M.: 2002 - T.1 - 862p., T.2 - 544p., T.3 - 544p.
Detailed modern data on the structure and vital activity of cells and tissues are presented, all cellular components are described. The main functions of cells are considered: metabolism, including respiration, synthetic processes, cell division (mitosis, meiosis). A comparative description of eukaryotic (animal and plant) and prokaryotic cells, as well as viruses, is given. Photosynthesis is discussed in detail. Particular attention is paid to classical and modern genetics. The structure of tissues is described. A significant part of the book is devoted functional anatomy person.
The textbook presents detailed and up-to-date data on the structure, life activity and taxonomy of plants, fungi, lichens and slime molds. Particular attention is paid to plant tissues and organs, structural features organisms in a comparative aspect, as well as reproduction. Taking into account recent advances, the process of photosynthesis is outlined.
Detailed modern data on the structure and vital functions of animals are presented. The most common groups of invertebrate and vertebrate animals are considered at all hierarchical levels - from ultrastructural to macroscopic. Particular attention is paid to the comparative anatomical aspects of various systematic groups of animals. A significant part of the book is devoted to mammals.
The book is intended for students of schools with advanced studying biology, applicants and higher education students educational institutions students studying in areas and specialties in the field of medicine, biology, ecology, veterinary medicine, as well as for school teachers, graduate students and university teachers.
Volume 1. Anatomy
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Volume 2. Botany
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Volume 3. Zoology
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VOLUME 1.
Cell
Viruses
Fabrics
Organs, systems and organ apparatuses
Features of human development, growth and structure
Performance, work, fatigue and rest
Internal organs
Respiratory system
Genitourinary apparatus
Musculoskeletal system
The cardiovascular system
Hematopoietic organs and immune system
Nonspecific body resistance
Nervous system
Sense organs
Endocrine apparatus
Genetics
VOLUME 2.
Plants
Plant tissues
Plant organs, their structure and functions
Photosynthesis
Plant classification
Mushrooms
Lichens
Slime molds or Myxomycetes.
VOLUME 3.
SUBKINGDOM UNICELLULAR (MONOCYTOZOA), OR PROTOZOA (PROTOZOA)
Type Sarcomastigophora
Phylum Sporozoa
Type Cnidosporidia
Type Microsporidia (Microsporidia)
Type Ciliates (Infuzoria), or Ciliated (Ciliophora)
SUBKINGDOM MULTICELLULAR (METAZOA)
Theories of the origin of multicellular organisms
Type Coelenterata
Type Flatworms (Plathelminthes)
Type Roundworms(Nemathelmentes)
Type Annelids (Annedelia)
Phylum Arthropods (Arthropoda)
Type Mollusca
Phylum Chordata
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Orthoptera-gnawing-incomplete metamorphosis (grasshopper, locust, mole cricket, crickets)
Homoptera-piercing-sucking-incomplete metamorphosis (aphids, cicadas, humpbacks)
Hemiptera-piercing-sucking-incomplete (bugs)
Coleoptera-gnawing-complete (chafer beetle, ground beetles, weevil, ladybug)
Lepidoptera-sucking-complete (butterflies)
Diptera-piercing-sucking-licking-full (flies, mosquitoes, horseflies)
Hymenoptera - gnawing, licking - complete (ovitaers, ichneumon wasps, bees, wasps, bumblebees, ants)
Protozoa:
Rhizomes class - there is no constant body shape, the cytoplasm has all the organelles, there are pseudopodia (psepododes). Method of nutrition - phagocytosis, pinocytosis, excretion - through a contractile vacuole. Breathing through a membrane reproduction - division(amoeba, plasmodium).
Class Flagellates- permanent form bodies, move by flagella, at the anterior end of the body there is a light-sensitive eye. There is a chromatophore. Method of nutrition - photosynthesis (light), pinocytosis (darkness). No digestive vacuole. Reproduction - asexual, sexual. (green euglena, lamblia, trypanosomes, volvox).
Invertebrates. Coelenterates. Hydra.
Double-layer, radial symmetry. Ectoderm, endoderm, between layers - mesoglea. At the anterior end of the body there is a mouth with tentacles with stinging cells. The posterior end of the body is the sole for attachment to the substrate. Digestion - cavity and intracellular. Breathing through the entire body cavity. Blood supply is absent. Excretion through the surface of the body. Nervous system of diffuse type. Sense organs are not developed. Reproduction is asexual and sexual. As a result of fertilization, a floating face called a planula appears. Mobile - jellyfish, stationary - polyps, sea anemone, hydra.
Type flatworms. White planaria.
Three-layer animals. Bilateral symmetry of the body. Moves with the help of a skin-muscular sac. No body cavity. There is no anal opening. Circulatory and respiratory systems are absent. excretory organs - protonephridia. The nervous system consists of a paired brain ganglion and two nerve trunks. Hermaphrodites. Larval stages are often present. Reproduction with change of hosts. Ciliated (white planaria); flukes (fluke, schistosome); tapeworms (tapeworms).
Type annelids. Earthworm. Leech, nereid, serpula.
The body is elongated, round, segmented. Symmetry is bilateral. There is a secondary cavity. Digestive system: mouth - pharynx - esophagus - crop - stomach - midgut - hindgut - anus. The circulatory system is closed, consisting of vessels. Blood contains hemoglobin. Breathing through the entire surface of the body. Excretory system - in each segment there is a pair of nephridia. There are sense organs: eyes, olfactory pits, organs of touch. Dioecious or secondary hermaphrodites. Development is direct. Some marine annelids have metamorphosis. Polychaetes (peskozhil, nereid); oligochaete (earthworm); leeches.
Type of shellfish. Prudovik, toothless.
Bilateral symmetry. The body has three sections: head, torso, leg. WITH inside shells, the entire body is covered by a mantle - a fold of skin. Digestive system: mouth-pharynx-stomach-midgut-anus. The circulatory system is not closed. The heart is two-chambered (prudovik) or three-chambered (toothless). Respiratory system - gills (toothless) and lung sacs (pond). Excretory organs - kidneys. Gastropods are hermaphrodites. Bivalves and cephalopods are dioecious. Gastropods (pea, ball, pond snail, slug, grape snail). Bivalve (mussels, oysters, scallops, pearl mussel, shipworm, toothless). Cephalopods (squid, cuttlefish, octopus).
Phylum arthropod.
The body is segmented, the limbs are articulated. Movement is provided by muscles. The body is covered with chitinous cover. The growth of arthropods is accompanied by molting. Body parts: head, chest, abdomen. Digestive system: oral apparatus - pharynx - esophagus - stomach - anterior, middle, hindgut - anus - glands. The circulatory system is not closed. There is a pulsating vessel - the “heart”, through which hemolymph circulates. Respiratory system: in aquatic forms - gills, in terrestrial forms - lungs, trachea. Excretory system: Malpighian vessels in insects and arachnids, green glands at the base of the antennae in crustaceans. The nervous system consists of the suprapharyngeal and subpharyngeal nerve nodes. Many have good developed organs senses: compound eyes, organs of touch - mechanoreceptors, organs of hearing. Dioecious. Sexual dimorphism (difference between male and female). Development is direct and indirect. Crustaceans (crayfish, shrimp, crab, lobster); arachnids (spiders, tarantulas, ticks, scorpions); insects (beetles, flies, mosquitoes, louse).
Type echinoderm
Sea stars Sea urchins Holothurians
Dartertails
Consist of two layers.
The skeleton is formed by calcareous plates bearing spines. Having found prey, it covers it with its body, turns out its stomach, and stomach juices digest the food. The anus lies on the upper surface. Body in a calcareous shell. The mouth is surrounded by a special jaw apparatus with five teeth. The skeleton consists of small calcareous bodies.
The circulatory system consists of two vessels: one supplies the mouth and the other anus.
Water-vascular system: formed by a ring canal surrounding the esophagus and 5 radial canals.
Most are dioecious, but some are hermaphrodites. Development with metamorphosis. Animals are capable of regeneration (restoration of body parts)
Phylum chordata. Subtype skullless. Lancelets.
The body consists of a torso, tail, fin, and is covered with skin. Skeleton-notochord. Alimentary canal: mouth, pharynx, intestinal tube, anus. One circle of blood circulation, no heart, cold-blooded animals. Respiratory organs: gill slits in the pharynx. Excretory organs: nephridin. nervous system in the form of a neural tube. Sense organs: tentacles, olfactory fossa. Dioecious. Fertilization is external. The eggs develop in water.
Subphylum vertebrates (cranial). Superclass of fish.
Streamlined body shape. Body parts: head, torso, tail, fins. Trunk and caudal sections of the spine. The bony skull and limbs-fins are formed by many small bones. The cervical region is missing. Inside the vertebrae there are cartilaginous remnants of the notochord. Digestive system: mouth - oral cavity - pharynx - esophagus - stomach - intestines - anus. The swim bladder is an outgrowth of the intestine. One circle of blood circulation, two-chambered heart, cold-blooded. Respiratory organs: gills, protected by gill covers. Excretory organs: kidneys, 2 ureters, bladder. Dioecious animals. External fertilization in water - spawning.
Class amphibians or amphibians.
Body parts: head, torso, front and hind limbs. The skin is bare and covered with mucus. The spine is divided into cervical, trunk, sacral and caudal sections. The skull consists of the skull and jaw. Movable articulation of the skull, one cervical vertebra. The muscles are well developed. The gluteal, thigh and calf muscles appear. Like fish - digestive system. cloaca. Two circles of blood circulation. Mixed blood, three-chambered heart. Both circles start from the ventricle. Blood - venous, arterial, mixed. Cold-blooded animals. Respiratory organs: paired lungs. Respiratory tract: nostrils, oral cavity, larynx, lungs. There is cutaneous breathing. excretory s-ma-pairs kidneys, ureters, cloaca, bladder. Head and spinal cord with nerves. Eyes with upper and lower eyelids. In tailless animals, fertilization is external, in tailed animals it is internal. Development with metamorphosis.
Class reptiles (reptiles).
The skin is dry. The outer layers of the epidermis are keratinized. The cervical region is well developed. The thoracolumbar spine is connected to the ribs with the sternum. Intercostal muscles appear. Like amphibians, they have digestive systems. They breathe oxygen using their lungs. There is no skin respiration. Two circles of blood circulation. The circulatory system is closed. The heart is three-chambered. Cold-blooded. Selected system - see amphibians. the size of the cerebellum increases. The primary cortex appears. Language. Dioecious. Fertilization is internal. Eggs are laid on land. Development is direct.
Bird class.
Streamlined body shape. Head, torso, neck, forelimbs - wings, hind limbs - legs. The skin is dry. Digestive system like reptiles. No teeth. The circulatory system is closed. Two circles. Blood doesn't mix. The heart is 4-chambered. Warm-blooded. Double breathing. Allocation system like reptiles, but there is no bladder. Increase cerebral hemispheres. The organs of hearing and vision are well developed. Characterized by color vision. Dioecious animals. Development is direct. Sexual dimorphism.
Classification of birds.
Residents - sparrows, jackdaws, pigeons, magpies
Nomadic - owls, bullfinches, tits, rooks.
Migratory birds - orioles, nightingales, ducks, starlings, cranes.
Class mammals.
Availability hairline on the body. There are many glands in the skin: sebaceous, sweat, and milk glands. Food system like reptiles. Teeth and salivary glands. Two circles of blood circulation. The heart is 4-chambered. Red blood cells do not have a nucleus. Breathe atmospheric air. Organs breathing - lungs. There is a diaphragm. Appears Auricle. Dioecious. Development is direct. Uterus. Viviparity.
Bacterial cells:
spherical - cocci, rod-shaped - bacilli; arched - vibrios. Spiral-shaped - spirella. Colonies of bacteria: diplococci, streptococci.
The structure of bacteria.
Shell - 2 layers. Cytoplasm. The nuclear substance is presented in the form of a DNA molecule closed in a ring. Ribosomes synthesize protein. Cellular inclusions - starch, glycogen, fats.
Mushrooms.
Mold, yeast, cap: tubular, lamellar. They have a cell wall. Little mobile. Unlimited growth, reproduction by spores and vegetatively, by parts of mycelium. Contains chitin. The reserve nutritional substance is glycogen. no chloroplasts. The body consists of individual threads. Presented in unicellular and multicellular forms.
Lichens.
Scale - the thallus has the form of plaques or crusts, tightly adjacent to the substrates. - lecanora. Leafy thallus in the form of plates, attached to the substrate by hyphae - xanthorium. Bushy - thallus in the form of stems, fused with a substrate only by the base - reindeer moss. Are an indicator clean air. Serve as food for animals. "pioneers" of vegetation. Scale: tree bark and stones. Produces: sugar, alcohol, dyes, litmus.
Moss.
Peat - sphagnum, green - cuckoo flax. The science of bryology. Dioecious plant.
Horsetails.
Spring organs are generative, summer organs are vegetative.
Internal structure of the stem.
The bark has a protective function. The skin is a single-layer covering tissue. Protection from dust, overheating, microorganisms. Water and gas exchange. Cork is a multilayer covering fabric. There are lentils. Formed on the surface of wintering stems, protects against temperature fluctuations and pests). Bast is formed by mechanical (fibers) and conductive (sieve tubes) tissues. Gives strength by carrying solutions from leaves to roots. Cambium - single layer educational fabric. Stem growth in thickness and cell differentiation. Wood is formed by three tissues: conductive - vessels; main - loosely located cells; mechanical - wood fibers; vessels for carrying water and mineral substances; support function; the main one is a spare one. The core is the main tissue made of living, loosely arranged cells. Stores nutrients.
Class dicotyledonous.
Cruciferous plants: inflorescence-tassel, fruit-pod, cabbage, turnip, rapeseed, shepherd's purse.
Rosaceae: inflorescence - raceme, simple umbrella, scutellum, fruit - drupe, apple, polynut, rose hip, apple tree, rowan, cinquefoil, gravel, strawberry, plum, pear.
Legumes: bone, head, bean fruit, soybean, lupine, peas, acacia, beans, clover, porridge, sweet clover.
Solanaceae - raceme, curl, panicle, fruit - berry, capsule. Tomatoes, nightshade, tobacco, petunia, eggplant, henbane, dope.
Monocot class.
Liliaceae: inflorescence-brush; fruit - berry, capsule. Onions, garlic, lilies, daffodils, tulips.
Cereals: compound spike, plume, panicle, cob, fruit-caryopsis. Wheat, oats, rice, wild oats, wheat grass. Crow's eye.
Dicotyledons
2 cotyledons, taproot, reticulate or pinnate, with double perianth, cruciferous, nightshade, rosaceae. Monocots
1 cotyledon, fibrous root; venation: parallel or arcuate; cereals, lilies, orchids.
Root.
The main one develops from the embryonic root. Adventitious - develops from a stem or leaf. Lateral - develop from the main, subordinate and lateral. root vegetables: turnips, carrots; root tubers: dahlia, sweet potato; adventitious sucker roots: ivy; aerial roots - orchids.
Nervous system
Central: brain and spinal cord. Peripheral: nerves and ganglia.
Somatic
Regulates the functioning of skeletal muscles. Vegetative
Regulates the functioning of all internal organs.
Sympathetic
Strengthens the exchange of things. Increases excitability. Parasympathetic
Helps restore energy. Reduces metabolism. Regulates the body during sleep. Metasympathetic
Located in the walls of the organ itself and participates in the processes of its self-regulation
Eye.
Covers of the eye: retina - light-receiving system. Fibrous membrane: sclera, choroid. Rods are twilight light receptors, cones are color vision receptors. Optical system: cornea, iris, pupil, lens, vitreous body. The color of the iris determines the color of the eyes. The vitreous body maintains the shape of the eyeball.
Ear.
External: auricle - fixed cartilaginous, tympanic membrane. Medium: a narrow cavity filled with air, in which the auditory ossicles, malleus (receives vibrations and transmits them to the incus and stapes), incus, stapes, auditory-Eustachian tube are located. Inner ear: represents a cavity filled with fluid. The cochlea is a system of labyrinths and winding channels. 24,000 taut fibers of varying lengths.
Taste analyzer.
The tip of the tongue is sweet, on the back of the tongue is bitter, on the side and front is salty, sour is the lateral surface.
Endocrine glands.
The hypothalamus is a part of the diencephalon. Releases neurohormones (vasopressin, oxytocin). Regulates the secretion of pituitary hormones. The pituitary gland is located below the diencephalon pons. There are two functions: growth (tropic): somatotropic hormone regulates growth. Hyperfunction - in at a young age causes the disease gigantism. In adulthood - acromegaly. Hypofunction - dwarfism; regulatory: gonadotropic hormones regulate activity. Sex glands, prolactin - enhances milk production, thyroid-stimulating - regulates the functioning of the thyroid gland, adrenocorticotropic - enhances the synthesis of hormones of the adrenal cortex.
Pineal gland: outgrowth of the diencephalon. It secretes the hormone melatonin, which inhibits the action of gonadotropic hormones.
Thyroid gland: iodine-containing hormones: thyroxine and triiodothyronine, affecting oxidative processes that regulate metabolism, growth, and affect the central nervous system.
The adrenal glands are paired glands located above the kidneys. Comp. Of two layers: cortical and medulla (internal). The cortex produces 3 groups of hormones: cortisone and corticosterone, which affect metabolism and stimulate the formation of glycogen, aldosterone - the metabolism of potassium and sodium; androgens, estrogens, progesterone - development of secondary sexual characteristics. Brain layer: adrenaline and norepinephrine - increase blood pressure, dilate the coronary vessels of the heart. Pancreas: Located below the stomach. The gland has mixed secretion; the endocrine part of the gland is the islets of Lagerhans. Produces insulin (reduces glucose levels, stimulates the liver to convert glucose into glycogen), glucagon (increases glucose levels, stimulates the rapid breakdown of glycogen into glucose). Sex glands: produce estrogens and androgens. Progesterone is the pregnancy hormone.
Bones. Skeleton.
Organic things - 30%. Miner. Salts - 60%, water - 10%.
Brain section - large unpaired frontal bone; -flat bone; the seam is motionless! Facial department - upper And lower jaw, palatine, zygomatic, nasal, lacrimal bones - flat - fixed suture. Body skeleton: Spine: 33-34 vertebrae; 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 4-5 coccygeal. The bones are short and mixed; the joint is semi-movable. Rib cage: 12 pairs of ribs and sternum - short - mixed - flat - semi-movable. The girdle of the upper limbs (a pair of shoulder blades, a pair of clavicles) is flat and movable. The skeleton of the upper limbs (humerus, forearm, hand) is tubular, short, movable. The girdle of the lower extremities (two pelvic bones) is flat and motionless. The skeleton of the lower extremities (femur, tibia; the foot is formed by two rows of tarsus (7), metatarsals (5), and toe bones (14) - tubular - long - movable.
Circulatory system.
Arteries - blood flows from the heart to the organs. They pass into capillaries. Arterial blood (saturated with oxygen) flows through the arteries. Veins are blood moves to the heart from the organs - venous blood. Big circle: left ventricle - aorta - arterial capillaries - venous capillaries - portal vein - superior and inferior vena cava - right atrium. (23 minutes). Small circle: right atrium - right ventricle - pulmonary arteries - pulmonary veins - left atrium (4 seconds). Relaxation-0.4; contraction-relaxation-0.1; relaxation-contraction-0.3.
Respiratory system.
Nasal cavity-nasopharynx-larynx-trachea-bronchi-lungs. The respiratory center is the medulla oblongata.
Digestive system.
Teeth 32: 4 incisors, 2 canines, 4 small and 6 large molars on each jaw. Salivary glands - 3. - pharynx, esophagus - stomach - intestines. Pepsin is a stomach enzyme that breaks down proteins into peptides, while lipase breaks down milk fats. Absorbed in the stomach: water, glucose, minimal salt. The environment is acidic; the pancreatic juice enzyme trypsin breaks down proteins into amino acids, lipases into glycerol and fatty acids, and amylase into carbohydrates into glucose. The environment is alkaline.
Plastic exchange - assimilation - synthesis - energy consumption. Energy exchange - dissimilation - decay - release of energy.
Vitamins: water-soluble (C, B1-thiamine, B2-riboflavin, B6-pyrodoxine, B12-cyanocobalamide, PP-nicotinic acid); fat-soluble (A-retinol, D-calciferol, E-tocopherol, K-phylloquinone).
BJU
Proteins: 20 amino acids, biopolymers. The primary structure is a chain of amino acids, a peptide bond; secondary - spiral, hydrogen bond; tertiary - globule, hydrogen bonds, ionic, covalent, hydrophobic; quaternary - association of globules in several structures. At decay 1g = 17.6 kJ.
Carbohydrates. Monosaccharides - ribose, glucose; disaccharides - maltose, sucrose; polysaccharides - starch, cellulose. 17.6 kJ.
Fats. Glycerol esters. 38.9 kJ.
DNA: A=T, C=G. a biopolymer consisting of nucleotides.
RNA: A=U, C=G. single polynucleotide chain. + ribose + H2PO4 residue.
Cell organelles.
Core. Surrounded by a two-layer porous membrane. Contains chromatin. The nucleolus consists of protein and RNA. Nuclear juice is karyolymph. F-i: storage of hereditary information; regulation of protein synthesis; transport of substances; RNA synthesis, ribosome assembly.
EPS. Rough - a system of membranes that form tubules, cisterns, tubes - protein synthesis on ribosomes, transport of substances through cisterns and tubes, cell division into sections - compartments. Smooth - has the same structure, but does not carry ribosomes - lipid synthesis, protein is not synthesized, other functions are similar to SER.
Ribosomes. The smallest organelles, with a diameter of about 20 nm. Consist of two subunits. They contain rRNA and proteins. Synthesized in the nucleolus. They form a polysome. F-i: biosynthesis of the primary protein structure according to the principle matrix synthesis.
Lysosomes. Single membrane bubble with a diameter of 0.2-0.8 microns, oval shape. Formed in the Golgi complex. Functions: digestive, participates in the dissolution of organelles, cells and parts of the body.
Mitochondria. Double membrane organelle. Outer membrane smooth, the inner one has projections called cristae. Inside it is filled with a structureless matrix. It has a round, oval, cylindrical, rod-shaped shape. F-i: energy and respiratory center of cells, release of energy during the breathing process. Energy storage in the form of ATP molecules. Oxidation under the action of enzymes to CO2 and H2O.
Cellular center. An organelle of a non-membrane structure, consisting of two centrioles. F-i: participate in the division of cells of animals and lower plants, forming a division spindle.
Golgi apparatus. A system of flattened tanks, bounded by double membranes, forming bubbles at the edges. F-i: transport of biosynthesis products. Substances are packaged in vials. Lysosomes form.
Organelles of movement: microtubules - long thin hollow cylinders, composed of proteins - support and movement. Microthreads - thin structures - promote the flow of cytoplasm, support. Cilia, flagella.
Plastids. Chloroplasts: contents of plastids called stroma; form grana; the membranes of the grana contain chlorophyll, which gives them a green color. Leucoplasts: round, colorless, when exposed to light, they transform into chloroplasts and serve as a site for the deposition of nutrients. Chromoplasts: Double-membrane spherical organelle, gives different colors to leaves and fruits.
Vacuole. Characteristic only for plants. The membrane cavity is filled with cell sap. Vacuole is a derivative of EPS. Functions: regulation of water-salt solution; maintaining turgor pressure; accumulation of metabolic products and reserve substances, removal of toxic substances from metabolism.
Energy exchange.
Preparatory: in the digestive tract in the body, in lysosomes in the cell; High molecular weight organic substances are broken down into low molecular weight ones. Proteins - amino acids+ Q1, fats-glycerol + higher fatty acids, polysaccharides-glucose +Q. Glycolysis (oxygen-free) occurs in the cytoplasm and is not associated with membranes; Enzymatic breakdown of glucose occurs - fermentation. Lactic acid fermentation: C6H12O6 + 2H3PO4 + 2ADP = 2C3H6O3 + 2ATP + 2H2O. Hydrolysis: carried out in mitochondria: CO2 is formed as a result of the oxidation of lactic acid under the action of enzymes; In the matrix: the hydrogen atom, with the help of carrier enzymes, enters the inner membrane of the mitochondrion, forming cristae. Oxidation of hydrogen atoms to cations in the cristae membrane, cations are transported by carrier proteins. 36 ATP molecules are formed.
Mitosis.
Prophase: spiralization of chromosomes, causing them to become visible; each chromosome consists of two chromatids; dissolution of the nuclear membrane; spindle formation.
Metaphase: arrangement of chromosomes along the equator; The spindle filaments are attached to the centromeres.
Anaphase: centromere division; individual chromatids move towards the poles of the cell.
Telophase: chromatids despiral, a new nuclear membrane forms around them, and two new nuclei are formed; the cell membrane is formed at the equator; the filaments of the spindle dissolve; two daughter diploid cells are formed.
Meiosis
First division.
Prophase: duplication of homologous chromosomes; chromosome spiralization; conjugation of homologous chromosomes; chromosomes fuse in pairs and crossing over occurs; thickening of chromosomes, dissolution of the nuclear membrane; spindle formation.
Metaphase: homologous chromosomes line up in pairs on both sides of the equator.
Anaphase: separation of pairs of homologous chromosomes; divergence of bichromatid chromosomes to the poles of the cell.
Telophase: formation of two daughter cells. Chromosomes consist of two chromatids. Second division.
Prophase: there is no interphase, two cells begin dividing at the same time; a fission spindle is formed; similar to prophase of mitosis.
Metaphase: bichromatid chromosomes are located along the equator of the cell.
Anaphase: centromere division; chromatids move towards the poles.
Telophase: formation of four haploid cells.
Development of the embryo:
A zygote is a fertilized egg with a diploid set of chromosomes.
Blastula is a multicellular embryo with a cavity inside. It is shaped like a ball. Formed as a result of repeated division of the zygote.
The gastrula is a two-layer embryo formed as a result of invagination of the blastula. Formation of two germ layers, ectoderm and endoderm.
Neurula is the stage of formation of internal organs.
Ectoderm: nervous system, sensory organs, integumentary and nerve tissue.
Endoderm: intestines, digestive glands, gills, lungs, thyroid gland.
Mesoderm: notochord, skeleton, muscles, kidneys, circulatory system, connective and muscle tissue.
Genetics.
Mendel's first rule: the rule of uniformity of first-generation hybrids: in monohybrid crossing, first-generation hybrids are uniform in phenotype and genotype. Only dominant traits appear.
Second z-n Mendel's law of segregation: during monohybrid crossing of first generation hybrids, the characteristics in the offspring are split in the ratio 1:2:1 - according to the genotype, 3:1 - according to the phenotype.
Mendel's third law: the law of independent inheritance - 9:3:3:1.
Analyzing crossing - crossing a test organism that is homozygous for the trait under study in order to determine its genotype.
Law of linked inheritance (Morgan). Linked inheritance is the joint inheritance of genes concentrated on one chromosome; the genes form linkage groups.
Variability.
Modification - changes in the characteristics of an organism under the influence of the environment and not associated with changes in the genotype. Modifications are not inherited, they appear within the limits determined by the reaction norm (human tanning, differences in plant size)
Mutational-hereditary variability, causing changes in the genotype, is inherited (hair color, leaf shape) - genotypic-variability of the genotype; cytoplasmic - variability of plastids and mitochondria.
Genotypic: combinative and mutational (gene, chromosomal, genomic).
Driving forces of evolution.
Hereditary variability is the ability to acquire new characteristics, differences between individuals and transmit them by inheritance.
The struggle for existence is a set of relationships between individuals and various environmental factors.
Natural selection is survival of the fittest.
Genetic drift is a change in the frequency of occurrence of genes in a population over a number of generations under the influence of random factors.
Isolation is the emergence of any barriers that prevent the interbreeding of individuals within a population.
Type criteria.
Morphological - similarity of external and internal structure individuals of the same species.
Physiological - the similarity of the life processes of individuals of the same species.
Biochemical - similarity in composition, structure of proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates.
Genetic - similarity in the number, shape, color of chromosomes.
Geographic-specific the range occupied by a species in nature.
Ecological - a set of environmental factors in which a species exists.
Arogenesis - aromorphosis - the main path of progressive evolution, is not adaptive in nature, raises organisms to higher high level. (bilateral symmetry of the body, warm-bloodedness, pulmonary breathing.
Allogenesis - degeneration - simplification of organization, reduction of some organs.
Allogenesis is idioadaptation - the emergence of partial adaptations to environmental conditions, without changing the level of organization.
Environmental factors.
Abiotic: light, temperature, humidity.
Biotic: the influence of plants on each other, the interaction of animals and plants, the interaction of animals with each other.
Anthropogenic impact humans to plants and animals.
Structure of biocenosis.
Producers - producers. Capable of synthesizing organic matter from inorganic using solar energy(autotrophs- higher plants, seaweed)
Consumers - consumers. Heterotrophs are organisms that use ready-made organic substances for nutrition. Primary heterotrophs are herbivores, secondary heterotrophs are carnivores.
Reducers - decompose the organic remains of producers and consumers. Detritivores - bacteria, fungi, animals that feed on carrion.
Alive organisms
Noncellular Cellular
Viruses Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
(pre-nuclear) (nuclear)
Bacteria Fungi Plants Animals
Signs of wildlife:
Metabolism and energy(breathing, feeding, excretion)
Heredity and variability
Self-reproduction (reproduction)
Individual development (ontogenesis), historical development(phylogenesis)
Movement
Composition – organic(proteins, fats, carbohydrates, NC) and inorganic substances (water and mineral salts).
BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY
Characteristics of the kingdoms of living nature
1. Viruses (discovered by scientist Ivanovsky in 1892 using the tobacco mosaic virus)
2. They don’t have cellular structure, outside the cell - in the form of a crystal.
3. Structure - DNA or RNA - outside there is a protein shell - capsid, less often there is a carbohydrate-lipid shell (in herpes and influenza viruses).
4. Similarities with living organisms– reproduce (DNA doubling), characterized by heredity and variability.
5
. Similarities between viruses and non-living systems- do not divide, do not grow, metabolism is not characteristic, there is no own mechanism for protein synthesis.
2. Bacteria (Leeuwenhoek in 1683 – plaque bacteria)
1. unicellular or colonial organisms that do not have a formed nucleus
2. do not have complex organelles - ER, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, plastids.
3. varied in shape - cocci (round), spirilla, bacilli (rod-shaped), virions (arc-shaped).
4. have a cell wall made of murein protein and a mucous capsule made of polysaccharides, a nucleoid with a circular DNA molecule is located in the cytoplasm, and there are ribosomes.
5. reproduce by dividing in half every 20-30 minutes, with unfavorable conditions form spores (thick shell)
6. food – autotrophs(synthesize organic substances from inorganic): a) phototrophs(during the process of photosynthesis) – cyanides, b) chemotrophs(in progress chemical reactions) – iron bacteria;
heterotrophs(use ready-made organic substances): a) saprophytes(feed on dead organic remains) – bacteria of rotting and fermentation,
b) symbionts(organic substances are obtained as a result of symbiosis with other organisms) – legume nodule bacteria (they absorb nitrogen from the air and transfer it to legume plants, which in return provide them with organic substances),
7. The importance of bacteria – positive– nodule bacteria enrich the soil with nitrates and nitrites, absorbing nitrogen from the air; putrefaction bacteria utilize dead organisms; Lactic acid bacteria are used in industry to produce kefir, yogurt, silage, feed proteins, and in leather processing.
Negative– cause spoilage of food (putrefactive bacteria), pathogens of dangerous diseases - pneumonia, plague, cholera.
3. Mushrooms
1. Structural features - the body consists of hyphae that form mycelium (mycelium), reproduce by budding (yeast), spores, vegetatively (parts of mycelium), sexually.
2. Similarities with plants– motionless, absorb nutrients over the entire surface of the body, unlimited growth, available cell wall(their chitin consists) and reproduce by spores.
3. Animal resemblance– no chlorophyll, heterotrophs (feed on organic matter), reserve nutrient– glycogen.
5. Types of mushrooms - see point 6 - “nutrition”.
4. Plants
1. Immobile - have a strong cell wall made of cellulose, few mitochondria.
2. Unlimited growth - grow throughout your life
3. Reserve nutrient – starch
4. Nutrition – autotrophs (eat inorganic substances due to photosynthesis). Nutrition through suction over the entire surface of the body.
5. Features of a plant cell– 1.presence of plastids (chloroplasts – the function of photosynthesis, leucoplasts – accumulation of substances, chromoplasts – provide the color of fruits and flowers); 2. large vacuoles (storage function); 3. few mitochondria; 4. there is a cell wall made of cellulose; 5. no microtubules.
5. Animals
1. Mostly mobile - many mitochondria, thin membrane.
2. Limited growth - until puberty
3. Storage substance – glycogen (in muscles and liver)
5. Features of an animal cell– no plastids, small vacuoles – perform an excretory function in aquatic animals, thin shell, microtubules – for building the spindle during mitosis and meiosis.
6. characterized by irritability and reflex.
Classification of plants and animals. Taxonomy.
Classification – distribution of organisms into groups.
Taxonomy- the science that deals with classification
| System category | animals | plants |
| superkingdom | Nuclear (pre-nuclear) | nuclear |
| kingdom | Animals (plants, mushrooms) | plants |
| sub-kingdom | Multicellular (unicellular) | multicellular |
| Type (department) | Chordates (protozoa, flatworms, roundworms, annelids, arthropods, molluscs) | Flowering plants (algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms) |
| Class | Mammals (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds) | Monocots (dicots) |
| squad | Carnivores (rodents, bats, primates, artiodactyls, pinnipeds, cetaceans) | - |
| family | fox | Lilies (cereals, rosaceae, nightshades, legumes) |
| genus | fox | lily of the valley |
| view | Common fox | May lily of the valley |
Increasing complexity of plants during evolution on Earth:
Algae→ mosses→ mosses→ horsetails→ ferns→ gymnosperms→ angiosperms
Directions of plant evolution - aromorphoses
The emergence of multicellularity (algae→flowering plants)
Landfall (mosses→flowers)
Appearance of tissues (integumentary, conductive, mechanical, photosynthetic) and organs (roots, stems, leaves): mosses→flowering plants.
Reducing the dependence of fertilization on the availability of water (gymnosperms, flowering plants)
Appearance of flower and fruit (floral)
Characteristics of plant departments (500,000 species)
1.Algae. Lower spore plants.
1. Unicellular (chlorella, chlamydomonas) and multicellular organisms(spirogyra, kelp, ulotrix), some form colonies (volvox).
2. Body – thallus (no division into organs and tissues)
3. There are chromatophores with chlorophyll - they provide photosynthesis.
4. Brown and red algae have rhizoids instead of roots - the function of anchoring in the soil.
5. Reproduce asexually– by spores and sexually – by gametes.
6. Meaning: the substance agar-agar is obtained from red algae; brown algae - kelp-seaweed - in the food industry, livestock feed, chlamydomonas causes blooms in water bodies.
2. Lichens.
1. lower plants, consist of a symbiosis of fungus and algae. The body is a thallus.
2. nutrition - autoheterotrophs: the algae is autotrophic, gives the fungus organic substances during photosynthesis, the fungus is heterotrophic, gives the algae water and minerals, protects it from drying out.
3. Reproduction - asexually - vegetatively - by sections of the thallus, sexually.
4. Lichens are indicators of purity (they grow only in ecologically clean areas).
5. Lichens - “pioneers of life” - populate the most difficult-to-reach places, enrich the soil with mineral salts and organic matter - fertilize, after lichens other plants can grow.
6. Species – reindeer moss, xanthoria, cetraria. (bushy, scale, leafy).
Higher spore plants.
3.Bryophytes.
1. Leafy spore plants that do not have roots (or have rhizoids)
2. Tissues and organs are poorly differentiated - there is no conducting system and mechanical tissue is poorly developed.
3. A change of generations is characteristic: sexual - gametophyte (haploid) and asexual - sporophyte (diploid). The gametophyte predominates - it is the leafy plant itself, the sporophyte lives at the expense of the gametophyte and is represented by a capsule on a stalk (on a female plant).
4. They reproduce by spores and sexually. Water is required for fertilization, as with all spore-bearing plants.
5. Types – cuckoo flax, sphagnum
4. Pteridophytes (Horsetails, mosses, ferns)
1. The body is differentiated into stem, leaves and root or rhizome.
2. Mechanical and conductive tissues are well developed - ferns are taller and bushier than mosses.
3. Characteristic is a change of generations with a predominance of the sporophyte (the plant itself), the gametophyte is small - represented by a prothallus (an independent heart-shaped plant on which gametes mature). Water is required for fertilization.
4. Reproduction - sexual and asexual - by spores, by rhizomes - vegetative.
Higher seed plants
1. Evergreen (less often deciduous) trees or shrubs with erect perennial stems and tap root systems.
2. Instead of vessels, wood contains tracheids and many resin passages
3. Needle-shaped leaves
4. Reduction of the gametophyte, the sporophyte (diploid) predominates. Water is not needed for fertilization.
5. Reproduction – by seeds (sexual). The seeds lie bare on the scales of the cones. The seed has a peel, an embryo and nutritional tissue - endosperm (haploid). On 1 branch, 2 types of cones ripen: female and male.
6. Species – juniper, pine, thuja, spruce, fir, larch.
6. Flowering. (Angiosperms)
Angiosperms are the evolutionarily youngest and most numerous group of plants - 250 thousand species that grow in all climatic zones. The wide distribution and diversity of the structure of flowering plants is associated with their acquisition of a number of progressive features:
1.Formation of a flower that combines the functions of sexual and asexual reproduction.
2. Formation of an ovary within the flower, enclosing the ovules and protecting them from adverse conditions.
3.Double fertilization, which results in the formation of a nutritious triploid endosperm.
4. Storage nutrient tissue in the fetus.
5. Complication and high degree of differentiation of vegetative organs and tissues.
Flowering family (angiosperms). Classes.
Class dicotyledons
| Sign | Rosaceae | nightshades | legumes |
| flower | Ch 5 L 5 T ∞ P 1 (sepals - 5, petals - 5, stamens - many, pistil - 1 or many) | R(5) L(5) T(5) R 1 (5 fused petals and 5 fused sepals, 5 fused stamens, 1 pestle). | R 5 L 1+2+(2) T (9)+1 P 1 (5 fused sepals; 5 petals: the two lower ones grow together, forming a “boat”, the upper one - the largest - a sail, 2 lateral ones - oars; stamens -10, 9 of them grow together, pistil - 1) |
| fetus | Drupes, nut | Berry, box | bean |
| Inflorescence | Brush, simple umbrella, shield | Curl, brush, panicle | Brush, head |
| examples | Apple tree, rose hip, rose, strawberry | Potatoes, tobacco, black nightshade, tomato | Peas, soybeans, clover, china, beans, lupine, vetch |
| Sign | Cruciferous | Compositae | Cereals -monocots |
| flower | H 2+2 L 2+2 T 4+2 P 1 (sepals 2+2, petals 4 stamens 6, pistil -1) | Flowers of 4 types: tubular, reed, false-reed, funnel-shaped. L(5) T(5) P 1 Instead of a cup there is a film or a tuft. | O 2+(2) T 3 P 1 Perianth – 2+2 |
| fetus | Pod, pod | achene | grain |
| inflorescence | brush | basket | Complex ear, panicle, cob |
| examples | Cabbage, radish, turnip, mustard, rapeseed, jarutka | Sunflower, chamomile, cornflower, tansy, dahlia, aster, dandelion, wormwood | Rye, millet, barley, bluegrass, brome, corn, sorghum |
7th ed., revised. and additional - M.: 2016. - 512 p.
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