Only three countries have manned spacecraft: Russia, the USA and China.
First generation spaceships
"Mercury"
This was the name of the first manned space program USA and a series of spacecraft used in this program (1959-1963). The general designer of the ship is Max Faget. The first group of NASA astronauts was created for flights under the Mercury program. A total of 6 manned flights were carried out under this program.
This is a single-seat orbital manned spacecraft, designed according to a capsule design. The cabin is made of titanium-nickel alloy. Cabin volume - 1.7m3. The astronaut is located in a cradle and remains in a spacesuit throughout the flight. The cabin is equipped with dashboard information and controls. The ship's orientation control knob is located at right hand pilot. Visual visibility is provided by a porthole on the cabin entrance hatch and a wide-angle viewing periscope with variable magnification.
The ship is not intended for maneuvers with changes in orbital parameters; it is equipped with a reactive control system for turning in three axes and a braking propulsion system. Control of the ship's orientation in orbit - automatic and manual. Entry into the atmosphere is carried out along a ballistic trajectory. The braking parachute is inserted at an altitude of 7 km, the main one - at an altitude of 3 km. Splashdown occurs with a vertical speed of about 9 m/s. After splashdown, the capsule maintains a vertical position.
A special feature of the Mercury spacecraft is the extensive use of backup manual control. The Mercury ship was launched into orbit by Redstone and Atlas rockets with a very small payload. Because of this, the weight and dimensions of the cabin of the manned Mercury capsule were extremely limited and were significantly inferior in technical sophistication to the Soviet Vostok spacecraft.
The goals of the Mercury spacecraft flights were various: testing the emergency rescue system, testing the ablative heat shield, its shooting, telemetry and communications along the entire flight path, suborbital human flight, orbital human flight.
Chimpanzees Ham and Enos flew to the United States as part of the Mercury program.
"Gemini"
The Gemini series spaceships (1964-1966) continued the Mercury series of spacecraft, but surpassed them in capabilities (2 crew members, longer autonomous flight time, the ability to change orbital parameters, etc.). During the program, methods of rendezvous and docking were developed, and for the first time in history, spacecraft were docked. Several exits were made open space, flight duration records were set. A total of 12 flights were made under this program.
The Gemini spacecraft consists of two main parts - the descent module, which houses the crew, and the leaky instrumentation compartment, where the engines and other equipment are located. The shape of the lander is similar to the Mercury series ships. Despite some external similarities between the two ships, Gemini is significantly superior to Mercury in capabilities. The length of the ship is 5.8 meters, the maximum outer diameter is 3 meters, the weight is on average 3810 kilograms. The ship was launched into orbit by a Titan II launch vehicle. At the time of its appearance, Gemini was the largest spacecraft.
The first launch of the spacecraft took place on April 8, 1964, and the first manned launch took place on March 23, 1965.
Second generation spaceships
"Apollo"
"Apollo"- a series of American 3-seater spacecraft that were used in the Apollo lunar flight programs, the Skylab orbital station and the Soviet-American ASTP docking. A total of 21 flights were made under this program. The main purpose was to deliver astronauts to the Moon, but spaceships of this series also performed other tasks. 12 astronauts landed on the moon. The first landing on the Moon was carried out on Apollo 11 (N. Armstrong and B. Aldrin in 1969)
Apollo is currently the only series of spacecraft in history on which people left low Earth orbit and overcame the gravity of the Earth, and also the only one that allowed astronauts to successfully land on the Moon and return them to Earth.
The Apollo spacecraft consists of command and service compartments, a lunar module and an emergency escape system.
Command module is the flight control center. All crew members are in the command compartment during the flight, with the exception of the lunar landing stage. It has the shape of a cone with a spherical base.
The command compartment has a pressurized cabin with a crew life support system, a control and navigation system, a radio communication system, an emergency rescue system and a heat shield. In the front unpressurized part of the command compartment there is a docking mechanism and a parachute landing system, in the middle part there are 3 astronaut seats, a flight control panel and a life support system and radio equipment; in the space between the rear screen and the pressurized cabin the equipment of the reactive control system (RCS) is located.
The docking mechanism and the internally threaded part of the lunar module together provide a rigid docking of the command compartment with the lunar ship and form a tunnel for the crew to move from the command compartment to the lunar module and back.
The crew's life support system ensures that the temperature in the ship's cabin is maintained within 21-27 °C, humidity from 40 to 70% and pressure 0.35 kg/cm². The system is designed for a 4-day increase in flight duration beyond the estimated time required for an expedition to the Moon. Therefore, the possibility of adjustment and repair by the crew dressed in spacesuits is provided.
Service compartment carries the main propulsion system and support systems for the Apollo spacecraft.
Emergency rescue system. If any emergency situation at the launch of the Apollo launch vehicle or it is necessary to stop the flight in the process of launching the Apollo spacecraft into Earth orbit, the rescue of the crew is carried out by separating the command compartment from the launch vehicle and then landing it on Earth using parachutes.
Lunar module has two stages: landing and takeoff. The landing stage, equipped with its own propulsion system and landing gear, is used to descend lunar ship from lunar orbit and soft landing on the lunar surface, and also serves as a launch pad for the take-off stage. The take-off stage with a sealed cabin for the crew and an independent propulsion system, after completing the research, is launched from the surface of the Moon and docked with the command compartment in orbit. The separation of stages is carried out using pyrotechnic devices.
"Shenzhou"
Chinese manned space flight program. Work on the program began in 1992. The first manned flight of the Shenzhou-5 spacecraft made China in 2003 the third country in the world to independently send a man into space. The Shenzhou spacecraft largely replicates the Russian Soyuz spacecraft: it has exactly the same module layout as the Soyuz - the instrument compartment, the descent module and the living compartment; approximately the same size as the Soyuz. The entire design of the ship and all its systems are approximately identical to the Soviet Soyuz series spacecraft, and the orbital module is built using technology used in the Soviet Salyut series of space stations.
The Shenzhou program included three stages:
- launching unmanned and manned spacecraft into low-Earth orbit while ensuring a guaranteed return of the descent vehicles to Earth;
- the launch of taikunauts into outer space, the creation of an autonomous space station for short-term stays of expeditions;
- creation of large space stations for long-term stay of expeditions.
The mission is being successfully completed (4 manned flights have been completed) and is currently open.
Reusable transport spacecraft
The Space Shuttle, or simply shuttle (“space shuttle”) is an American reusable transport spacecraft. The shuttles were used as part of state program"Space transport system". It was understood that the shuttles would “scurry like shuttles” between low-Earth orbit and the Earth, delivering payloads in both directions. The program lasted from 1981 to 2011. A total of five shuttles were built: "Colombia"(burnt down during landing in 2003), "Challenger"(exploded during launch in 1986), "Discovery", "Atlantis" And "Endeavour". A prototype ship was built in 1975 "Enterprise", but it was never launched into space.
The shuttle was launched into space using two solid rocket boosters and three propulsion engines, which received fuel from a huge external tank. In orbit, the shuttle carried out maneuvers using the engines of the orbital maneuvering system and returned to Earth as a glider. During development, it was envisaged that each of the shuttles would be launched into space up to 100 times. In practice, they were used much less; by the end of the program in July 2011, the Discovery shuttle made the most flights - 39.
"Colombia"
"Colombia"- the first copy of the Space Shuttle system to fly into space. The previously built Enterprise prototype had flown, but only within the atmosphere to practice landing. Construction of Columbia began in 1975, and on March 25, 1979, Columbia was commissioned by NASA. First manned flight of a reusable transport vehicle spaceship Columbia STS-1 took place on April 12, 1981. The crew commander was American astronautics veteran John Young, and the pilot was Robert Crippen. The flight was (and remains) unique: the very first, actually test launch of a spacecraft, was carried out with a crew on board.
Columbia was heavier than later shuttles, so it did not have a docking module. Columbia could not dock with either the Mir station or the ISS.
Columbia's last flight, STS-107, took place from January 16 to February 1, 2003. On the morning of February 1, the ship disintegrated upon entering the dense layers of the atmosphere. All seven crew members were killed. The commission to investigate the causes of the disaster concluded that the cause was the destruction of the outer heat-protective layer on the left plane of the shuttle wing. During the launch on January 16, this section of the thermal protection was damaged when a piece of thermal insulation from the oxygen tank fell on it.
"Challenger"
"Challenger"- NASA reusable transport spacecraft. It was originally intended only for test purposes, but was then refurbished and prepared for launches into space. The Challenger launched for the first time on April 4, 1983. In total, it completed 9 successful flights. It crashed on its tenth launch on January 28, 1986, killing all 7 crew members. The shuttle's last launch was scheduled for the morning of January 28, 1986; the Challenger's launch was watched by millions of spectators around the world. At the 73rd second of flight, at an altitude of 14 km, the left solid fuel accelerator separated from one of the two mounts. After spinning around the second one, the accelerator pierced the main fuel tank. Due to a violation of the symmetry of thrust and air resistance, the ship deviated from its axis and was destroyed by aerodynamic forces.
"Discovery"
NASA's reusable transport spacecraft, third shuttle. The first flight took place on August 30, 1984. The Discovery Shuttle delivered the Hubble Space Telescope into orbit and participated in two expeditions to service it.
The Ulysses probe and three relay satellites were launched from Discovery.
A Russian cosmonaut also flew on the Discovery shuttle Sergey Krikalev February 3, 1994. Over the course of eight days, the crew of the Discovery ship performed many different scientific experiments in materials science, biological experiments, and Earth surface observations. Krikalev performed a significant part of the work with a remote manipulator. Having completed 130 orbits and flown 5,486,215 kilometers, on February 11, 1994, the shuttle landed at the Kennedy Space Center (Florida). Thus, Krikalev became the first Russian cosmonaut to fly on the American shuttle. In total, from 1994 to 2002, 18 orbital flights of the Space Shuttle were carried out, the crews of which included 18 Russian cosmonauts.
On October 29, 1998, astronaut John Glenn, who was 77 years old at the time, set off on his second flight on the Discovery shuttle (STS-95).
Shuttle Discovery ends its 27-year career last landing March 9, 2011 It deorbited, glides toward the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, and lands safely. The shuttle was transferred to the National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington.
"Atlantis"
"Atlantis"- NASA's reusable transport spacecraft, the fourth space shuttle. During the construction of Atlantis, many improvements were made compared to its predecessors. It is 3.2 tons lighter than the Columbia shuttle and took half the time to build.
Atlantis made its first flight in October 1985, one of five flights for the US Department of Defense. Since 1995, Atlantis has made seven flights to the Russian space station Mir. An additional docking module for the Mir station was delivered and the crews of the Mir station were changed.
From November 1997 to July 1999, Atlantis was modified, with approximately 165 improvements made to it. From October 1985 to July 2011, the Atlantis shuttle made 33 space flights, with a crew of 189 people. The last 33rd launch was carried out on July 8, 2011.
"Endeavour"
"Endeavour"- NASA's reusable transport spacecraft, the fifth and final space shuttle. Endeavor made its first flight on May 7, 1992. In 1993, Endeavor carried out its first service mission space telescope"Hubble". In December 1998, Endeavor delivered the first American Unity module for the ISS into orbit.
From May 1992 to June 2011, the shuttle Endeavor completed 25 space flights. June 1, 2011 The shuttle landed for the last time at Cape Canaveral Space Center in Florida.
The Space Transportation System program ended in 2011. All operational shuttles were decommissioned after their last flight and sent to museums.
Over 30 years of operation, the five shuttles made 135 flights. The shuttles lifted 1.6 thousand tons of payload into space. 355 astronauts and cosmonauts flew on the shuttle into space.
Captain K. Marshalov
IN long term space reconnaissance will play the role of one of the key elements in the system military intelligence US military forces. It is designed to provide the military-political leadership (VP) of the country with reliable information in a timely manner.
The main part of the country's space reconnaissance consists of systems that provide species-specific reconnaissance information using optoelectronic means (OES). These systems are a source of obtaining Peaceful time detailed images of objects and territories of interest located anywhere on Earth, or defense industry enterprises.
The number of species reconnaissance vehicles equipped with EOS, as of August 2013, is quite large and continues to increase. In addition, the role of commercial spacecraft (SC) in imaging the earth's surface is increasing.
As of July 2013, in the United States, reconnaissance from space is carried out using dual-use spacecraft (SC), such as WorldView, GeoEye, LandSat, as well as military ones. "KeyHole" and "ORS". At the end of 2013, it is planned to launch a new military spacecraft - KestrelEye.
Spacecraft "WorldView-1" was launched into a sun-synchronous orbit (SSO) at an altitude of 496 km on September 18, 2007. It is capable of providing daily surveys of an area of 750 thousand km 2.
The spacecraft is equipped with a telescope with an aperture of 0.6 m for shooting only in panchromatic mode with a spatial resolution of up to 0.5 m. This device can shoot various types: personnel, route (along coastlines, roads and other linear objects) and areal (zones measuring 60x60 km), as well as stereo photography. The estimated period of its active stay in orbit is at least seven years; spacecraft mass is about 2.5%, the swath width is 17.6 km.
Information received from Worldview-1 is used to perform tasks such as: compiling and updating topographic and special maps and plans up to a scale of 1:2,000; creation of digital terrain models with an accuracy of 1-3 m in height; control of the construction of oil and gas transportation and production infrastructure; updating the topographical basis for the development of draft master plans promising development cities, district territorial planning schemes; monitoring the state of transport, energy and information communications.
SC "WorldView-2" weighing 2.8 tons was launched on October 8, 2009 into a sun-synchronous orbit (SSO) at an altitude of 770 km, ensuring its passage over any region of the Earth every one to two days (depending on latitude). The owner of the spacecraft is the company DigitalGlobe. This tool was developed in parallel with Worldview-1. Companies such as Ball Aerospace, Eastman Kodak, ITT and BAE Systems participated in the project to create a new spacecraft.
"Worldview-2" is equipped with optoelectronic equipment for surveying the earth's surface in panchromatic (with a spatial resolution of 0.46 m) and multispectral (with a resolution of 1.8 m) mode. The capture bandwidth is 16.4 km, the data transmission speed reaches 800 Mbit/s.
The device is equipped with an eight-channel high-resolution spectrometer, which includes traditional spectral channels in four ranges: red, green, blue and near-infrared-1 (NIR-1), as well as four additional spectral channels also in four ranges: violet, yellow, extreme red ", near-infrared-2 (NIR-2).
Spectral channels can provide higher accuracy when detailed analysis state of vegetation, selection of objects, analysis coastline and coastal waters. The estimated period of active stay in orbit is at least seven years.
The areas of application of remote sensing data obtained from the Worldview-2 spacecraft are the same as in the previous version.
In 2014, it is planned to launch the third WorldView-type spacecraft into the MTR. Its orbit will pass at an altitude of 617 km. It is expected that the resolution of the reconnaissance equipment installed on the spacecraft will be about 0.3 m in panchromatic mode. The launch of WorldView-3 will allow Digital Globe to consolidate its leading position as the world's largest provider of commercial space imagery.
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SC "GeoEye-1" was launched on September 6, 2008. It is equipped with equipment that is capable of obtaining panchromatic (with a resolution of 0.41 m) and multispectral (1.65 m) images. Panchromatic (0.5 m resolution) and multispectral (2 m) images are available for commercial use. The mass of the device is about 2 tons, the swath width reaches 15.2 km, the active life is seven years with the possibility of extension to 15 years.
The GeoI satellite is capable of obtaining images of the earth's surface with an area of up to 700 thousand km2 per day in a panchromatic shooting mode and up to 350 thousand km2 in a multispectral mode. In addition, it can re-image any point on Earth every three days.
The device is located on the MEO at an altitude of about 700 km and makes 15 orbits around the Earth per day. It has the ability to quickly redirect the camera to shoot in different directions in one turn. Also, on one orbit the spacecraft is capable of obtaining stereo images.
The information received from the GeoEye-1 spacecraft is used in the following areas: creation and updating of topographic and special maps and plans up to a scale of 1: 2000; creation of digital terrain models with an accuracy of 1-2 m in height; inventory and control of the construction of infrastructure facilities, transportation and production of oil and gas; updating the topographic basis for project development master plans long-term development of cities, territorial planning schemes for districts; inventory and monitoring of the state of transport and information communications.
As of July 2013, the GeoEye-2 spacecraft is in a mothballed state, which can be launched into orbit as needed. It is assumed that this device is capable of taking pictures with a resolution of 0.34 m on the ground in panchromatic mode.
The LandSat-7 spacecraft, designed to survey the earth's surface with medium resolution, is a joint project of NASA, NOAA and USGS. It is equipped with ETM (Enhanced Thematic Mapper) equipment, which provides imaging of the earth's surface in four modes - VNIR (Visible and Near Infrared), SWIR (Shortwave Infrared), PAN (Panchromatic) and TIR (Thermal Infrared).
On the LandSat-8 spacecraft (LDCM project - Landsat Data Continuity Mission), launched at the MTR on February 11, 2013, two receivers are installed: optical-electronic and thermal.
Both spacecraft solve the following tasks: creating and updating topographic and special maps at a scale of 1: 200,000; updating the topographical basis for the development of draft territorial planning schemes; agricultural mapping; automated creation of maps of vegetation, landscapes and environmental management; monitoring and forecasting processes of waterlogging, salinization, erosion, steppe fires, etc.
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Spacecraft "KeyHole-11" is the main means of optical-electronic reconnaissance (OER) of the United States. As of July 2013, it includes three advanced spacecraft of this type, launched into orbit in 2001, 2005 and 2011 with an estimated active life of at least seven to eight years.
This system solves the problems of planned periodic reconnaissance, and is also used to provide intelligence information to the US Armed Forces contingent participating in military conflicts.
The secrecy of work in the field of creating space reconnaissance means allows only tentative assessment achieved level development of the "KeyHole-11" system.
The orbital arrangement of the OER "KeyHole11" vehicles, their maneuvering and installed on-board equipment ensure the performance of such tasks as: uninterrupted viewing of the entire earth's surface during the day in a swath of 1,250-3,600 km (depending on the altitude of the spacecraft orbit); conducting reconnaissance of any object from 9.30 to 12.30 and from 12.30 to 15.30 local time and obtaining its stereo images in the visible wavelength range; conducting reconnaissance in the infrared wave range at night from 20.00 to 02.00 local time; obtaining images of objects from high resolution and their prompt transmission to the information processing center (Washington) via radio channels through SDS spacecraft repeaters in a time scale close to real; prompt deciphering and transmission of the received intelligence information, depending on its importance, to the country’s highest military command, the command of the armed forces in the theater of operations, etc. (1-2 hours after shooting objects).
Presumably the spacecraft is equipped with a telescope with a diameter of 2.4 m, which provides linear resolution on the ground up to 0.15 m in panchromatic mode; the mass of the spacecraft reaches 13-17 tons. On August 28, 2013, the next vehicle of this series was launched into orbit.
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Operational-tactical spacecraft "ORS-1" produces images in panchromatic and multispectral modes. The main purpose of this spacecraft is opening combat personnel and positions of troop groupings, identification of objects in the interests of using weapons of destruction (target designation), collection of data on control systems of enemy troops and weapons, opening of engineering equipment of the area, monitoring the results of strikes with weapons of destruction.
The ORS-1 spacecraft weighing about 450 kg was launched into low Earth orbit by the Minotaur-1 launch vehicle on June 30, 2011. The active life of the device is up to three years.
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The American spacecraft Magellan is exploring the surface of Venus using onboard radar.
The American spacecraft Pioneer 5 is exploring the solar wind in interplanetary space.
The American spacecraft Ranger 4 falls on the Moon, Mariner 2 orbits Venus.
With the help of Soviet and American spacecraft, many important characteristics of both the planet Mars itself and its surrounding space environment have been identified. Data were obtained on the topography of Mars and on the soil composing the surface layer of this planet. The work in the orbits of the artificial satellites of Mars by the Soviet space stations Mars-2 and Mars-3 made it possible to study its magnetic field, obtain data on the gravitational field, information about the atmosphere and cloudiness of the planet.
The discovered phenomenon was confirmed experimentally during the flight of the third Soviet artificial Earth satellite in May 1958. Subsequently, the outer radiation belt was recorded by all Soviet and American spacecraft that crossed the region of existence of energetic electrons.
This discovery was made with the help of the first Soviet interplanetary stations Luna-1 and Luna-2, following the discovery of radiation from other belts of the Earth. Now it has been confirmed by dozens of measurements taken by various Soviet and American spacecraft.
The first soft landing on the surface of the Moon was carried out on February 3, 1966 by the Soviet automatic station Luna-9. This station had a television camera on board, with the help of which an image was obtained lunar surface. In June 1966, the American spacecraft Server-1, also equipped with an automatic television camera, made a soft landing on the Moon.
At the Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry named after V.I. Vernadsky, it was studied lunar soil, delivered by our lunars (Luna-16, Luna-20, Luna-24) and Apollo. The chemical composition of lunar rocks is basically similar to terrestrial basalts. Unique data on the composition of the atmosphere and soil of the planets of the solar system were obtained by Soviet automatic stations of the Venus and Mars series and American spacecraft.
Georgy Sergeevich is characterized by an extremely wide range scientific interests- from processes in the earth’s mantle to processes on other planets, stars and in the Universe as a whole. In particular, the strength of the winds in the atmospheres of Mars and Venus was assessed, which was subsequently confirmed by measurements by Soviet and American spacecraft.
At the Salyut-4 orbital station, Polinom equipment was used to study the effect of long-term space flight on hematopoietic 1 organs. The Palma - 2m experiment determines how weightlessness over time 2 affects the performance characteristics of 3 an astronaut. Experts in the field space medicine are working to create the most comfortable conditions for crews orbital stations. Space station orbits are quite large and may include cislunar space. Vikings - American spacecraft, capable of transmitting information from the surface of Mars to Earth. One of the main problems associated with long-duration manned flights is how to protect humans from the negative effects of weightlessness.
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On March 4, 1997, the first space launch took place from the new Russian Svobodny cosmodrome. It became the twentieth operating cosmodrome in the world at that time. Now, on the site of this launch pad, the Vostochny cosmodrome is being built, the commissioning of which is scheduled for 2018. Thus, Russia will already have 5 cosmodromes - more than China, but less than the United States. Today we will talk about the world's largest space sites.
Baikonur (Russia, Kazakhstan)
The oldest and largest to this day is Baikonur, opened in the steppes of Kazakhstan in 1957. Its area is 6717 sq. km. In the best years - the 60s - it carried out up to 40 launches per year. And there were 11 launch complexes in operation. Over the entire period of the cosmodrome’s existence, more than 1,300 launches were made from it.
According to this parameter, Baikonur is the leader in the world to this day. Every year, an average of two dozen rockets are launched into space here. Legally, the cosmodrome with all its infrastructure and vast territory belongs to Kazakhstan. And Russia rents it for $115 million a year. The lease agreement is due to end in 2050.
However, even earlier, most Russian launches should be transferred to the one currently under construction in Amur region Vostochny cosmodrome.
Has existed in the state of Florida since 1949. Initially, the base hosted military aircraft testing and later ballistic missile launches. It has been used as a space launch site since 1957. Without stopping military tests, in 1957 part launch sites made available to NASA.
The first ones started here American satellites, from here the first American astronauts took off - Alan Shepard and Virgil Grissom (suborbital flights along a ballistic trajectory) and John Glenn (orbital flight). After which the manned flight program moved to the newly built Space center, which was named after Kennedy in 1963 after the death of the president.
From that moment on, the base began to be used to launch unmanned spacecraft, which delivered the necessary cargo to astronauts into orbit, and also sent automatic research stations to other planets and beyond. solar system.
Also, satellites, both civilian and military, have been launched and are being launched from Cape Canaverel. Due to the variety of tasks solved at the base, 28 launch sites were built here. Currently, there are 4 operational. Two more are maintained in operational condition in anticipation of the start of production of the modern Boeing X-37 shuttles, which should “retire” the Delta, Atlas and Titan rockets.
It was created in Florida in 1962. Area - 557 sq. km. Number of employees: 14 thousand people. The complex is completely owned by NASA. It is from here that all manned spacecraft have launched, starting with the flight in May 1962 of the fourth astronaut, Scott Carpenter. The Apollo program was implemented here, culminating in the landing on the Moon. All American reusable ships - shuttles - departed from here and returned here.
Now all launch sites are in standby mode for new equipment. The last launch took place in 2011. However, the Center continues to work hard both to control the ISS flight and to develop new space programs.
Located in Guiana, an overseas department of France located in the northeast South America. Area - about 1200 sq. km. The Kourou spaceport was opened by the French Space Agency in 1968. Due to the small distance from the equator, it is possible to launch spacecraft from here with significant fuel savings, since the rocket is “pushed” by the high linear speed of rotation of the Earth near zero parallel.
In 1975, the French invited the European Space Agency (ESA) to use Kourou to implement their programs. As a result, France now allocates 1/3 of the necessary funds for the maintenance and development of the cosmodrome, the rest falls on ESA. Moreover, ESA is the owner of three of the four launchers.
From here the European ISS nodes and satellites go into space. The dominant missile here is the Euro-rocket Ariane, produced in Toulouse. In total, more than 60 launches were made. At the same time, our Soyuz rockets with commercial satellites launched from the cosmodrome five times.
The PRC owns four spaceports. Two of them solve only military problems, testing ballistic missiles, launching spy satellites, testing technology for intercepting foreign space objects. Two have a dual purpose, ensuring not only the implementation of militaristic programs, but also peaceful development outer space.
The largest and oldest of them is the Jiuquan Cosmodrome. In operation since 1958. Covers an area of 2800 sq. km.
At first, Soviet specialists used it to teach the Chinese “brothers forever” the intricacies of military space “craft.” In 1960, the first short-range missile, a Soviet one, was launched from here. Soon, a Chinese-made rocket, in the creation of which Soviet specialists also participated, successfully launched. After the breakdown of friendly relations between the countries occurred, the activities of the cosmodrome came to a standstill.
It was only in 1970 that the first Chinese satellite was successfully launched from the cosmodrome. Ten years later, the first intercontinental ballistic missile was launched. And at the end of the century, the first descent spacecraft without a pilot went into space. In 2003, the first taikonaut was in orbit.
Currently, 4 out of 7 launch pads operate at the cosmodrome. 2 of them are allocated exclusively for the needs of the Ministry of Defense. Every year, 5-6 rockets launch from the Jiuquan Cosmodrome.
Founded in 1969. Operated by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. Located on the southeastern coast of Tanegashima Island, in the south of Kagoshima Prefecture.
The first primitive satellite was launched into orbit in 1970. Since then, Japan, possessing a powerful technological base in the field of electronics, has greatly succeeded in creating both efficient orbital satellites, and geleocentric research stations.
At the cosmodrome, two launch pads are reserved for launches of suborbital geophysical vehicles, two serve heavy rockets H-IIA and H-IIB. It is these rockets that deliver scientific equipment and necessary equipment to the ISS. Up to 5 launches are made annually.
This unique floating spaceport, based on an ocean platform, was put into operation in 1999. Due to the fact that the platform is based on the zero parallel, launches from it are the most energy efficient due to the use of maximum linear speed Lands at the equator. The activities of Odyssey are controlled by a consortium that includes Boeing, RSC Energia, the Ukrainian Yuzhnoye Design Bureau, the Ukrainian Yuzhmash Production Association, which produces Zenit missiles, and the Norwegian shipbuilding company Aker Kværner.
"Odyssey" consists of two sea vessels - a platform with a launcher and a ship that plays the role of a mission control center.
The launch pad was formerly a Japanese oil platform that was refurbished and refurbished. Its dimensions: length 133 m, width 67 m, height 60 m, displacement 46 thousand tons.
Zenit rockets, which are used to launch commercial satellites, belong to the middle class. They are capable of launching more than 6 tons of payload into orbit.
During the existence of the floating cosmodrome, about 40 launches were carried out on it.
And all the rest
In addition to the listed spaceports, there are 17 more. All of them are considered operational.
Some of them, having survived their “former glory,” have greatly reduced their activity, or even completely frozen. Some serve only the military space sector. There are also those that are developing intensively and, very possibly, will become “cosmic fashion trendsetters” over time.
Here is a list of countries with spaceports and their number, including those listed in this article
Russia - 4;
China - 4;
Japan - 2;
Brazil - 1;
Israel - 1;
India - 1;
Republic of Korea - 1;
Sending spacecraft to Mars and Venus has become commonplace for NASA and ESA researchers. Media around the world have recently been covering in detail the adventures of the Mars rovers Curiosity and Opportunity. However, research outer planets require much more patience from scientists. Launch vehicles do not yet have enough power to send massive spacecraft directly to the giant planets. Therefore, scientists have to be content with compact probes, which must use so-called gravity-assisted flybys of Earth and Venus to gain sufficient momentum to fly to the asteroid belt and beyond. Chasing asteroids and comets is even more challenging task, since these objects do not have sufficient mass to keep fast-moving spacecraft in their orbit. The problem is also the energy sources with sufficient capacity to power the device.
In general, all of these missions, the purpose of which is to study the outer planets, are very ambitious and therefore deserve special attention. Look At Me highlights those currently in operation.
New Horizons
("New Horizons")
Target: study of Pluto, its moon Charon and the Kuiper belt
Duration: 2006-2026
Range of flight: 8.2 billion km
Budget: about $650 million
One of NASA's most interesting missions aims to study Pluto and his companion Charon. Especially for this purpose, the space agency launched the New Horizons spacecraft on January 19, 2006. In 2007, an automatic interplanetary station flew past Jupiter, performing a gravitational maneuver near it, which allowed it to accelerate due to the planet’s gravitational field. The closest point of approach of the device to the Pluto-Charon system will occur on July 15, 2015 - at the same moment, New Horizons will be 32 times farther from the Earth than the Earth is from the Sun.
In 2016-2020, the device will likely study Kuiper Belt objects- a region of the solar system similar to the asteroid belt, but about 20 times wider and more massive than it. Due to the very limited fuel supply, this part of the mission is still in doubt.
The development of the automatic interplanetary station New Horizons Pluto-Kuiper Belt started in the early 90s, but the project was soon under threat of closure due to funding problems. US authorities have given priority to missions to the Moon and Mars. But because Pluto's atmosphere is in danger of freezing (due to gradual removal from the Sun), Congress provided the necessary funds.
Device weight - 478 kg, including about 80 kg of fuel. Dimensions - 2.2×2.7×3.2 meters
New Horizons is equipped with the PERSI sounding complex, including optical instruments for imaging in the visible, infrared and ultraviolet ranges, the SWAP cosmic wind analyzer, the EPSSI energetic particle radio spectrometer, a unit with a two-meter antenna for studying the atmosphere of Pluto and the SDC “student dust counter” for measuring the concentration of dust particles in the Kuiper belt.
In early July 2013, the spacecraft's camera photographed Pluto and him largest satellite Charon from a distance of 880 million kilometers. So far, the photographs cannot be called impressive, but experts promise that on July 14, 2015, flying past the target at a distance of 12,500 kilometers, the station will photograph one hemisphere of Pluto and Charon with a resolution of about 1 km, and the second with a resolution of about 40 km. Spectral surveys will also be carried out and a surface temperature map will be created.
Voyager 1
Voyager-1
and its surroundings
Voyager 1 - NASA space probe launched on September 5, 1977 to study the outer solar system. For 36 years now, the device has been regularly communicating with the Long-Range Network. space communications NASA, moving to a distance of 19 billion kilometers from Earth. At the moment it is the most distant man-made object.
Voyager 1's main mission ended on November 20, 1980. after the apparatus studied the Jupiter system and the Saturn system. It was the first probe to introduce detailed images two planets and their satellites.
Last year The media was full of headlines that Voyager 1 had left the solar system. On September 12, 2013, NASA finally officially announced that Voyager 1 had crossed the heliopause and entered interstellar space. The device is expected to continue its mission until 2025.
JUNO("Juno")
Target: Jupiter exploration
Duration: 2011-2017
Range of flight: more than 1 billion km
Budget: about $1.1 billion
NASA's automatic interplanetary station Juno("Juno") was launched in August 2011. Because the launch vehicle was not powerful enough to launch the vehicle directly into Jupiter orbit, Juno had to perform a gravity assist maneuver around the Earth. That is, first the device flew to the orbit of Mars, and then returned back to Earth, completing its flyby only in mid-October of this year. The maneuver allowed the device to dial required speed, and at the moment he is already on his way to gas giant, which he will begin exploring on July 4, 2016. First of all, scientists hope to obtain information about Jupiter’s magnetic field and its atmosphere, as well as test the hypothesis that the planet has a solid core.
As you know, Jupiter does not have a solid surface, and under its clouds lies a layer of a mixture of hydrogen and helium about 21 thousand km thick with a smooth transition from the gaseous phase to the liquid. Then a layer of liquid and metallic hydrogen 30-50 thousand km deep. In the center of it, according to theory, there may be a solid core with a diameter of about 20 thousand km.
Juno carries a microwave radiometer (MWR), which records radiation, it will allow us to explore the deep layers of Jupiter’s atmosphere and learn about the amount of ammonia and water in it. Magnetometer (FGM) and a device for recording position relative to the planet’s magnetic field (ASC)- these devices will help study the magnetosphere, dynamic processes in it, and also represent its three-dimensional structure. The device also has spectrometers and other sensors for studying auroras on the planet.
The internal structure is planned to be studied by measuring gravitational field during the Gravity Science Experiment program
The spacecraft's main camera, JunoCam, which will allow you to photograph the surface of Jupiter during closest approaches to it (at altitudes of 1800-4300 km from clouds) with a resolution of 3-15 km per pixel. The rest of the images will have a significantly lower resolution (about 232 km per pixel).
The camera has already been successfully tested - it photographed the Earth
and the Moon during the spacecraft's flyby. The images were posted online for study by amateurs and enthusiasts. The resulting images will also be edited together into a video that will demonstrate the Moon's orbit around the Earth from an unprecedented vantage point - straight from deep space. According to NASA experts, “it will be very different from anything that ordinary people have ever seen before.”
Voyager 2
Voyager-2
Explores the outer solar system and interstellar space
Voyager 2 - space probe, launched by NASAA on August 20, 1977, which explores the outer solar system and interstellar space ultimately. In fact, the device was launched before Voyager 1, but it picked up speed and eventually overtook it. The probe is valid for 36 years, 2 months and 10 days. The spacecraft still receives and transmits data through the Deep Space Communications Network.
As of the end of October 2013, it is located at a distance of 15 billion kilometers from Earth. Its main mission ended on December 31, 1989, after successfully exploring the systems of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Voyager 2 is expected to continue transmitting faint radio signals until at least 2025.
DAWN
(“Dawn”, “Dawn”)
Target: exploration of the asteroid Vesta and protoplanet Ceres
Duration: 2007-2015
Range of flight: 2.8 billion km
Budget: more than $500 million
DAWN - automatic space station, which was launched in 2007 to study the two largest objects in the asteroid belt - Vesta and Ceres. For 6 years now, the device has been plowing through space very, very far from Earth - between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
In 2009, he performed a maneuver in the gravitational field of Mars, gaining additional speed, and by August 2011, using ion engines, he entered the orbit of the asteroid Vesta, where he spent 14 months accompanying the object on its way around the Sun.
There are two black and white matrices installed on board DAWN (1024x1024 pixels) with two lenses and color filters. There is also a neutron and gamma ray detector (GraND) and spectrometer for visible and infrared ranges (VIR), which analyzes the surface composition of asteroids.
Vesta is one of the largest asteroids in the main asteroid belt. Among asteroids it ranks first in mass and second in size after Pallas
Despite the fact that the device has rather modest equipment (compared to those described above), it captured the surface of Vesta with the highest possible resolution - up to 23 meters per pixel. All of these images will be used to create a high-resolution map of Vesta.
One of DAWN's interesting discoveries is that Vesta has a basaltic crust and a core of nickel and iron, just like Earth, Mars or Mercury. This means that during the formation of the body, a separation of its heterogeneous composition occurred under the influence gravitational forces. The same thing happens to all objects on the path of their transformation from space rock to planet.
Dawn also confirmed the hypothesis that Vesta is the source of meteorites found on Earth and Mars. These bodies, according to scientists, were formed after ancient clash Vesta with another large space object, after which she almost fell into pieces. This event is evidenced by a deep mark on the surface of Vesta, known as the Rheasilvia crater.
At the moment, DAWN is on the way to its next point appointments - dwarf planet Ceres, in whose orbit it will appear only in February 2015. First, the device will approach a distance of 5900 km from its ice-covered surface, and over the next 5 months it will reduce it to 700 km.
A more detailed study of these two “planet embryos” will allow us to better understand the process of formation of the Solar System.
Cassini-Huygens
sent to the Saturn system
Cassini-Huygens is a spacecraft created by nASA and The European Space Agency sent it to the Saturn system. Launched in 1997, the device orbited Venus twice (April 26, 1998 and June 24, 1999), once - Earth (August 18, 1999), once - Jupiter (December 30, 2010). During its approach to Jupiter, Cassini carried out coordinated observations together with Galileo. In 2005, the device lowered the Huygens probe onto Saturn's moon Titan. The landing was successful, and the device opened strange new world methane channels and pools. Station Cassini at the same time became the first artificial satellite Saturn. Her mission has been expanded and is projected to end on September 15, 2017, after 293 full revolutions around Saturn.
Rosetta("Rosetta")
Target: study of comet 67P/Churyumov - Gerasimenko and several asteroids
Duration: 2004-2015
Range of flight: 600 million km
Budget:$1.4 billion
Rosetta is a spacecraft launched in March 2004 European Space Agency (ESA) to study comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko and understand what the solar system looked like before the formation of the planets.
Rosetta consists of two parts- Rosetta Space Probe and Philae lander ("Phila"). During its 9 years in space, it circled Mars, then returned to maneuver around Earth, and in September 2008, it approached the Steins asteroid, capturing images of 60% of its surface. Then the device returned to the Earth again, circled it to gain additional speed, and in July 2010 “met” with the asteroid Lutetia.
In July 2011, Rosetta was put into hibernation mode. and his internal “alarm clock” is set for January 20, 2014, 10:00 GMT. After awakening, Rosetta will be at a distance of 9 million kilometers from its ultimate goal- comets Churyumov - Gerasimenko.
after approaching the comet the device must send the Philae lander to it
According to ESA experts, at the end of May next year Rosetta will perform its main maneuvers before its “meeting” with the comet in August. Scientists will receive the first images of a distant object in May, which will significantly help calculate the position of the comet and its orbit. In November 2014, after approaching the comet, the device should launch the Philae lander towards it, which will hook onto the icy surface using two harpoons. After landing, the device will collect samples of the core material and determine it chemical composition and parameters, and will also study other features of the comet: rotation speed, orientation and changes in comet activity.
Because most of comets were formed at the same time as the Solar System (approximately 4.6 billion years ago), they are the most important sources of information about how our System was formed and how it will develop further. Rosetta will also help answer the question of whether it is possible that it was comets that collided with the Earth over billions of years that brought water and organic matter to our planet.
International Comet Explorer (ICE)
Solar System Exploration
and its surroundings
International Comet Explorer (ICE) (formerly known as Explorer 59)- a device launched on August 12, 1978 as part of the NASA-ESA cooperation program. Initially, the program was aimed at studying the interaction between magnetic field Earth and solar wind. Three spacecraft took part in it: the pair ISEE-1 and ISEE-2 and the heliocentric spacecraft ISEE-3 (later renamed ICE).
Explorer 59 changed its name to International Comet Explorer December 22, 1983. On this day, after a gravity maneuver around the Moon, the spacecraft entered a heliocentric orbit to intercept comet 21P/Giacobini-Zinner. It flew through the comet's tail on September 11, 1985, before approaching Halley's Comet in March 1986. Thus, he became the first spacecraft to explore two comets at once. After the end of the mission in 1999, the device was not contacted, but on September 18, 2008, contact was successfully established with it. Experts plan to return ICE to lunar orbit on August 10, 2014, after which it may once again explore a comet.