SCIENTIFIC PICTURE OF THE WORLD– a holistic image of the subject of scientific research in its main system-structural characteristics, formed through the fundamental concepts, ideas and principles of science at each stage of its historical development.
There are main varieties (forms) of the scientific picture of the world: 1) general scientific as a generalized idea of the Universe, living nature, society and man, formed on the basis of a synthesis of knowledge obtained in various scientific disciplines; 2) social and natural science paintings peace as ideas about society and nature, summarizing the achievements of the social, humanities and natural sciences, respectively; 3) special scientific pictures of the world (disciplinary ontologies) - ideas about the subjects of individual sciences (physical, chemical, biological, etc. pictures of the world). In the latter case, the term “world” is used in a specific sense, denoting not the world as a whole, but subject area separate science (physical world, biological world, world of chemical processes). To avoid terminological problems, the term “picture of the reality under study” is also used to denote disciplinary ontologies. Its most studied example is the physical picture of the world. But similar pictures exist in any science, as soon as it is constituted as an independent branch of scientific knowledge. A generalized systemic-structural image of the subject of research is introduced into a special scientific picture of the world through ideas of 1) fundamental objects from which all other objects studied by the corresponding science are assumed to be built; 2) about the typology of the objects being studied; 3) about the general features of their interaction; 4) about the spatio-temporal structure of reality. All these ideas can be described in a system of ontological principles that serve as the basis scientific theories relevant discipline. For example, principles - the world consists of indivisible corpuscles; their interaction is strictly determined and occurs as an instantaneous transfer of forces in a straight line; corpuscles and bodies formed from them move in absolute space with the passage of absolute time - they describe the picture of the physical world that developed in the 2nd half. 17th century and subsequently received the name of the mechanical picture of the world.
The transition from mechanical to electrodynamic (at the end of the 19th century), and then to the quantum-relativistic picture physical reality(1st half of the 20th century) was accompanied by a change in the system of ontological principles of physics. It was most radical during the period of the formation of quantum relativistic physics (revision of the principles of the indivisibility of atoms, the existence of absolute space-time, Laplace’s determination of physical processes).
By analogy with the physical picture of the world, pictures of the reality under study are distinguished in other sciences (chemistry, astronomy, biology, etc.). Among them there are also historically successive types of pictures of the world. For example, in the history of biology - the transition from pre-Darwinian ideas about living things to the picture biological world, proposed by Darwin, to the subsequent inclusion in the picture of living nature of ideas about genes as carriers of heredity, to modern ideas about levels systemic organization living things – populations, biogeocenosis, biosphere and their evolution.
Each of the specific historical forms of a special scientific picture of the world can be realized in a number of modifications. Among them there are lines of continuity (for example, the development of Newtonian ideas about physical world Euler, the development of the electrodynamic picture of the world by Faraday, Maxwell, Hertz, Lorentz, each of whom introduced new elements into this picture). But situations are possible when the same type of picture of the world is realized in the form of competing and alternative ideas about the reality under study (for example, the struggle between Newtonian and Cartesian concepts of nature as alternative versions of the mechanical picture of the world; competition between two main directions in the development of the electrodynamic picture of the world – the Ampere-Weber program, on the one hand, and the Faraday-Maxwell program, on the other).
The picture of the world is special type theoretical knowledge. It can be considered as a certain theoretical model of the reality under study, different from the models (theoretical schemes) that underlie specific theories. First, they differ in the degree of generality. Many theories can be based on the same picture of the world, incl. and fundamental. For example, the mechanics of Newton–Euler, thermodynamics and electrodynamics of Ampere–Weber were associated with the mechanical picture of the world. Not only the foundations of Maxwellian electrodynamics, but also the foundations of Hertzian mechanics are associated with the electrodynamic picture of the world. Secondly, a special picture of the world can be distinguished from theoretical schemes by analyzing the abstractions that form them (ideal objects). Thus, in the mechanical picture of the world, natural processes were characterized through abstractions - “indivisible corpuscle”, “body”, “interaction of bodies, transmitted instantly in a straight line and changing the state of motion of bodies”, “absolute space” and “absolute time”. As for the theoretical scheme underlying Newtonian mechanics(taken in its Euler presentation), then in it the essence of mechanical processes is characterized through other abstractions - “ material point", "force", "inertial space-time reference frame".
Ideal objects that form a picture of the world, in contrast to the idealization of specific theoretical models, always have an ontological status. Any physicist understands that a “material point” does not exist in nature itself, because in nature there are no bodies without dimensions. But Newton’s follower, who accepted the mechanical picture of the world, considered indivisible atoms to be the really existing “first bricks” of matter. He identified with nature the abstractions that simplify and schematize it, in the system of which a physical picture of the world is created. In what ways these abstractions do not correspond to reality is something that a researcher most often finds out only when his science enters a period of breakdown. old painting peace and replacing it with a new one. Being different from the picture of the world, theoretical schemes, which form the core of the theory, are always connected with it. Establishing this connection is one of mandatory conditions theory building. The procedure for mapping theoretical models (schemes) onto a picture of the world provides that type of interpretation of equations expressing theoretical laws, which in logic is called conceptual (or semantic) interpretation and which is mandatory for constructing a theory. Outside the picture of the world, a theory cannot be constructed in a complete form.
Scientific pictures of the world perform three main interrelated functions in the research process: 1) systematize scientific knowledge, combining it into complex entities; 2) act as research programs that determine the strategy of scientific knowledge; 3) ensure the objectification of scientific knowledge, its attribution to the object under study and its inclusion in culture.
A special scientific picture of the world integrates knowledge within individual scientific disciplines. The natural scientific and social pictures of the world, and then the general scientific picture of the world, set broader horizons for the systematization of knowledge. They integrate the achievements of various disciplines, highlighting stable empirically and theoretically grounded content in disciplinary ontologies. For example, the ideas of the modern general scientific picture of the world about the non-stationary Universe and Big Bang, about quarks and synergetic processes, about genes, ecosystems and the biosphere, about society as an integral system, about formations and civilizations, etc. were developed within the framework of the relevant disciplinary ontologies of physics, biology, social sciences and then included in the general scientific picture of the world.
Carrying out a systematizing function, scientific pictures of the world at the same time perform the role of research programs. Special scientific pictures of the world set the strategy for empirical and theoretical research within the relevant fields of science. Towards empirical research the goal-directing role of special pictures of the world is most clearly manifested when science begins to study objects for which a theory has not yet been created and which are being studied empirical methods(typical examples are the role of the electrodynamic picture of the world in the experimental study of cathode and x-rays). Ideas about the reality under study, introduced in the picture of the world, provide hypotheses about the nature of phenomena discovered in experience. In accordance with these hypotheses, experimental tasks are formulated and experimental plans are developed, through which new characteristics of experimentally studied objects are discovered.
IN theoretical research the role of a special scientific picture of the world as a research program is manifested in the fact that it determines the range of permissible tasks and the formulation of problems on initial stage theoretical search, as well as the choice of theoretical means for solving them. For example, during the period of construction of generalizing theories of electromagnetism, two physical pictures of the world and, accordingly, two research programs competed: Ampere-Weber, on the one hand, and Faraday-Maxwell, on the other. They set different tasks and determined different means construction of a general theory of electromagnetism. The Ampere–Weber program was based on the principle of long-range action and focused on the use of mathematical means of point mechanics; the Faraday–Maxwell program was based on the principle of short-range action and borrowed mathematical structures from mechanics continuum.
In interdisciplinary interactions based on the transfer of ideas from one field of knowledge to another, the role of the research program is played by the general scientific picture of the world. She reveals similar features disciplinary ontologies, thereby forming the basis for the translation of ideas, concepts and methods from one science to another. Exchange processes between quantum physics and chemistry, biology and cybernetics, which gave rise to a number of discoveries of the 20th century, were targeted and regulated by the general scientific picture of the world.
Facts and theories created under the purposeful influence of a special scientific picture of the world are again correlated with it, which leads to two options for its changes. If the representations of the picture of the world express the essential characteristics of the objects under study, these representations are clarified and specified. But if research comes across fundamentally new types of objects, a radical restructuring of the picture of the world occurs. This restructuring is necessary component scientific revolutions. She assumes active use philosophical ideas and substantiation of new ideas by accumulated empirical and theoretical material. Initially, a new picture of the reality under study is put forward as a hypothesis. Its empirical and theoretical basis It may take a long period, when it competes as a new research program with a previously accepted special scientific picture of the world. The approval of new ideas about reality as a disciplinary ontology is ensured not only by the fact that they are confirmed by experience and serve as the basis for new fundamental theories, but also their philosophical and ideological justification (see. Philosophical foundations of science ).
Ideas about the world, which are introduced in pictures of the reality under study, always experience certain impact analogies and associations drawn from various fields cultural creativity, including everyday consciousness and production experience of a certain historical era. For example, ideas about electrical fluid and caloric, included in the mechanical picture of the world in the 18th century, were formed largely under the influence of objective images drawn from the sphere of everyday experience and technology of the corresponding era. Common sense of the 18th century. it was easier to agree with the existence of non-mechanical forces, representing them in the image and likeness of mechanical ones, for example. representing the flow of heat as a flow of weightless liquid - caloric, falling like a water jet from one level to another and thereby producing work in the same way as water does this work in hydraulic devices. But at the same time, the introduction into the mechanical picture of the world of ideas about various substances - carriers of forces - also contained a moment of objective knowledge. The idea of quality various types forces was the first step towards recognizing the irreducibility of all types of interaction to mechanical. It contributed to the formation of special, different from mechanical, ideas about the structure of each of these types of interactions.
The ontological status of scientific pictures of the world is a necessary condition objectification of specific empirical and theoretical knowledge scientific discipline and their inclusion in culture.
Through inclusion in the scientific picture of the world, special achievements of science acquire a general cultural meaning and ideological significance. For example, the basic physical idea of the general theory of relativity, taken in its special theoretical form(components of the fundamental metric tensor, which determines the metric of four-dimensional space-time, at the same time act as potentials gravitational field), is unclear to those who are not involved theoretical physics. But when this idea is formulated in the language of the picture of the world (the nature of the geometry of space-time is mutually determined by the nature of the gravitational field), it gives it the status of a scientific truth that has ideological meaning, understandable to non-specialists. This truth modifies the ideas about homogeneous Euclidean space and quasi-Euclidean time, which, through the system of training and education since the times of Galileo and Newton, have become a worldview postulate of everyday consciousness. This is the case with many scientific discoveries that were included in the scientific picture of the world and through it influence the ideological guidelines of human life. Historical development the scientific picture of the world is expressed not only in changes in its content. Its very forms are historical. In the 17th century, during the era of the emergence of natural science, the mechanical picture of the world was simultaneously a physical, natural and general scientific picture of the world. With the advent of disciplinary organized science (late 18th century – 1st half of the 19th century), a spectrum of special scientific pictures of the world emerged. They become special, autonomous forms of knowledge, organizing the facts and theories of each scientific discipline into a system of observation. Problems arise in constructing a general scientific picture of the world that synthesizes the achievements of individual sciences. The unity of scientific knowledge becomes a key philosophical problem of science 19 - 1st half. 20th century Strengthening interdisciplinary interactions in science of the 20th century. leads to a decrease in the level of autonomy of special scientific pictures of the world. They are integrated into special blocks of the natural scientific and social pictures of the world, the basic ideas of which are included in the general scientific picture of the world. In the 2nd half. 20th century the general scientific picture of the world begins to develop on the basis of the ideas of universal (global) evolutionism, connecting the principles of evolution and systematic approach. Are revealed genetic connections between the inorganic world, living nature and society, as a result the sharp opposition between the natural scientific and social scientific pictures of the world is eliminated. Accordingly, the integrative connections of disciplinary ontologies are strengthening, which increasingly act as fragments or aspects of a single general scientific picture of the world.
Literature:
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2. Vernadsky V.I. Reflections of a naturalist, book. 1, 1975, book. 2, 1977;
3. Dyshlevy P.S. Natural science picture of the world as a form of synthesis of scientific knowledge. – In the book: Synthesis of modern scientific knowledge. M., 1973;
4. Mostepanenko M.V. Philosophy and physical theory. L., 1969;
5. scientific picture world: logical and epistemological aspect. K., 1983;
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8. The nature of scientific knowledge. Minsk, 1979;
9. Stenin V.S. Theoretical knowledge. M., 2000;
10. Stepin V.S.,Kuznetsova L.F. Scientific picture of the world in the culture of technogenic civilization. M., 1994;
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12. Einstein A. Collection scientific Proceedings, vol. 4. M., 1967.
Introduction 2
1. Scientific picture of the world and its content 3
2. Quantum field picture of the world 6
3. Man and the biosphere. 9
Conclusion 13
List of sources used 15
Introduction
Natural science is the science of the phenomena and laws of nature. Modern natural science is interdisciplinary in nature, expressed in the combination of some scientific disciplines to obtain a specific result, and on the scale of the subject of research. Natural science includes many natural science branches: physics, chemistry, biology, physical chemistry, biophysics, biochemistry, geochemistry, etc. It covers wide range questions about the various properties of natural objects, which can be considered as a single whole.
Unity and integrity are given to natural science by the natural scientific method that underlies all natural sciences.
Its essence lies in the presentation natural science knowledge within the framework of concepts - fundamental ideas and a systematic approach.
Natural science contributes to the formation of a general scientific worldview and a rational attitude to the world, shows the role of science and scientific methodology in the development of modern society, determines the importance of high-tech technologies in the context of the future existence of humanity, expands the general natural science horizon, and forms analytical abilities.
Any promising direction of human activity is directly or indirectly connected with a new material base and new technologies. Without fundamental knowledge an erroneous public opinion may develop about nature, leading to a biased decision. Consequently, natural science knowledge is needed not only by highly qualified specialists, but also by any educated person, regardless of his field of activity.
1. Scientific picture of the world and its content
In the process of cognition of the surrounding world, the results of cognition are reflected and consolidated in the human mind in the form of knowledge, abilities, skills, types of behavior and communication. The totality of the results of human cognitive activity forms a certain model, or picture of the world.
The scientific picture of the world is special shape systematization of knowledge, qualitative generalization and ideological synthesis of various scientific theories 1. The main difference between the scientific picture of the world and non-scientific pictures of the world (for example, religious) is that the scientific picture of the world is built on the basis of a certain proven and substantiated fundamental scientific theory
The modern scientific picture of the world has as its prehistory the gradual accumulation of knowledge over thousands of years as human society develops 2 . In the history of mankind, a fairly large number of very diverse pictures of the world were created and existed, each of which was distinguished by its vision of the world and its specific explanation.
However, the widest and full view about the world is given by a scientific picture of the world, which includes the most important achievements of science that create a certain understanding of the world and man’s place in it. It does not include private knowledge about various properties specific phenomena, about the details of the cognitive process. The scientific picture of the world is not the totality of all human knowledge about the objective world; it represents an integral system of ideas about general properties, spheres, levels and patterns of reality.
The scientific picture of the world exists as a complex structure, which includes as components the general scientific picture of the world and the picture of the world of individual sciences (physical, biological, geological, etc.). Pictures of the world of individual sciences, in turn, include corresponding numerous concepts - certain ways of understanding and interpreting any objects, phenomena and processes of the objective world that exist in each individual science.
The basis of the modern scientific picture of the world is fundamental knowledge obtained, first of all, in the field of physics. However, in the last decades of the last century, the opinion was increasingly established that biology occupies a leading position in the modern scientific picture of the world. This is expressed in the increasing influence that biological knowledge has on the content of the scientific picture of the world. The ideas of biology gradually acquire a universal character and become the fundamental principles of other sciences. In particular, in modern science such a universal idea is the idea of development, the penetration of which into cosmology, physics, chemistry, anthropology, sociology, etc. led to a significant change in people's views on the world.
There are main forms of the scientific picture of the world: 1) general scientific - a generalized idea of the Universe, living nature, society and man, formed on the basis of a synthesis of knowledge obtained in various scientific disciplines; 2) social and natural science pictures of the world - an idea of society and nature, summarizing the achievements of the social, humanities and natural sciences, respectively; 3) special scientific pictures of the world (disciplinary ontologies) - ideas about the subjects of individual sciences (physical, chemical, biological, etc. pictures of the world). In the latter case, the term “world” is used in a specific sense, denoting not the world as a whole, but the subject area of a particular science (physical world, biological world, world of chemical processes).
Thus , The concept of a scientific picture of the world is one of the fundamental ones in natural science. Throughout its history, it has gone through several stages of development and, accordingly, the formation of scientific pictures of the world as any particular science or branch of science dominates, based on a new theoretical, methodological and axiological system of views accepted as the basis for solving scientific problems.
2. Quantum field picture of the world
Scientific picture of the world - general system ideas and concepts in the process of forming natural science theories. 3 There are general scientific, natural science, socio-historical, special, mechanical, electromagnetic and quantum field pictures of the world.
At the end of the 19th century. and the beginning of the twentieth century. in natural science were made major discoveries, which radically changed ideas about the picture of the world. First of all, these are discoveries related to the structure of matter and discoveries about the relationship between matter and energy.
A change in scientific pictures of the world is a natural phenomenon in the process of learning about the world around us. The change in pictures of the world shows that the process of cognition of reality is dynamic, it is accompanied by a transition from ignorance to knowledge, testifies to the infinity of knowledge of the world and the power of the human mind. Just like the electrodynamic picture of the world, which arose on the basis of mechanical physics, which proved its inconsistency in a dead-end state in connection with the problem of the ether, so the quantum field picture of the world began to emerge on the basis of the following discoveries in various fields of knowledge 4:
In physics, this was expressed in the discovery of the divisibility of the atom and the formation of relativistic and quantum theories.
In cosmology, models of a non-stationary evolving Universe were formed.
Originated in chemistry quantum chemistry, actually erasing the line between physics and chemistry.
One of the main events in biology was the formation of genetics.
New ones have emerged scientific directions, for example, such as cybernetics and systems theory.
The modern quantum field picture of the world is based on a new physical theory - quantum mechanics, which describes the state and movement of microparticles (elementary particles, atoms, molecules, atomic nuclei) and their systems, as well as the connection between quantities characterizing particles and systems with physical quantities, directly measurable experimentally. Laws quantum mechanics form the basis for the study of the structure of matter. They make it possible to clarify the structure of atoms, establish the nature of chemical bonds, explain the periodic system of elements, and study the properties of elementary particles.
Within the framework of the quantum-field picture of the world, quantum-field ideas about matter have developed. Matter has corpuscular and wave properties, i.e. every element of matter has the properties of a wave and a particle (wave-particle duality) 5 .
The specificity of quantum field concepts of regularity and causality is that they appear in a probabilistic form, in the form of statistical laws
When describing objects, two classes of concepts are used: space-time and energy-pulse. The former give a kinematic picture of movement, the latter - a dynamic (causal) picture. Space-time and causality are relative and dependent
Thus, the quantum field picture of the world
These new ideological approaches to the study of the natural science picture of the world had a significant impact both on the specific nature of knowledge in certain branches of natural science, and on the understanding of nature and scientific revolutions in natural science. But it is precisely with revolutionary transformations in natural science that a change in ideas about the picture of nature is associated.
3. Man and the biosphere.
The term “biosphere” was first introduced into science by the Austrian geologist and paleontologist E. Suess in 1875 6 . He meant the biosphere as an independent sphere, intersecting with other earthly spheres, in which life exists on Earth. He defined the biosphere as a collection of organisms limited in space and time and living on the surface of the Earth. The two main components of the biosphere: living organisms and their environment. They continuously interact with each other and are in close, organic unity, forming a complete dynamic system. The biosphere represents a global natural supersystem, which in turn consists of a set of subsystems.
For the first time, the idea of the geological functions of living matter, the idea of the totality of the entire organic world as a single indivisible whole, was expressed by the Russian scientist V.I. Vernadsky. The goal that the scientist set for himself was to study the influence of living organisms on environment. (works “Biosphere”, 1926, “Biogeochemical Sketches”, “ Chemical structure Earth’s biosphere”, etc.) 7.
IN AND. Vernadsky did not limit the concept of “biosphere” only to “living matter,” by which he understood the totality of all living organisms on the planet. In the biosphere he simultaneously included all the products of vital activity produced during the existence of life.
Speaking about the principles of the existence of the biosphere, V.I. Vernadsky first of all clarifies the concept and methods of functioning of “living matter”. Thus, both life and “inert matter” are in continuous, close interaction, in an endless cycle of chemical elements. Wherein living matter serves as the main system-forming factor and connects the biosphere into a single whole.
Possessing significantly greater activity than inorganic nature, living organisms strive for constant improvement and reproduction of the corresponding systems, including biocenoses. The latter, in turn, inevitably interact with each other, which ultimately balances living systems at various levels. As a result, dynamic harmony is achieved throughout the supersystem of life - the biosphere.
The development of the biosphere occurs through increasing interaction between living organisms and the environment. In the course of evolution, the process of integration gradually occurs through the strengthening and development of interdependence and interaction between living and nonliving things. Integration process V.I. Vernadsky considered it a very important, essential characteristic of the biosphere. The long-term development of the biosphere, which once had a certain local influence, gradually becomes a factor on a planetary scale and means a progressive, more and more complete mastery of the life of the entire planet. The existence of life on Earth ultimately radically changed and transformed the appearance of our planet and such important components as the landscape, climate, and temperature of the Earth.
The central theme of the doctrine of the noosphere is the unity of the biosphere and humanity. Vernadsky in his works reveals the roots of this unity, the significance of the organization of the biosphere in the development of mankind. The emergence of man as “homo sapiens” (reasonable man) in turn qualitatively changed both the biosphere itself and the results of its planetary influence. Gradually, a transition began to occur from simple biological adaptation of living organisms to intelligent behavior and, most importantly, to targeted changes in the environment. natural environment intelligent beings.
Man is subject to the general laws of organization of the biosphere. Target social development- preservation of the organization of the biosphere. Noosphere is qualitative new stage evolution of the biosphere, in which the laws of nature are closely intertwined with the socio-economic laws of social development. V.I. Vernadsky considered scientific thought to be the main prerequisite for the transition of the biosphere to the noosphere. “Science is the maximum power of creating the noosphere” - this is the main generalization of V.I. Vernadsky in his doctrine of the biosphere.
Millions of years ago, at the dawn of the formation of man as an intelligent being, his impact on nature was no different from the impact on the environment of other primates. And only much later, in fact only over the last few millennia, its influence on the life of the planet became qualitatively different, more and more significant. Gradually, man becomes a decisive factor in the transformation of organic and inorganic forms. That is why the study of the evolutionary process on Earth and the role of man in it today is given enormous ideological and practical importance.
By changing nature, humans create the main threat to the development of the biosphere.
Positive human influence on the biosphere: breeding new breeds of animals and plant varieties, creating cultural biogeocenoses, planting forests, creating strains of microorganisms for the microbiological industry, developing pond farming, introducing beneficial species into new habitats, creating nature reserves, sanctuaries, national parks, environmental measures .
Negative impact: consumption of raw materials, soil, water, environmental pollution, extermination of species, destruction of biogeocenoses, unregulated harvesting of animals and plants, changes in the chemical composition of water, air, soil, etc.
There are many global environmental problems, each of which can lead to an environmental crisis.
Most likely, the process of joint harmonious development of human society and the biosphere can only be achieved thanks to science, which allows us to assess the environmental consequences of large-scale nature-transforming projects and find ways of environmentally safe existence.
Humanity must realize its role in the mechanism for maintaining the stability of the biosphere. It is known that in the process of evolution, only those species that are capable of ensuring the sustainability of life and the environment are preserved. Only man, using the power of his mind, can direct the further development of the biosphere along the path of preserving wild nature, preserving civilization and humanity, creating a more equitable social system, moving from a philosophy of war to a philosophy of peace and partnership, love and respect for future generations. All this is part of a new biosphere worldview, which should become universal.
Conclusion
1. In the process of cognition of the surrounding world, the results of cognition are reflected and consolidated in the human mind in the form of knowledge, abilities, skills, types of behavior and communication. The totality of the results of human cognitive activity forms a certain model, or picture of the world.
The concept of a scientific picture of the world is one of the fundamental ones in natural science. The scientific picture of the world is a special form of systematization of knowledge, qualitative generalization and ideological synthesis of various scientific theories.
2. The change in scientific pictures of the world is a natural phenomenon in the process of understanding the world around us. Throughout its history, it has gone through several stages of development.
There are general scientific, natural science, socio-historical, special, mechanical, electromagnetic and quantum field pictures of the world.
The quantum field picture of the world reflected discoveries related to the structure of matter and the relationship between matter and energy. Ideas about causality, the role of the observer, matter itself, time and space have changed.
The quantum field picture of the world is formed on the basis of the quantum hypothesis of M. Planck (1858-1947); wave mechanics E. Schrödinger (1887-1961); quantum mechanics W. Heisenberg (1901-1976); quantum theory of the atom N. Bohr (1885-1962)
The modern quantum field picture of the world is based on a new physical theory - quantum mechanics. Within the framework of the quantum-field picture of the world, quantum-field ideas about matter have developed.
Fundamental principles of quantum theory: the principle of uncertainty and the principle of complementarity
The quantum field picture of the world is currently in a state of formation. Every year new elements are added to it, new hypotheses are put forward, new theories are created and developed.
3. The term “biosphere” was first introduced into science by the Austrian geologist and paleontologist E. Suess in 1875. He defined the biosphere as a collection of organisms limited in space and time and living on the surface of the Earth.
At the beginning of the 20th century V.I. Vernadsky, who studied the interaction of living and nonliving systems, rethought the concept of “biosphere”. He understood the biosphere as the sphere of unity of living and nonliving things.
IN AND. Vernadsky pointed out that the biosphere in the 20th century becomes a noosphere, created primarily by science and social work. He understood the noosphere as a new stage in the development of the biosphere and called for reasonable regulation of relations in the “man - society - nature” system. V.I. Vernadsky believed that a person enters “living matter” and performs specific function biosphere and that explosion scientific thought in the 20th century, it is natural for the development of the biosphere and its further transformation into the noosphere.
During the transition of the biosphere to the noosphere, humanity faces a task of enormous scale and significance - to learn to consciously regulate the relationship between society and nature
List of sources used
1. Dubnischeva T.Ya. Concepts modern natural science: textbook aid for students universities - M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2006
2. Kunafin M. S. Concepts of modern natural science: Textbook.. - Ufa, 2003
3. Novozhenov V.A. Concepts of modern natural science. Barnaul: Publishing house Alt. state University, 2001
4. Lavrinenko V.N., Ratnikov V.P. Concepts of modern natural science. - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2006
5. Sadokhin A.P. Concepts of modern natural science: a textbook for university students - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2006
6. Sviridov V.V. Concepts of modern natural science: Textbook. -2nd ed. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2005
7. Sukhanov A.D., Golubev O.N. Concepts of modern natural science. Textbook for universities. - M. Drora. 2004
8. Khoroshavina S. G. Concepts of modern natural science: a course of lectures / Ed. 4th. - Rostov n/a: Phoenix, 2005
1 Sadokhin A.P. Concepts of modern natural science: a textbook for university students - M.: UNITI-DANA, 2006. - 447 p. - p.17
2 Novozhenov V.A. Concepts of modern natural science. Barnaul: Publishing house Alt. state University, 2001. - 474 p. - p.8
3 Dubnischeva T.Ya. Concepts of modern natural science: textbook. aid for students universities - M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2006. - 608 p. - p.28
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NCM is a systemic vision of the universe, its foundations of origin, organization and its structure, dynamics in time and space. There is a distinction between general (systemic knowledge not only about nature, but also about society) and natural scientific pictures of the world.
The scientific picture of the world is a wide panorama of knowledge about nature and humanity, including the most important theories, hypothesis and fact. Claims to be the core of the scientific worldview. Worldview is a system of views on the world as a whole, a complex alloy of traditions, customs, norms, attitudes, knowledge and assessments.
NCM functions:
1) integrative: NCM is based on reliable knowledge. and it is not just the sum or collection of fragments of individual disciplines. The purpose of NCM is to ensure the synthesis of new values;
2) systemic: building an idea of any part of the world based on data known on this moment, no matter how modest they may be;
3) normative: NCI does not simply describe the universe, but sets systems of attitudes and principles for mastering reality, influences the formation of sociocultural and methodological norms of scientific research.
4) paradigmatic. Paradigm is a model (image) for setting and solving scientific problems. Pre-paradigm. period is a chaotic accumulation of facts. In the paradigmatic period, standards of scientific practice, theoretical postulates, precise NCM, and the combination of theory and method were established.
Components: intellectual (covered by the concept of worldview) and emotional (through attitude and worldview).
Since philosophy claims to express the fundamental principles of being and thinking, it is right to define a scientific philosophical worldview as the highest, theoretical level of worldviews in general. It is represented by a coherent, scientifically based set of views that give an idea of the laws of the developing universe and determine life positions and programs of human behavior. The modern scientific picture of the world is characterized by rigor, reliability, validity, and evidence. It represents the world as a set of causally determined events and processes covered by a pattern.
The structure of the picture of the world includes a central theoretical core that is relatively stable, fundamental assumptions that are conventionally accepted as irrefutable, particular theoretical models, which are constantly being added to. The scientific picture of the world has a certain immunity aimed at preserving this conceptual foundation. Within its framework, there is a cumulative accumulation of knowledge.
A non-classical picture of the world - the absence of strict determinism at the level of individuals is combined with determinism at the level of the system as a whole. Non-classical consciousness constantly felt its extreme dependence on social circumstances and at the same time harbored hopes of participating in the formation of a “constellation” of possibilities.
Post-non-classical picture of the world - tree-like branching graphics. Development can go in one of several directions, which is most often determined by some minor factor.
Historical forms of the scientific picture of the world.
1. Classical scientific picture of the world (XVI-XVII centuries - late XIX century), based on discoveries
Kepler, Copernicus, Galileo, but mainly on the principles of Newtonian mechanics:
Key points:
The world is in a state of linear, progressively directed development with strictly
predetermined determination; the case is immaterial;
All states of the world, including the future, can be calculated and predicted;
The natural scientific base is the Newtonian Universe with its substantial (independent
substances that have absolute, constant, unchanging characteristics) pro-
space and time in which material objects (stars, etc.) are located,
moving in a state of uniform motion.
2. Non-classical scientific picture of the world (XX century, Einstein):
Key points:
It all started with thermodynamics, which states that liquids and gases are not purely mechanical.
nic systems – random processes are part of their essence;
Space and time are not absolute, but relative; their specific characteristics
vary depending on the mass of material objects and the speed of their movement (than
closer to the speed of light, the stronger the change in spatial and temporal parameters
object ditch;
The development of the world can be represented as a main line washed by the blue
soida, personifying the role of chance;
Determination in the form of a statistical pattern: the system develops directionally,
but her condition in every this moment not deterministic.
3. Post-non-classical picture of the world (late 20th century, based on synergetics):
Key points:
The development of the world can be represented as a branching tree;
This implies that the future is fundamentally unpredictable: it is always
there are development alternatives, which are often determined by some random, foreign
where even a minor factor;
The possibility of jumping from one development trajectory to another and losing
system memory. As a result, the past does not always directly determine the present, but
standing is the future. This also implies the fundamental unpredictability of the future.
- only more or less possible accurate forecasts, based on trend analysis;
It is argued that small, local causes may correspond to global consequences.
From all the above provisions it follows that uncertainty acts as an
ribut (fundamental, fundamental characteristic) of being;
The most important concepts of the modern scientific picture of the world are order and chaos (see
this on the issue of synergetics);
The principle of universal evolutionism (thoroughly substantiated by Russian academics)
com N.N. Moiseev. The bottom line, briefly: any is enough a complex system, existing in
world - from an atom, a molecule, a microorganism, a person and to the Universe, is the result of co-
corresponding evolution);
Hierarchical structure of the world (in inanimate nature: field and matter are elementary
particles – atom – molecule – macrobodies – stars – galaxies – metagalaxies – universe;
in living nature: cell – tissue – organism – population – biocenosis – biosphere; in general
society – individual – small social groups– large social groups – humanity as a whole).
The concept of a scientific picture of the world is used in different interpretations. This is a special form of knowledge based on scientific data corresponding to a certain historical period.
The concept of a scientific picture of the world is often used to mean an image and model of the world when characterizing someone’s ideological positions. But more often the term “scientific picture of the world” denotes the system of knowledge that is acquired as a result of the theoretical foundations laid down in natural sciences which is nature and society in a single connection and through fundamental concepts.
The scientific picture of the world is considered in three varieties:
- General scientific presentation about the Universe and society based on all the knowledge contained in different disciplines.
- The natural picture of the world in the scientific perspective of ideas that have developed about society and nature and generalize scientific information, formed as a result of the development of natural and social-humanitarian disciplines.
- A disciplinary view of the world, expressed in the term “ontology” and understood in the light of a particular science, for example, a physical or chemical picture of the world.
The scientific picture of the world is fundamentally different from non-scientific ones in that it is based on a theory that is scientifically substantiated, proven and therefore beyond doubt. But this does not mean that the scientific picture of the world is identical. The first reflects the object as a whole, in isolation from the process of obtaining knowledge, and the theory simultaneously carries in its content logical evidence.
The scientific picture of the world performs three closely interrelated functions performed in the process of research. The first of them is to systematize existing scientific knowledge, forming a complex, but understandable and unified whole. The second function is to determine the strategy for future scientific knowledge, when NCM acts as research program. And the third task that it is designed to perform is to ensure the objectivity of scientific knowledge and include it in the treasury cultural heritage humanity.
The philosophical and scientific picture of the world are closely related. They both represent a person in the surrounding reality. However, the philosophical picture also has its own specifics. It considers, first of all, from the point of view of the basis of being. And secondly, philosophy is interested in the picture of the world from the perspective of the general structure and the state in which it is located. Depending on this, two basic concepts in philosophy were formed, known as If materialism recognizes matter as the basis of being, then idealism brings to the fore
Despite all the dissimilarities between themselves, the philosophical and scientific picture of the world agree that both the scientist and the philosopher, when analyzing any situation, must make a choice towards a materialistic or idealistic position. That is, a philosophical justification of one’s position when considering issues of universal significance becomes mandatory. Unfortunately, it is impossible to completely exclude subjective aspects.
Strives to bring knowledge closer to the real state of reality and recognizes the relevance of the problem of obtaining objective knowledge only on the basis of repeated practical testing. Scientists understand the impossibility of creating a complete picture of the world and devote great attention when studying the phenomena of reality, characterize common features, combining objective and subjective. Even such fundamental discoveries about the foundations of the universe, like electrons, will be refined by many more generations of inquisitive minds.
The scientific picture of the world is a holistic system of ideas about the general properties and patterns of nature, arising as a result of generalization and synthesis of basic natural scientific concepts, principles, methodological guidelines, or a special form of systematization of knowledge, qualitative generalization and ideological synthesis of various scientific theories.
Being an integral system of ideas about the general properties and patterns of the objective world, the scientific picture of the world exists as a complex structure, including as components the general scientific picture of the world and the picture of the world of individual sciences (physical, biological, geological, etc.). Pictures of the world of individual sciences, in turn, include corresponding numerous concepts - certain ways of understanding and interpreting any objects, phenomena and processes of the objective world that exist in each individual science.
In the structure of the scientific picture of the world, two main components can be distinguished - conceptual and sensory-figurative. The conceptual one is represented by philosophical categories (matter, motion, space, time, etc.) and principles (the material unity of the world, universal connection and interdependence of phenomena, determinism, etc.), general scientific concepts and laws (for example, the law of conservation and transformation of energy), and also the fundamental concepts of individual sciences (field, matter, Universe, biological species, population, etc.).
The sensory-figurative component of the scientific picture of the world is a set of visual ideas about certain objects and their properties (for example, the planetary model of the atom, the image of the Metagalaxy in the form of an expanding sphere, etc.).
Philosophy of Science. Modern philosophical directions about the nature of science and the development of scientific knowledge (positivism, structuralism, hermeneutics, post-positivism, etc.).
Philosophy of science- This philosophical direction, exploring the most general features and patterns of scientific and cognitive activity. As a special direction of philosophical research, it has been formed since the second half of the 19th century. in connection with the need to solve methodological problems of the rapid development of science.
The formation of the disciplinary structure of science, the institutional professionalization of scientific activity made it urgent to understand the essence of scientific and cognitive activity; critical assessment of the premises and procedures of scientific activity taking place in different cognitive and sociocultural conditions; the meaning and role of ideological and philosophical ideas and representations in the development of scientific research.
Philosophy of science was first presented as a special direction in the works of O. Comte, G. Spencer, and J. S. Mill. W. Whewell in uniform positivism (from Latin positivus - positive). The focus of their research was primarily on problems associated with the study of inductive-logical and psychological procedures of experimental cognition. The founder of positivism, Auguste Comte (1798-1857), argued that science should limit itself to describing the external aspects of an object, their phenomena, and discard speculation as a means of obtaining knowledge. Positivism declared problems, statements, concepts that could neither be resolved nor verified through experience to be false or meaningless. Hence the denial of the cognitive value of philosophical research and the assertion that the tasks of philosophy are the systematization and generalization of social-scientific empirical knowledge.
At this time, the basic ideas of the positivist direction in philosophy were laid down. which essentially determined its development at various historical stages. These initial ideas include: epistemological phenomenalism– reduction of scientific knowledge and the totality of sensory data and complete elimination of the “non-observational” from science; methodological empiricism– the desire to decide the fate of theoretical knowledge based on the results of its experimental testing; descriptivism– reduction of all functions of science to description, but not explanation; full elimination traditional philosophical problems.
The second form of positivism was empiriocriticism or Machism(end of the 19th century). Its representatives Ernst Mach, Richard Avenarius, Henri Poincaré and others sought to comprehend the revolutionary processes that took place in the foundations of science at the turn of the century. The main area of philosophical analysis became the substantive principles of science. The Machians' attention was focused on the analysis of sensations, sensory experience as such. They affirmed, continuing the traditions of the “first” positivism, the ideal of “purely descriptive” science and rejected the explanatory part, considering it unnecessary and metaphysical. At the same time, they rejected the concepts of causality, necessity, substance, etc., based on the phenomenological principle of defining concepts through observed data. “The only thing that exists” was recognized only by experience as the totality of everything “directly observable,” which the Machians called “elements of the world,” supposedly neutral with respect to matter and consciousness, but which essentially turned out to be a “complex of purification.” This even led to the development of some mystical tendencies. Thus, Mill argued that the positive type of thinking does not at all deny the supernatural.
New problems that arose in the development of science in the 20-30s of the twentieth century led to the emergence of a new historical form positivism – neopositivism . The essence of these problems was the need to understand the role of sign-symbolic means of scientific thinking in connection with the mathematization and formalization of scientific research, the relationship between the theoretical apparatus of science and its empirical basis. That is, unlike the Machians, whose attention was focused on the analysis of sensations and sensory experience, the neopositivists emphasized the study of the logical apparatus of modern natural science.
Neopositivism emerged almost simultaneously in three European countries– Austria (“Vienna Circle”), England (B. Russell), Poland (Lviv-Warsaw School).
Historically, the first type of neopositivism was logical positivism, which arose in the 20s of the twentieth century in the “Vienna Circle”, which united logicians, mathematicians, philosophers, and sociologists. It was headed by Moritz Schlick (1882 – 1976). The views of the circle members were significantly influenced by Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889 – 1951) and his work “Treatise Logico-Philosophicus” (1921), Bertrand Russell (1872 – 1970) and his concept of logical atomism, Alfred Ayer (1910-1989), George Moore (1873 – 1958).
Logical positivism continued in new forms the traditions of empiricism and phenomenalism of the first two forms of positivism. The subject of philosophy, according to supporters of logical positivism, should be the language of science as a way of expressing knowledge, as well as the activity of analyzing this knowledge and the possibilities of its expression in language. That is, philosophy is possible only as a logical analysis of language. Traditional metaphysics is considered as a doctrine devoid of meaning from the point of view of the logical norms of language. “The goal of philosophy is the logical clarification of thoughts. Philosophy is not a theory, but an activity... The result of philosophy is not a certain number of “philosophical propositions,” but a clarification of propositions.”
The logical positivists attributed the statement of science (statements of scientists) to two types - theoretical and empirical. Logical analysis of the language of science assumed: 1) reduction, reduction of theoretical knowledge to empirical and 2) sensory, empirical verification (verification - from the English verificare - verification, confirmation) of empirical statements. Those. Logical positivism seeks to subject all available knowledge to critical analysis from the standpoint of the principle of verification (verifiability).
The principle of verification was conceived, on the one hand, as a criterion of scientific meaningfulness, and on the other, as a criterion of truth and falsity. According to this principle, any scientifically meaningful statement can be reduced to a set of protocol sentences (propositions that form the empirical basis of science), recording the data of “pure experience”, the sensory experiences of the subject (for example, “now I see green”, “here I feel warm” and so on.). It was assumed that the data of “pure experience” was a combination of indivisible, absolutely simple facts and events. They are absolutely reliable and neutral in relation to all other knowledge. And the process of learning begins with them.
Postpositivism – many concepts that replaced logical positivism (neopositivism).
Supporters of various postpositivist movements largely disagree with each other, criticize outdated ideas of neopositivism, while maintaining continuity in relation to it.
The main idea of postpositivism is rational method of cognition.
The brightest representatives of postpositivism:
– Karl Popper;
– Imre Lakatos;
– Paul Feyerabend;
– Thomas Kuhn.
1. One of the most interesting representatives of postpositivism is the modern English philosopher Karl Popper.
According to Popper, the task of the philosophy of scientific knowledge is to solve the problem of the growth of knowledge. The growth of knowledge can occur in the process of rational discussion, which acts as a critique of existing knowledge. Popper's philosophy is rightfully considered critical rationalism.
According to Popper, scientists make discoveries by moving from hypotheses to single statements, contrary to the existing opinion of inductivists - from facts to theory. Popper calls a scientific theory a concept that can be compared with experimental data, which means that it can be falsified at any moment. Philosophy cannot be falsified, which means that philosophy does not have a scientific character. Popper's philosophy acts as an understanding of the growth of scientific knowledge and includes the principles of rational-critical discussion, falsificationism, and fallibolism.
2. Another representative of English postpositivism is Imre Lakatos, who put forward the methodology of research programs. According to Lakatos, it is important to compare theories with each other.
Lakatos, as a true postpositivist, drew attention to the need for a thorough study of the history of the development of scientific knowledge. Scientific research, not accompanied by the study of the history of science, lead to one-sided knowledge and create conditions for dogmatism.
3. Paul Feyerabend is an American philosopher who criticizes cumulativeism, according to which the development of knowledge occurs as a result of the gradual accumulation of knowledge.
This thinker is a supporter of the thesis about the incommensurability of theories. According to Feyerabend, pluralism should reign in both politics and science.
The merit of the American thinker is his persistent rejection of the ideals of classical science that have acquired stable features; science is a process of multiplication of theories, in which there is no single line.
4. Another American philosopher, Thomas Kuhn, following Feyerabend, criticizes the scheme for the development of science proposed by Popper.
Kuhn's main idea is that in the development of scientific knowledge big role The activities of the scientific community play a role, and social and psychological aspects are of particular importance.
Structuralism – a general name for a number of trends, mainly in socio-humanitarian knowledge of the 20th century, related to identifying the structure of the systems under study and the development of structural research methods. Structuralism emerges as a research method in linguistics, literary criticism, psychology, and the theory of ethnography during the transition of these sciences from predominantly descriptive-empirical to abstract-theoretical research.
It became most widespread in the 60s in France, claiming objectivity and scientific rigor as opposed to existentialism, which openly opposed itself to science and the scientific method. The main representatives of structuralism are Claude Lévi-Strauss, Jacques Derida, Michel Foucault, Jean Lacan and others. In their studies, they sought to substantiate humanitarian knowledge as theoretical science. At the same time, for example, Levi-Strauss orients the humanities towards the ideal of natural scientific rigor.
Structuralists place the main emphasis on identifying structure as a set of hidden relationships that are invariant under certain transformations and systemically acquired properties that depend on it. Structure is not just the structure of some object, combinations of its parts and elements, accessible to direct observation, it is revealed by the power of abstraction. In this case, abstraction occurs from the substrate specificity of the elements of a particular system. The structure calculated in this way can be investigated using methods formal logic and mathematics (group theory, graph theory, etc.), information and computer technology. The calculation of the structural aspect in the humanities is carried out, as a rule, using a certain sign system.
Calculation of the sign aspect in language, art, myths, etc. allows us to identify abstract structures thanks to such features sign systems, as a clear discreteness of their elements and relative independence to the specifics of their substrate (as evidenced, for example, by the replacement of sounds with letters).
A characteristic feature of structuralism is the desire, through the conscious manipulation of signs, words, symbols, to discover unconscious deep structures, hidden mechanisms of sign systems ("mental structures" of Lévi-Strauss, "discursive formations" of Foucault, etc.) that mediate the relationship between human consciousness and the world . These unconscious structures, from the point of view of the French structuralists, are not irrational impulses of an empirical-biological nature (S. Freud), they are logical and rational and are nothing more than a hidden, unconscious mechanism of sign systems (“symbolic function”). Thus, a person who normally speaks a language applies grammatical rules in his speech without thinking about them and, perhaps, without even knowing about their existence. The structural method allows you to move from superficial, conscious connections to hidden, unconscious patterns.
Lévi-Strauss seeks what is common to all cultures and all people in the idea of superrationalism; in his opinion, super-rationalism is the harmony of the sensual and rational principles, lost by modern European civilization, but preserved at the level of primitive mythological thinking.
Linguistic structuralism originates from the works of the major Swiss linguist F. de Saussure (1857 – 1913) and his work “Course of General Linguistics”. In the various currents of linguistic structuralism that developed after de Saussure, the identification of the hidden structures of language was carried out in different ways and at different levels of abstraction. Their common feature is the methodological primacy of relationships over elements in the system.
The study of the determining role of relations here led to the creation of a whole new science - phonology, which emerged from the previous phonetics as the study of linguistic sounds (works Prague school structuralism).
Analysis of the cognitive practices of structuralism allows us to calculate the main categorical elements of its constructions: structure, language, the unconscious. In this case, the structures of language are interpreted as an example of objective structures, abstracted from the consciousness and experiences of the speaker, from the specifics of specific speech acts. The unconscious is considered as a necessary condition for knowledge: it is something that was outside consciousness and gives access to consciousness.
The consequence of such a methodological focus on objectivity is that a person, a subject, is either completely taken out of the scope of consideration in structuralism, or is interpreted as something dependent, derivative from the functioning of objective structures. This structuralist thesis, called the "death of man" thesis, has attracted harsh criticism.
A characteristic feature of structuralism as a research method is its abstraction from the process of development of the object under study. And this, on the one hand, is its advantages, and on the other, its limitations. As a method of identifying hidden abstract structures, this is an effective scientific method, which is more likely not of a philosophical, but of a general scientific nature. It combines well with methods such as modeling, hypothetico-deductive, informational, formalization, and mathematization. But it does not allow us to study development processes; for this it is necessary to use other approaches and methods.
The philosophical specificity of structuralism is not easy to define. On the one hand, structuralism contains criticism of the supporting abstractions of rationalistic subjectivism (for example, the subject, self-awareness, judgment), on the other hand, structuralism develops rationalistic ideas in a new cognitive and ideological situation. By developing its positions of approaches, structuralism influenced the search for objectivity and the study of language in phenomenology, and significantly determined the shape of modern hermeneutics. The impact of structuralism has increased the problematization of narrow empiricist schemes in modern versions positivism.
From the late 60s to the early 70s, there was a transition to a new stage in the development of structuralism - poststructuralism (70s-80s). Knowledge is deprived of its aura of objectivity and is interpreted as a concentration of social and political forces, as the embodiment of strategies of power, coercion and motivation. The emphasis in the research of structuralists shifts from the analysis of objective neutral structures to the analysis of everything that lies outside the structure, which refers to its “wrong side”.
Poststructuralism is aimed at identifying paradoxes and aporias that arise when trying to objectively understand man and society with the help of linguistic structures, at overcoming structuralist ahistorism and linguistic reductionism, building new models of meaning formation, and creating a new practice of “open” reading that overcomes analytical interpretations. The main representatives of poststructuralism are Derrida, Deleuze, Lyotard, Baudrillard, Bloom, de Man, Miller and others. Like structuralism, poststructuralism does not form an organizational unity and does not have general program, there is a certain commonality of the problem field and approaches to problems.
Among the orientations within poststructuralism, two are especially important - with an emphasis on political reality: “there is nothing but text” (Derrida) and “everything is ultimately politics” (Deleuze).
One of the main tasks of poststructuralism is the criticism of Western European metaphysics with its logocentrism, the discovery of the power and power of language behind all cultural products and mental patterns of language.
One of the most prominent representatives of poststructuralism is the French philosopher Jacques Derrida (b. 1930). One of his works, “On Grammatology” (1967), became programmatic for structuralism. By raising the question of the exhaustion of the resources of reason in the forms in which they were used by the leading directions of classical and modern Western philosophy. Derrida considers such a method of philosophical work as deconstruction to be a condition for overcoming metaphysics. Its essence is to identify in the texts supporting concepts and a layer of metaphors that indicate the self-identity of the text, the traces of its overlap with other texts. The main task of deconstruction (operations of “disassembly” and “assembly”) is to show in any kind of text the significance of extra-systemic, marginal elements, “to tease and lure out the conflicting forces of meaning” (B. Johnson).
In this case, the context becomes especially important—the system opens up and “enters the context.” Since the context can be expanded without limit, the context-dependent meaning is completely indeterminate. Under the pressure of the context, the boundaries of “external and internal” are blurred in the text. In contrast to the exclusion of the subject in structuralism, poststructuralism puts forward the thesis about the “inclusion” of the subject’s desires in the process of signification.
Poststructuralism sharpens the question of the paths and destinies of philosophy. Philosophy is recognized as a constructive force directly involved in the formation of new cultural objects, new relationships between various areas of spiritual and practical activity. Her new role cannot be fully understood until this experience is fully lived through. The question remains unresolved, but extremely significant for its fate: can we challenge, problematize reason other than in the forms of reason itself? Can we sacrifice a developed, conceptually worked out thought for the sake of an unsteady thought that is just trying to be born - without images and concepts.
Hermeneutics . The emergence of hermeneutics as a special philosophical movement in the last quarter of the 20th century, the focus of which is the problems of understanding and interpreting texts, revealing meanings, had a certain impact on the development of philosophy not only in the humanities, but also in the natural sciences.
The term “hermeneutics” itself and the basic concept corresponding to it arose in ancient times. As you know, in ancient Greek mythology, Hermes was the mediator between the gods and mere mortals. He had to interpret the command of the gods to people, and the requests of people to the gods. This is where the term “hermeneutics” originates, which originally meant the art of interpreting the sayings of oracles, ancient texts, signs of the meaning of a foreign language, etc. In the Middle Ages, hermeneutics was inextricably linked with theology, with the interpretation of the writings of the “church fathers.”
The founder of modern hermeneutics is considered to be Friedrich Schleiermacher, who laid the foundations of hermeneutics as a general theory of interpretation. Then Wilhelm Dilthey tried to develop these views, who paid special attention to studying the essence of the process of understanding. He considered the latter as “experience” in the sense of grasping the hidden meanings of human existence in its historically critical stages. At the same time, he argued that hermeneutics is a methodology of humanitarian knowledge: “We explain nature, but we understand spirit.”
However, only at the end of the twentieth century. The illegality of opposing the sciences of the spirit and the sciences of nature, understanding and explanation, is becoming more and more clearly realized. Therefore, philosophers of science turn to hermeneutics as a philosophy of understanding.
The most famous representatives of hermeneutics are Hans Georg Gadamer (b. 1900), Paul Ricoeur (b. 1913), Jacques Lacan (1901-1981), Karp Otto Apel (b. 1922), etc. Without analyzing in detail all aspects of hermeneutics as a philosophical direction , we note only those of them that are important for the development of philosophical science.
The basis of the process of cognition is always a “preliminary understanding” given by tradition, within the framework of which, according to Gadamer, it is only possible to live and think. "Pre-understanding" can be corrected, corrected, but it is impossible to get rid of it completely (it does not really exist " zero point reference"). That is, the process of cognition, both historical and natural science, is not an abstract and indifferent statement of everything that comes into our field of vision, as positivists believe. The researcher always approaches the subject under study, the text, from a point of view predetermined by tradition. According to Gadamer, this pre-understanding is based on the “prejudice” of cultural tradition, and it is they, and not rational-logical aspects, that determine the essence of human thinking.
In addition, for Gadamer the text turns, as it were, into the final objective reality. The text turns out to be objectively independent in relation to both the author and his environment and era. The task of hermeneutic research is now seen not in identifying the subtexts that were thought at one time, but in identifying various possible (including previously not assumed) interpretations.
The central methodological principle of hermeneutics is the so-called hermeneutic circle: to understand the whole it is necessary to understand its individual parts, but to understand the individual parts it is already necessary to have an idea of the meaning of the whole. For example, a word can only be understood in the context of a phrase, a phrase - only in the context of a paragraph or page, and the latter - only in the context of the work as a whole, which, in turn, is impossible without first understanding its parts. From the point of view of hermeneutics, the task is not to open this circle, but to enter it. The linguistic tradition in which the knowing subject is rooted constitutes both the subject of knowledge and its basis: a person must understand that within which he himself resides. At the same time, there is a certain revaluation of the role of traditions and language in knowledge.
In the philosophy of science, the hermeneutic circle is developed as the interdependence of theory and fact: the facts on which a theory is built are always conceptually loaded, their selection and interpretations are determined by the very theory that they are supposed to justify.
The idea of “pre-understanding” expresses in a unique form the belief in the sociocultural determination of any knowledge. Indeed, the horizon of understanding is always historically determined and limited. Unpresupposed understanding - regardless of whether we are talking about the study of history or the study of nature - is, in essence, a fiction.
However, the specification of this general premise in philosophical hermeneutics degenerates, as a rule, into denying the possibility of objective truth itself.
Hermeneutics has done a lot to clarify understanding. In particular, it showed the limitations of naturalistic, mechanistic models for explaining understanding, and drew attention to the problem of understanding and interpretation.
At the same time, philosophical hermeneutics made a claim to know the truth without a method: there is no agreement between truth and method. According to Gadamer, subjective activity should now be understood not as a method of knowing the truth, but as its hermeneutic outline, anticipation.
The relationship between science and technology.
For a long time (especially in the 50-60s of our century), one of the most common was the so-called linear model, according to which technology is a simple application of science or applied science. In other words, Technical science are not recognized as an independent field of scientific knowledge, which is manifested in the non-division of sciences into natural and technical. Thus, J. Bernal in his book “Science in the History of Society” mentioned applied sciences, but in the relationship between science and technology, insufficient attention was paid to the content and role of the latter. “The main reason for distinguishing the scientific side of social activity from others is, he wrote, that it, first of all, concerns the question of how to do things, refers to the top of a given mass of knowledge of facts and actions and follows first and foremost from the understanding, control and transformation of the means of production, that is, technology that provides for human needs... The main activity of the scientist is to find out how to make a thing, and the job of the engineer is to create it.” It is easy to notice that in this statement by J. Bernal both natural science and technical knowledge, but without their dismemberment. At the same time, the research aspect was removed from technical activity and probably inventive and Practical activities on production technical means in the field of production. This is confirmed by another reasoning by J. Bernal: “Technology is an individually acquired and socially assigned way of making something; Science is a way of understanding how to make it in order to make it better.” And here, when defining technology, the role of the individual creative activity of the inventor is noted. Science is presented integrally, without dividing it into natural and technical knowledge.
However, this point of view has come under serious criticism in recent years due to its strong simplification and inadequacy to the actual state of affairs. This model of the relationship between science and technology, when science recognizes the function of producing knowledge, and technology only its application, is misleading, since it asserts that science and technology represent different functions performed by the same community. In reality, inventive and especially design activities rely directly on technical sciences, since they are the ones who analyze the structure and functioning of technical means of labor and provide methods for calculating and developing technical devices. Science is dealt with by one community, technology by another, which in modern conditions ensures the colossal efficiency of scientific and technological progress.
The processes of development of science and technology are often considered as independent, independent from each other, but coordinated. Then there are two options for their relationship:
1) science at some stages of its development uses technology instrumentally for its own purposes, and vice versa, it happens that technology needs scientific results as a tool in order to obtain the effects it needs;
2) technology sets the conditions for choosing scientific versions, and science, in turn, sets technical ones. Before us is an evolutionary model of the relationship between science and technology, which captures the very real processes of their interaction.
This model distinguishes three interrelated but independent areas: science, technology and production or, in a broad sense, practical use. The internal innovation process occurs in each of these areas according to an evolutionary scheme. Western researcher S. Toulmin, for example, transfers the disciplinary model of the evolution of science he developed to a description of the historical development of technology. Only in this case we are no longer talking about factors changing the population of theories or concepts, but about the evolution of instructions, projects, practical methods, manufacturing techniques, etc. Similar to the development of science, a new idea in technology often leads to the emergence of an entirely new technical discipline. Technology develops through the selection of innovations from the stock of possible technical options.
Scientific and technological progress and its consequences.
Scientific and technological progress is a process of constant updating of all elements of reproduction, the main place in which belongs to the updating of equipment and technology. This process is as eternal and constant as the work of human thought, designed to facilitate and reduce the costs of physical and mental labor to achieve the final result in work activity, is eternal and constant. “Scientific and technological progress is a radical transformation of productive forces based on the use of new scientific principles, the transition to a qualitatively new stage in the development of large-scale machine production, the transformation of science into the direct productive force of society. The modern form of scientific and technological progress acts as a process of development and implementation of innovations"
The development of technology, starting from the Renaissance, is closely related to the development of science. Merging together, two intellectual and creative forces formed a fairly stable social process, which is characterized by qualitative leaps in the form of scientific and technological revolutions. If the Copernican scientific revolution and the industrial technical and technological revolution were still separated in time, then the subsequent revolutions were synchronous in nature (electrical, nuclear, psychological, biological, computer, genetic). As soon as a scientific and technological revolution occurs, it immediately moves into the stage of technological development of its consequences. Even in Capital, K. Marx wrote that different attitudes are being formed towards these processes. It is caused by the social and class characteristics of society. Thus, for the proletariat, mechanization was fraught with loss of jobs. Therefore, in capitalist enterprises there were cases of machine breakdowns by those whose place they threatened to take. The reduction of manufacturing jobs is becoming one of the main problems. Even if workers remain at enterprises, they are constantly required to retrain, improve their skills, and take responsibility in the conditions competition for jobs. According to A. Toffler, all this requires the employee to do well developed sense professional mobility. If this is absent, then there may be futuroshk (fear of the future), excessive conservatism and an increase in aggressiveness and conflict in society. The scale of the computer revolution, which has caused automation and robotization of industrial production, is truly enormous. From Agriculture and industry millions of people were freed. For now, they will be in demand in the service sector, but it is also being technicalized, which makes the problem of employment more urgent. Mechanisms for social protection of workers are being developed accordingly. These functions are assumed by a socially oriented state, since it is most interested in the stability of national systems of life of people and, first of all, superpowers that have nuclear weapons. Technology causes changes not only in the system of production activities, but also in the structure civil society. Thus, J. Ortega y Gasset notes the emergence of a new cultural world and man. The development of machine technology after the industrial revolution led to the emergence of large industries and the concentration of the population in cities (urbanization), and the movement of millions of people from one continent to another (migration). The resettlement had a particularly negative impact on rural residents who became city dwellers. Most of them became lumpen and were left without the original traditions that regulated their lives. People who found themselves in the technogenic world began to perceive material and artistic values as something taken for granted. Due to the accessibility of culture, its true meaning has not been formed. There was a desire to quickly acquire it at any cost and by any means. Nihilism and ideologies divorced from real life have become a constant companion of the dehumanized mass of people. As a result, technology has created a profound contradiction between those who actually create civilization and those who would only like to use its products. A culturally degraded mass of people easily becomes involved in the atmosphere of crowd formation and the cultivation of base aspirations. The social consequences caused by technology are aggravated by the fact that they coincide with the era of total nihilism and the devaluation of human experience. Thus, religion, which for centuries fulfilled its regulatory function, became an object of persecution and destruction. In this regard, we recall the words of F. Nietzsche that God is dead, and we killed him. The most important consequence of scientific and technological development has been the exacerbation of problems within many elements of the social structure of society. The family faced renewed debate about the social status of men and women in the culture. Modern alternatives are being sought to patriarchy and matriarchy. Migration gave the family an interracial, interfaith and interethnic character. The class structure of society, even within the framework of the formational concept, has undergone significant quantitative changes. The share of traditional classes - the proletariat and peasants - has decreased significantly in the total working-age population. Qualitative dynamics also indicate changes - mainly in the direction of increasing the level of education and professional qualifications of workers. Among the intelligentsia, there has been a tendency for the share of civil servants, engineers, economists, lawyers, doctors, and social workers to increase. Under the influence of migration flows, nations are becoming increasingly multiethnic. These processes are accompanied by contradictions and conflicts. The greatest danger to technogenic civilization is ethnic separatism, since it creates obstacles to the processes of globalization and integration. And the level of modern technology is such that it involves the unification of entire regions within the framework of separate projects. The concentration of activity in the most optimal centers of the world has led to the formation of huge technical metropolises with a population of more than 10 million people. In them, humanity is faced with qualitatively new problems relating to the safety and livelihoods of the population. Any error in assessing the changes taking place in a technogenic society causes cataclysms. Thus, representatives of the Frankfurt school of neo-Marxism T. Adorno and G. Marcuse had the imprudence to assert that the revolutionary function of the classical proletarians was taken over by declassed elements and students. And in 1968, France was shocked by powerful student unrest, which resulted in significant material losses, as well as personal tragedies, and a crisis of worldview. Age groups, primarily young people, have been influenced by technology through computer technology and audiovisual means. Age limits access to information turned out to be blurred. And this means the risk of the emergence of various inadequate perceptions, passing into a wide variety of subcultures and countercultures. Supporters of technological determinism proceed from the decisive role of technology in the development of socio-economic and socio-cultural structures. Originating in the 20s. XX century in connection with the rapid development of science and technology, this attitude was reflected in the concept of technocratism, which substantiates the need and inevitability of the increasing role of the technical intelligentsia in society (Veblen), in the theory of stages of growth (Rostow), in the concepts of industrial (Aron, Galbraith) and post-industrial ( Bell, Fourastier), technotronic (Z. Brzezinski), information (E. Masuda) society, “Third Wave” (Toffler). Major advances in technology and technological system production is considered within the framework of these approaches as the main determinants of socio-economic and other changes in society. It is believed that the development of technology is guided by such universal criteria as efficiency, economy, consistency, and reliability, which determine the nature of technical innovations. However, as critics of the concept of technological determinism rightly note, even super-rational planning of technological progress, when isolated from humanistic values, inevitably gives rise to irrational-negative, destructive foundations human existence, consequences. This determines the formation of alternative anti-technical programs in modern conditions. What is the essence of concepts alternative to technological determinism? Their philosophical meaning lies, first of all, in expanding the spectrum of analysis of the phenomenon of technology, immersing it in the context of economics, sociology, social psychology, anthropology, as well as the philosophical theory of values, which will create the prerequisites for building a holistic program for the study of technology that does not conflict with life values. strategies and prospects of humanity (G. Ropol, S. Carpenter). The progress of technology is determined and measured not only by technical ideas and their implementation, but also by socio-political, economic, environmental and moral-axiological parameters. Marcuse, Adorno, Horkheimer and others draw attention to the negative consequences of a person’s excessive enthusiasm for the power of technology. Technology turns means into ends, standardizes behavior, interests, and inclinations of people, turning a person into an object of unspiritual manipulation (Ellul). Heidegger saw the cause of the disastrous threats arising from the action of machines and all kinds of devices in the very essence of man, who perceives the world exclusively as a material to satisfy his needs, and technology as a tool that allows him to remove the veils of natural secrets. To save a person, a reorientation of human thinking is necessary. Other researchers believe that a differentiated analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the “technological worldview” (F. Rain, H. Schelsky), “humanization of technology” (J. Waynestein), as well as rational actions, and not just the efforts of the spirit, is necessary , due to the irreversibility and inevitability of technology development. In the 60-70s. XX century western civilization As a result of the structural restructuring of the economy, which promoted new, flexible, knowledge-intensive industries to the leading positions instead of heavy industry, it is moving into the post-industrial stage. This period is associated with the creation of an extensive service economy, the dominance of a layer of scientific and technical specialists, the central role of theoretical knowledge in the development of the economy, the rapid development of the “knowledge industry,” computerization and the emergence of broad information systems. Discussion of the social consequences of scientific and technological progress in the subject field of philosophy of technology occupies one of the leading places. Anti-technical criticism in a romantic-philosophical form recorded the negative consequences of unspiritual technicism, the limitation of measuring the progress of technology only by technical ideas and the need to supplement it with social, political, economic parameters, complex humanitarian-axiological programs, without which it is impossible to overcome the alienation of man, transforming him into a construct of technical- production systems. Such a critical paradigm in relation to the progress of technology has revealed alarming contradictions and dangerous consequences of the technological development of society, threatening irreversible destruction of the socio-natural environment and, at the same time, initiated the formation of axiological-humanistic programs aimed at reorienting the “technological worldview” and thinking, recognizing the need for rational strategies and actions in conditions of irreversibility and inevitability of technical development, the possibility of developing technology that does not threaten the life prospects of mankind. In accordance with this, the problems of global results of technogenic development affecting the interests of all mankind are being updated (threat to peace in connection with the development military equipment; consequences of the environmental crisis, etc.); problems of rational control of technology, limiting its quantitative growth to reasonable limits; problems of constructing a system of values adequate to the “technotronic era” and combining intellectual, moral and ethical principles in a person, taking into account the need for dialogue between scientific, technical and philosophical and humanitarian culture.