary-reference book for social work
Gender differences- a set of specific psychological and physiological characteristics men and women. Gender differences based on sexual dimorphism between men and women. There is an academic subject “gender psychology”, which studies both qualitatively and ... Wikipedia
GENDER ISSUES- (English gender gender), public and psychological problems related to the role of males and females in society, since differences in the behavior patterns of men and women can cause intrapersonal, interpersonal and intergroup... encyclopedic Dictionary
Gender issues- (English gender gender) social and psychological problems associated with the role of male and female persons in society, since differences in the behavior patterns of men and women can cause intrapersonal, interpersonal and intergroup... ... Political science. Dictionary.
GENDER DIFFERENCES- (English gender gender), differences between people due to their gender. Thus, it is believed that men have more developed spatial and mathematical abilities, they are more aggressive and dominant, and they are more significant... ... encyclopedic Dictionary
Gender differences- Contents 1 Gender differences 2 Gender identity 3 ... Wikipedia
A stereotype is a judgment, in a sharply simplifying and generalizing form, with emotional overtones, attributing certain properties to a certain class of persons or, conversely, denying them these properties. Stereotypes are considered as special forms... ...
- (personal computers) are observed during human-computer interaction in all age groups. Stereotypes public consciousness and the media, the bias of education and released software products to some extent determine that... Gender Studies Terms
GENDER TECHNOLOGIES- methods, mechanisms, channels for the formation of the institution of gender and the consolidation of corresponding gender identifications. Logics modern definition social gender (see Gender) indicates the inextricable connection of the concepts of gender, discourse and power. G.t.... ... Modern philosophical dictionary
Books
- Why men lie and women cry, Pease Allan. In a world where gender roles are so clearly blurred and transformed, the authors brilliantly managed to articulate the differences in the perception of reality by men and women, and explain the motives...
Gender roles
Gender roles- these are roles determined by the differentiation of people in society based on gender. Gender role is the differentiation of activities, statuses, rights and responsibilities of individuals depending on their gender. Gender roles are a type of social role; they are normative and express certain social expectations(expectations) are manifested in behavior. At the cultural level, they exist in the context of a certain system of gender symbolism and stereotypes of masculinity and femininity. Gender roles are always associated with a certain regulatory system, which a person assimilates and refracts in his consciousness and behavior.
Thus, gender roles can be seen as external manifestations patterns of behavior and relationships that allow other people to judge whether an individual is masculine or female. In other words, a gender role is a social manifestation of an individual's gender identity.
Gender roles refer to the type of prescribed roles. The status of a future man or future woman is acquired by a child at birth, and then, in the process of gender socialization, the child learns to perform one or another gender role. Gender stereotypes existing in society have a great influence on the process of socialization of children, largely determining its direction. Under gender stereotypes understand standardized ideas about behavior patterns and character traits that correspond to the concepts of “masculine” and “feminine.”
Gender stereotype concerning the consolidation of family and professional roles according to gender, refers to one of the most common stereotypes prescribing standard models role behavior of men and women. According to this stereotype for women the main social roles are family roles(mother, mistress) for men – professional roles(worker, toiler, breadwinner, breadwinner). Men are usually judged by professional success, women - according to the presence of family and children. Folk wisdom states that a "normal" woman wants to get married and have children and that all other interests she may have are secondary to these family roles. It is believed that to fulfill the traditional role of a housewife, a woman must develop her abilities to be sensitive, compassionate and caring. While men are expected to be achievement-oriented, women are expected to be people-oriented and to strive for close interpersonal relationships.
One of the grounds for the formation of traditional gender roles is the division of labor based on gender. The main criterion in this division is the biological ability of women to bear children. IN modern societies The social need for the division of labor based on women’s reproductive ability, which existed in archaic societies, has long since disappeared. Most women work in production sector outside the home, and men have long ceased to be only “warriors and hunters” who protect and feed their families. And yet, stereotypes about traditional gender roles are very stable: women are required to concentrate on the private (domestic) sphere of activity, and men are required to concentrate on the professional, public sphere.
Important role in the affirmation of the gender stereotype about the consolidation of social roles in accordance with gender, the concept of “natural” complementarity of the sexes by Talcott Parsons and Robert Bales, who considered the differentiation of male and female roles in structural and functional terms, played a role. According to their point of view, in modern family spouses must fulfill two different roles. Instrumental role consists of maintaining connections between the family and the outside world - this is a professional activity that brings material income and social status; expressive role involves, first of all, caring for children and regulating relationships within the family. Based on these two roles, how are responsibilities distributed between spouses? Parsons and Bales believe that a wife's ability to bear children and care for children uniquely determines her expressive role, and a husband who cannot perform these biological functions becomes a performer of an instrumental role.
This theory contributed to the integration of socio-anthropological and psychological data into a single scheme. However, feminist criticism has shown that the basis of the dichotomy of instrumentality and expressiveness - for all its empirical and everyday convincingness - lies not so much in natural sexual differences, but social norms, following which hinders the individual self-development and self-expression of women and men.
Traditional gender roles hinder personal development and the realization of existing potential. This idea was the impetus for the development of S. Bem androgyny concept, according to which a person, regardless of his biological sex, can possess both traits of masculinity and femininity, combining both traditionally feminine and traditionally masculine qualities. This allows us to distinguish masculine, feminine, androgynous models of gender roles. This idea was developed further, and J. Plec in his works began to talk about splitting, or fragmentation of gender roles. There is no single male or female role. Each person performs a number of different roles (wives, mothers, businesswomen, etc.), often these roles may not be combined, which leads to intrapersonal role conflict.
Gender roles can be studied at three different levels. At the macrosocial levelwe're talking about about differentiation social functions gender and related cultural norms. Describe " female role"at this level means revealing the specifics social status women (typical activities, social status, mass ideas about women) by correlating it with the position of a man within a given society, system.
At the level of interpersonal relationships gender role is derived not only from general social norms and conditions, but also from the specific system being studied joint activities. The role of a mother or wife always depends on how exactly responsibilities are distributed in a given family, how the roles of father, husband, children, etc. are defined in it.
At the intra-individual level the internalized gender role is derived from the characteristics of a particular person: the individual builds his behavior as a husband or father taking into account his ideas about what, in his opinion, a man should be, based on all his conscious and unconscious attitudes and life experience.
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