Timofey Gurtovoy
PROTON RADIUS
The microworld, which quantum physics studies, is the second, but visually unobservable part of the material World. This world is represented by a wide spectrum of discreteness, in the form of elementary particles, starting with atoms and ending with short-lived ones obtained by crushing matter in accelerators.
The internal content of elementary particles is known to existing physics only within the limits of the periodic table. About the design, it is only conjectural that its design is supposedly a copy of the planetary system. It just so happened that the description of something new in existing physics begins with the vicious method of analogies to something already known. Although Nature is not as stupid as we, who study it, often imagine it in our speculative projects.
Rational physics much more is known about the microworld than is known existing physics. This is stated in sufficient detail in my articles on the Kulichki website in the Physics section. Annotations for them with addresses are available on blogs on the “My World” project.
Microworld.
The smallest stable particles are electron And proton.
IN existing physics characterized by four main parameters: mass, radius, charge and spin.
An electron is considered to be a particle with a negative unit charge. A proton is the same in size, but has a positive charge.
IN Rational physics- only three, i.e. the same parameters, excluding the charge, because it is not necessary. Since the polarity of particles is relative and is determined by the law Potential Gradation of Matter, being a function of the power-law radius of the particle in inverse order.
The difference in the radii of these particles is small. The classical electron radius is 2.81794⋅fm.
The proton radius, determined experimentally in 2009 by a group of physicists led by Dr. Randolf Pohl from the Max Planck Institute for Quantum Optics, turned out to be equal to 0.8768 fm.
Why does a particle with a mass 1836 times greater have a smaller radius, from the standpoint of existing physics, unclear. However Physics is rational this apparent paradox explains.
The electron is the only stable particle whose internal content is monostructural. The rest, being atoms of elements, including the proton - polystructural, have a complex internal structure.
There are no ball electrons flying in orbits around a nucleus of nucleons, like planets moving around the Sun. There is no nucleus consisting of nucleons. All elements that make up the internal structure of atoms - electrons, nucleons and groups made up of them, both of them - quarks (this was said earlier, when explaining why they are not found in a free state), form rings rotating around the vacuum core. All rings are separated by tiny vacuum spaces, which are a structural element of a potential bond that firmly binds the entire structure of a complex microparticle. The presence of these spaces of vacuum connection allows atoms to have a strong integrity of mass, contracted into a small volume.
This circumstance determines the facts that the proton, with a larger mass, has a smaller radius than the electron, and is electrically positive relative to it.
And since a denser particle has a greater relative electric potential because its surface is closer to the vacuum core than the surface of a less dense particle, this means that the potential of the particle is the potential of its surface.
Experiment to test the proton radius.
Description from a position existing physics.
During experiments with mesons (1955 – 1956), L. Alvarez and his colleagues discovered the effect that a muon, having a mass greater than the mass of an electron, can manifest itself as a “heavy atomic electron”. This produces so-called muonic hydrogen.
The experimental technique, according to its authors, included the use of this fact - the replacement electron in a hydrogen atom, by a particle less stable – muon, which is 207 times heavier than an electron.
And, taking into account the fact that, according to existing physics, the electron supposedly revolves around the proton not along strictly established trajectories - this elementary particle can occupy certain energy levels, therefore it is possible, having found out what the energy difference is between these two levels, and based on the provisions of quantum theory electrodynamics calculate the proton radius.
The reason to believe, therefore, was the following.
In 1947, American physicists Willis Eugene Lamb and Robert Rutherford discovered that an electron in a hydrogen atom can oscillate between two energy levels (this phenomenon is called the Lamb shift).
It was done like this. A powerful muon accelerator was used at the Swiss Paul Scherrer Institute. Muons were launched into a container containing hydrogen atoms.
After this, using a laser with specially selected characteristics, physicists gave the muon additional energy, which, as they say, “ definitely enough to move to the next level".
After this, they explain: “ Almost immediately the muon returned to a lower energy level, emitting X-rays.".
Rice. 1. Illustration of muon transitions and radiation emitted during the process of particles jumping between “orbitals”, according to existing physics (illustration from Nature).
By analyzing this radiation, the level energy and then the proton radius were determined.
However, the proton radius obtained by experimenters is 4% less than the currently accepted value.
So far, researchers cannot explain the reason for such a large discrepancy. There may be several reasons.
1. An error (or errors) that occurred at one of the stages of the experiment.
2. Errors in the provisions of the theory of quantum electrodynamics.
3. New results indicate that the proton has properties completely unknown to physicists.
Description from a positionRational physics.
Firstly, regarding the so-called Lamb shift.
The molecular kinetic theory, which explains the occurrence of heat through the kinetics of molecules, is untenable. This is already clear to everyone. Heat is created by electromagnetic radiation, which occurs when elementary particles decelerate.
Atoms (molecules) of a substance are in continuous pulsation. This process is accompanied by the release of its portions, which are formed into spatial formations in the form of electrons. Interacting with the spatial environment, the resulting electrons, decelerating, emit EM quanta.
Only particles with a complex structure, i.e., everything (atoms, molecules) except electrons, absorb EM quanta. Absorption leads to perestroika their internal structure and larger amplitude pulsations. It was this process that was observed in 1947 by American physicists Willis Eugene Lamb and Robert Rutherford, who mistook the change in the amplitude of proton pulsations for the alleged transition of its electron to a different “orbital.”
The proton, like all atoms, continuously perceives EM quanta of the thermal and light ranges from the outside, pulsating, throwing out particles of its matter, which are immediately slowed down and deprived of radiation, energy, spreading out, turning into particles of ether, which are dispersed in Space.
All this creates the appearance of blurred, not clear boundaries.
« Being a composite particle, the proton has finite dimensions, but, of course, it cannot be represented as a “solid ball” - it does not have a clear spatial boundary.
If we follow modern physical theories, the proton rather resembles a cloud with blurred edges, consisting of virtual particles being created and annihilated.".
Now about the process during the experiment. There is no replacement of an electron in a hydrogen atom by a muon. And hydrogen was needed there only as a kind of “catalyst” in the process.
Accelerated muon, according to the law conservation of energy and mass in motion acquiring additional mass, it becomes heavier, but not so much that due to this acceleration it reaches the mass of a proton. The laser beam, with its energy, brings the process of weighting the muon to a mass greater than the mass of the proton. That is, the particle is simply pumped with energy, as in a laser.
After this, the particle becomes so heavy, artificially radioactive, that at the very first interaction with a hydrogen atom that gets in its way, it is slowed down, “resolved” by its “burden”, emitting an EM quantum and losing internal energy to the value of its stability. At the same time she fully loses his energy too kinetic, i.e. it turns into a particle in the state peace. Thus, the radius that was calculated by the experimenters based on the results obtained in the experiment is this is the rest radius of the proton .
I do not know how and by what method the proton radius was calculated by the experimenters based on the obtained value of the X-ray quantum energy.
However, if the muon speed was – V = 0.4 C, then everything is correct. According to rational physics, the proton has zero mass.
The proton radius turned out to be 4 percent smaller than previously thought. This conclusion was made by a group of physicists who carried out the most accurate measurement of the radius of an elementary particle to date.
The proton, along with the neutron, is part of atomic nuclei. It is impossible to directly determine the size of this particle, since it does not have a clear spatial boundary. However, scientists can estimate the radius of a proton by determining how far its positive charge extends. To make these measurements, researchers work with hydrogen atoms, which consist of one proton and one electron. The electron does not revolve around the proton along strictly established trajectories - this elementary particle can occupy certain energy levels. In 1947, American physicists Willis Eugene Lamb and Robert Rutherford discovered that an electron in a hydrogen atom can oscillate between two energy levels (this phenomenon is called the Lamb shift). Having found out what the energy difference is between these two levels, scientists can, based on the principles of the theory of quantum electrodynamics, calculate the proton radius, the ScienceNOW portal clarifies.
The authors of the new work decided to clarify the previously obtained estimates of the size of the proton, using an unusual experimental technology. Physicists obtained a structure similar to a hydrogen atom, in which instead of an electron there was a muon - a negatively charged electron particle 207 times heavier than an electron. Because of the difference in mass, the muon orbits approximately 200 times closer to the proton, and changes in its energy levels are much more dependent on the characteristics of the proton.
Using the most powerful muon accelerator at the Swiss Paul Scherrer Institute, scientists "launched" muons into a container containing hydrogen atoms. In this case, approximately every hundredth muon that replaced an electron “failed” to a higher energy level from those “allowed” by the Lamb shift. Such particles existed for two microseconds, which is an order of magnitude longer than in previous experiments. Using a laser with specially selected characteristics, physicists gave the muon additional energy, which was exactly enough to move to the next level. Almost immediately, the muon returned to a lower energy level, emitting X-rays, explains Wired. By analyzing this radiation, experts were able to determine the level energy and then the proton radius. Here you can see a video in English, which reflects the main stages of the experiment.
Based on the results of the experiments, scientists calculated that the proton radius is 0.84184 femtometers (a femtometer is 10-15 meters), which is 4 percent less than the currently accepted value. So far, researchers cannot explain the new results, since they contradict the theory of quantum electrodynamics, which is considered the most accurate physical theory. The authors' colleagues do not rule out that the cause of the discrepancy may be an error (or errors) that occurred at one of the stages of the experiment. Another possible explanation is errors in the principles of the theory of quantum electrodynamics. And finally, the third option, which experts speak about with great caution, is that new results indicate that the proton has properties completely unknown to physicists.
A femtometer is one millionth of one billionth of a meter, 10. -15 meters. A discrepancy of four hundredths of this length threatens to almost turn our ideas about the microcosm upside down.
Today the situation looks like this. Since the middle of the last century, physicists have been trying to measure the radius of the proton, and until 2010 they were doing a great job. The experiments were carried out differently, but the principle remained the same - measuring the quantized energy levels at which an electron can be located in a hydrogen atom, or, roughly speaking, the heights of its possible orbits. The magnitude of these levels depends partly on the radius of the proton that makes up the nucleus of the hydrogen atom. This part is strictly determined by the laws of quantum mechanics, and, knowing the levels, it is possible to determine the radius of the proton using relatively simple calculations. Previous experiments gave the same radius value for the proton - 0.877 femtometers - with an accuracy of 1-2%, depending on the experiment. The latest and most accurate measurement corrected this figure to the fourth decimal place - 0.8768 femtometers.
But two years ago, a group of physicists led by Randolph Paul from the Institute of Quantum Optics. Max Planck in Germany decided to measure this radius in a more radical way, by replacing the electrons in hydrogen atoms with their close relatives, muons.
Muons are two hundred times more massive than an electron, making them much more sensitive to the size of a proton. Using an accelerator, a cloud of hydrogen atoms was bombarded with a beam of muons, which as a result took the place of electrons in some of these atoms.
The result was stunning: instead of the usual size of 0.877 femtometer, the size was 0.84.
The proton inexplicably shrank.
According to existing ideas, a proton, a particle consisting of three quarks, cannot change its radius depending on what masses fly above it. After the most scrupulous check, the idea of an instrumental error in the experiment was rejected, and there is nothing to say about errors in past experiments with an ordinary hydrogen atom, giving a proton radius of 0.877 femtometers: these experiments number in the hundreds.
In an experiment described in Science, a team led by Aldo Antognini of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich measured the radius of a proton, again using muonic hydrogen atoms—this time with a different set of energy levels.
The result was the same as two years ago - 0.84 femtometers.
According to one of the authors of the article, Ingo Sika from the University of Basel (Switzerland), this result, instead of clarifying the situation, made it even more mysterious. “Many have tried to explain this discrepancy, but so far no one has succeeded,” he says.
The most radical explanation for this discrepancy is the presence of new, unknown physics, which claims that muons interact with protons slightly differently than electrons. However, Sick and his colleague on the latest experiment, John Arrington of Argonne National Laboratory, doubt this explanation. They believe in the current understanding of physics that the fundamental difference between a muon and an electron is “difficult to imagine.”
There is also an idea about the existence of some unknown particle that interferes with the interaction of the muon with the proton. This could be, for example, one of the particles that makes up dark matter. But since it is not clear how it can change this interaction, and since it has not yet been found at all, this hypothesis remains purely speculative and unsupported.
Physicists pin some hopes on new experiments, now not with muonic hydrogen, but with muonic helium. But these experiments are just being prepared and will be completed in a few years.
Paul and his colleagues did not use electrons to measure the proton. Instead, they brought in another negatively charged particle called a muon. A muon is 200 times heavier than an electron, so its orbital is 200 times closer to the proton. This weight makes it easier for scientists to predict which orbital the muon will shift to, and therefore more accurately determine the size of the proton.
“The muon is closer to the proton and can see it better,” says Paul.
Possible Explanations
These measurements using sensitive muons provided physicists with unexpected results. Completely unexpected. Now physicists are trying to explain the discrepancies.
The simplest explanation could be a simple calculation error. Physicists were similarly confused when they discovered that neutrinos can travel faster than the speed of light. Paul says the "boring explanation" is most likely, but not all physicists agree.
“I can’t say there was an error in the experiment,” says MIT physicist Jan Bernauer.
He also does not deny that measurements using electrons have been carried out many times, and that if an error crept into the muon experiment and it was carried out incorrectly, the results, of course, will be invalidated.
But if “the experiment is innocent,” there may be errors in the calculations, which means “we know what’s going on, we’re just counting incorrectly,” Bernauer notes.
The most exciting thing may be that the discrepancy will mark the beginning of new physics that is not explained by the Standard Model, but still works fine. There may be something physicists don't know about how muons and electrons interact with other particles. So says John Arrington, a physicist at Argonne National Laboratory in Illinois.
Perhaps photons are not the only particles that transfer force between particles, and a hitherto unknown particle was involved, which gave rise to the puzzling results in the proton measurement.
What's next?
To find out what's going on, physicists are running a series of experiments in different laboratories. One of the main areas of research will be testing electron scattering to make sure it works correctly and not look for the muon to blame.
Another goal is scattering experiments, but instead of shooting electrons, muons will be used. This project, called MuSE (Muon Scattering Experiment), will take place at the Paul Scherrer Institute in Switzerland. There are all the necessary installations for high-precision experiments; moreover, it will be possible to conduct electron and muon scattering in one experiment.
“The hope is that we will be able to replicate the results of the first experiment a second time,” says Arrington. “If the discrepancy remains, we will look into the same box and see if there is a certain dependence on the location of the experiment, or will electrons and muons present us with something fundamentally new?”
Data collection will begin in 2015-2016. Arrington noted that the question of the size of the proton will remain in limbo for now.
"It is not so easy. We hope to clarify it at least 10 years in advance, but these are optimistic forecasts.”
I already wrote about “elusive” muons and the associated physical phenomenon such as lightning:
And today I read an interesting article on my friend feed, revealing in detail the nature of the muon and the associated “smaller than usual” proton. For those interested, the article is below the cut.
“The radius of the proton turned out to be 4 percent smaller than previously thought. This conclusion was made by a group of physicists who carried out the most accurate measurement of the particle radius to date. Scientists published their results in the journal Nature. New Scientist writes briefly about the work.
Original taken from mord08 c Dimensions of the proton. Inexplicable...
About the proton radius
First of all, I want to thank the blogger Valentina Yurievna Mironova, thanks to whom I learned about the existence of the problem of discrepancies in the results obtained when measuring the size of a proton, which are consistently repeated in the process of its measurements in various ways. And also my constant correspondent from afar for many years, thanks to whom I received a detailed description of the methods of those measurements. And now about the essence of the problem and first a quote.
“The radius of the proton turned out to be 4 percent smaller than previously thought. This conclusion was made by a group of physicists who carried out the most accurate measurement of the particle radius to date. Scientists published their results in the journal Nature. New Scientist writes briefly about the work.
The authors of the new work decided to clarify the previously obtained estimates of the size of the proton, using an unusual experimental technology. Physicists obtained a structure similar to a hydrogen atom, in which instead of an electron there was a muon - a negatively charged elementary particle 207 times heavier than an electron. Because of the difference in mass, the muon orbits approximately 200 times closer to the proton, and changes in its energy levels are much more dependent on the characteristics of the proton.
Based on the results of the experiments, scientists calculated that the proton radius is 0.84184 femtometers (a femtometer is 10-15 meters), which is 4 percent less than the currently accepted value. So far, researchers cannot explain the new results, since they contradict the theory of quantum electrodynamics, which is considered the most accurate physical theory. The authors' colleagues do not rule out that the cause of the discrepancy may be an error (or errors) that occurred at one of the stages of the experiment. Another possible explanation is errors in the principles of the theory of quantum electrodynamics. And finally, the third option, which experts speak about with great caution, is that new results indicate that the proton has properties completely unknown to physicists.”
Here's what comes to mind about this extremely important message.
First of all, we need to remember that the electron in an atom in association with a proton is not the particle in the form in which it exists outside this system. Inside this system, it can be represented in the form of a volumetric energy vortex, which has a certain kinetic energy and a negative electric charge. As they often say, “Clouds”, the shape of which and the value of its mass of inertia are determined by the energy level it occupies in the atom.
The next thing that needs to be kept in mind in order to obtain a fairly logical explanation for the results obtained in the mentioned experiment is that, according to the MWT Concept, kinetic energy is a kind of potential energy that accumulates in the space of a Higher Dimension (HD) in the processes of various interactions in our world , and can return back to our world in response to the application to a physical object possessing it of an influence opposite to that which was in the process of its accumulation. (Conclusion from the description of solutions of Yang-Mills mathematics).
And finally, one more and most important circumstance for understanding the problem under consideration. As Plato once wrote: “The idea of a thing is the integrity of all its constituent parts, indivisible into these parts.” In other words, replacing an electron in a system of associated protons with an electron with a muon is not only a replacement of one of the elements constituting the system with another, it is a replacement of one system that is in a stable dynamic equilibrium state with another, which, nevertheless, must also remain in a stable dynamic state. equilibrium state. And this new state can only be formed if some changes occur in all the elements that make up the system. In our case, the proton must also change somehow. Once again: “The idea of a thing is the integrity of all its constituent parts, indivisible into these parts.”
To clarify this assumption, we can say the following.
To keep the newly formed system in the same dynamic equilibrium, the heavier muon must naturally approach what the new proton has become. To keep the muon in the new system, the proton must find enough energy in itself for this. And the most central thing for a satisfactory explanation of the conclusion observed as a result of the experiment is the answer to the question - where can it come from?
A proton is an association of three quarks, the energy of which consists almost entirely of the kinetic energy of rotation and which constitute a system that is in a dynamic equilibrium state supported by the interaction of confinement, the interaction “On the contrary”, which increases with increasing distance between physical objects, and with decreasing distance - weakens.
Since this dynamic equilibrium can be maintained for an indefinitely long time, and such dynamic equilibrium systems are subject to constant disturbances, but no source of energy correcting these disturbances has yet been found in our world, it remains to be assumed that the corrective energy can only come from the BVM space.
In essence, a similar disturbance is the replacement of an electron with a muon, and it can also obtain the energy necessary for a proton, which has already been mentioned, only from the space of the BVM. But, in this case, if the internal energy of the proton changes, the conditions of the new state of confinement in it also change. Most likely, the quarks must come closer together to increase the internal energy of the system, or, in other words, thereby creating a new proton. This is what is revealed in the mentioned experiment and, most likely, can be confirmed in a fairly adequate mathematical model that reflects this phenomenon.