What is the science of biology? Speaking in simple language, is the study of life in all its diversity and grandeur. From microscopic algae and bacteria to large elephants and giant blue whales, life on our planet is incredibly diverse. Taking this into account, where do we borrow from, what is living? What are the main characteristics of life? All this is very important questions with equally important answers!
Characteristics of life
Living beings are treated as visible, and, and invisible world bacteria and viruses. On basic level we can say that life is orderly. Organisms have an extremely complex organization. We are all familiar with the intricate systems of the basic cell.
Life can "work". I will introduce not a daily variety of work, but the maintenance of metabolic processes by obtaining energy in the form of food from the environment.
Life grows and develops. This means more than just copying or increasing size. Living organisms also have the ability to recover from certain types of damage.
Life can reproduce. Have you ever seen dirt or rocks multiply? Most likely not! Life can only come from other living beings.
Life can react. Remember how in last time you hit some part of your body. A painful reaction follows almost instantly. Life is characterized by reactions to various stimuli and external stimuli.
Finally, life can adapt and respond requirements imposed by the environment.
There are three main types of adaptations that can arise in higher organisms:
- Reversible changes occur as a response to changes in environment. Let's say you live near sea level and travel to a mountainous area. You may begin to experience difficulty breathing and an increase in your heart rate as a result of the change in altitude. These symptoms disappear as you return to sea level.
- Somatic changes occur as a result of long-term changes in the environment. Using the previous example, if you stay in a mountainous area for a long time, you will notice that your heart rate will begin to slow down and you will begin to breathe normally. Somatic changes are also reversible.
- The final type of adaptation is called genotypic (caused genetic mutation). These changes occur in the genetic makeup of the organism and are not reversible. An example is the development of pesticide resistance in insects and spiders.
Thus, life is organized, “works,” grows, reproduces, responds to stimuli, and adapts. These characteristics underlie the study of the science of general biology.
Basic principles of modern biology
The foundation of the science of biology as it exists today is based on five basic principles. These are cell theory, gene theory, evolution, homeostasis and the laws of thermodynamics.
- : All living organisms are made up of cells. is the basic unit of life.
- : Traits are inherited through the transmission of genes. located on and composed of DNA.
- : Anything in a population that is inherited over several generations. These changes may be small or large, noticeable or not so noticeable.
- : ability to maintain constant internal environment in response to environmental changes.
- : Energy is constant and energy conversion is not completely efficient.
Sections of biology
The field of biology is very broad and can be divided into several disciplines. In the very in a general sense these disciplines are classified according to the type of organism being studied. For example, botany is the study of animals, botany is the study of plants, and microbiology is the study of microorganisms. These areas of research can also be broken down into several specialized subdisciplines. Some of these include anatomy, genetics and physiology.
Area of knowledge, as well as the corresponding academic discipline), studying the basic and common patterns of life phenomena for all organisms [ unreputable source?] . The task of general biology is to identify and explain what is common, equally true for the entire diversity of organisms, general patterns development of nature, the essence of life, its forms and development. Since general biology includes a number of other independent sciences, it is often defined instead of science as field of biology, exploring the most general patterns inherent in all living beings. In the Russian UDC, sections 574-577 are allocated for general biology.
General biology should not be confused with theoretical biology, a special case of general biology, one of the main tasks of which is discovery and description general laws movement of living matter, mainly mathematical methods and from the standpoint of systems theory.
It should be noted that according to scientists, in modern science, the results of which are usually published in journals with a high impact factor, such as " General biology"(General Biology), similar to "general physics", does not exist. However, at leading universities courses are taught for first-year bachelors, that is, “General Biology” exists only as an introductory course to biology.
Story
In 1802 the term biology appeared. G. R. Treviranus defines biology as the science of general characteristics in animals and plants, as well as special subject headings that were studied by his predecessors, in particular C. Linnaeus.
In 1832, the book “Allgemeine Biologie der Pflanzen” (“General Biology of Plants”) (Greifsv., 1832) was published, a translation of the book “Lärobok i botanik” by Karl Agar.
Already in 1883, courses in general biology were taught at the University of New Zealand.
General biology began to be taught as a separate course in the first half of the 20th century, which was associated with successes in the study of cells, microbiological research, discoveries of genetics, in a word - the transformation of biology from an auxiliary, private, descriptive science (zoology, botany, systematics) into an independent and extremely in-demand area of knowledge.
In 1940, Academician I. I. Shmalgauzen founded the Journal of General Biology.
Apparently the first book (textbook) on general biology in Russian was V.V. Makhovko, P.V. Makarov, K.Yu. Kostryukova General Biology Publisher: State Publishing House of Medical Literature, 1950, 504 pp.
As an academic discipline, general biology is taught in high school high school since 1963, and in 1966 the book “General Biology” was published, edited by Yu.I. Polyansky, used as a teaching aid.
Main sections
Traditionally, general biology includes: cytology, genetics, biological chemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology [ not in the source], ecology, developmental biology, evolutionary theory, the doctrine of the biosphere and the doctrine of man ( biological aspect) [not in the source] .
The importance of general biology
Related sciences
Theoretical biology
see also
- Private biology
Notes
Literature
- Jane M. Oppenheimer, Reflections on Fifty Years of Publications on the History of General Biology and Special Embryology, Vol. 50, No. 4 (Dec., 1975), pp. 373-387
- Grodnitsky D.L., Comparative analysis of school textbooks on General Biology, 2003
- Fundamentals of General Biology (Kompendium Der Allgemeinen Biologie, GDR) Under general edition E. Libbert M.: Mir, 1982. 436 pp.
Links
Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.
See what “General Biology” is in other dictionaries:
BIOLOGY- BIOLOGY. Contents: I. History of biology.............. 424 Vitalism and machinism. The emergence of empirical sciences in the 16th and 18th centuries. Emergence and development evolutionary theory. Development of physiology in the 19th century. Development of cellular science. Results of the 19th century... Big medical encyclopedia
- (Greek, from bios life, and logos word). The science of life and its manifestations in animals and plants. Dictionary foreign words, included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. BIOLOGY Greek, from bios, life, and logos, word. Doctrine of vitality.… … Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language
BIOLOGY- uch. a subject at school; basic knowledge about living nature. Reflects modern achievements of sciences studying the structure and vital functions of biol. objects of all levels of complexity (cell, organism, population, biocenosis, biosphere). Shk. course B. includes sections: ... ... Russian pedagogical encyclopedia
- (from Bio... and...Logia is a set of sciences about living nature. The subject of study is all manifestations of life: the structure and functions of living beings and their natural communities, their distribution, origin and development, connections with each other and with inanimate … … Big Soviet encyclopedia
- (systems theory) scientific and methodological concept of studying objects that are systems. It is closely related to systematic approach and is a concretization of its principles and methods. First option general theory systems was... ... Wikipedia
I Biology (Greek bios life + logos teaching) totality natural sciences about life as special phenomenon nature. The subject of study is the structure, functioning, individual and historical (evolution) development of organisms, their relationships... Medical encyclopedia
Lecture outline:
1. Relevance biological knowledge V modern world. The place of general biology in the system of biological sciences.
2. Study methods.
3. The concept of “life” and the properties of living things.
4. Levels of organization of living things.
5. Practical significance biology.
1. Relevance of biological knowledge in the modern world.
BIOLOGY is the science of life in all its manifestations and patterns that govern living nature. Its name arose from a combination of two Greek words: BIOS - life, LOGOS - teaching. This science studies all living organisms.
The term "biology" was introduced by scientific circulation French scientist J.B. Lamarck in 1802. The subject of biology is living organisms (plants, animals, fungi, bacteria), their structure, functions, development, origin, relationships with the environment.
In the organic world, there are 5 kingdoms: bacteria (grass), plants, animals, fungi, viruses. These living organisms are studied according to the sciences: bacteriology and microbiology, botany, zoology, mycology, virology. Each of these sciences is divided into sections. For example, zoology includes entomology, theriology, ornithology, ichthyology, etc. each group of animals is studied according to the plan: anatomy, morphology, histology, zoogeography, ethology, etc. In addition to these sections, one can also name: biophysics, biochemistry, biometry, cytology, histology, genetics, ecologists, selection, space biology, Genetic Engineering and many others.
Thus, modern biology is a complex of sciences that study living things.
But this differentiation would lead science to a dead end if there were no integrating science - general biology. She brings everything together biological sciences at theoretical and practical levels.
· What does general biology study?
General biology studies the patterns of life at all levels of its organization, the mechanisms of biological processes and phenomena, the ways of development of the organic world and its rational use.
· What can all biological sciences have in common?
General biology plays a unifying role in the system of knowledge about living nature, since it systematizes previously studied facts, the totality of which makes it possible to identify the basic patterns of the organic world.
· What is the purpose of general biology?
Implementation of reasonable use, protection and reproduction of nature.
2. Methods for studying biology.
The main methods of biology are:
observation(allows you to describe biological phenomena),
comparison(makes it possible to find general patterns in the structure and life activity of various organisms),
experiment or experience (helps the researcher study the properties of biological objects),
modeling(many processes are simulated that are inaccessible to direct observation or experimental reproduction),
historical method (allows based on data on modern organic world and its past to understand the processes of development of living nature).
General biology uses the methods of other sciences and complex methods that allow us to study and solve problems.
1. PALEONTOLOGICAL method, or morphological method of study. Deep internal similarity of organisms can show the relationship of the compared forms (homology, analogy of organs, vestigial organs and atavisms).
2. COMPARATIVE - EIBRYOLOGICAL - identification of embryonic similarity, the work of K. Baer, the principle of recapitulation.
3. COMPLEX – triple parallelism method.
4. BIOGEOGRAPHICAL – allows you to analyze the general course of the evolutionary process on a variety of scales (comparison of floras and faunas, features of the distribution of similar forms, study of relict forms).
5. POPULATIONAL – allows you to capture the directions of natural selection by changing the distribution of trait values in populations at different stages of its existence or when comparing different populations.
6. IMMUNOLOGICAL – allows you to to a large extent accurately identify the “blood relationship” of different groups.
7. GENETIC – allows you to determine the genetic compatibility of the compared forms, and therefore determine the degree of relationship.
There is no one “absolute” or perfect method. It is advisable to use them in combination, since they are complementary.
3. The concept of “life” and the properties of living things.
What is life?
One of the definitions was given by F. Engels more than 100 years ago: “Life is a way of existence of protein bodies, an indispensable condition of life is constant metabolism, with the cessation of which life also ceases.”
By modern ideas, life is a way of existence of open colloidal systems that have the properties of self-regulation, reproduction and development based on the geochemical interaction of proteins, nucleic acids other compounds due to the conversion of substances and energy from external environment.
Life arises and proceeds in the form of highly organized integral biological systems. Biosystems are organisms, their structural units (cells, molecules), species, populations, biogeocenoses and biosphere.
Living systems have a number of common properties and characteristics that distinguish them from inanimate nature.
1.
All biosystems are characterized high orderliness, which can only be maintained thanks to the processes occurring in them. In the composition of all biological systems lying above molecular level, includes certain elements (98% chemical composition accounts for 4 elements: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and in total mass The main share of substances is water - at least 70 - 85%). The orderliness of a cell is manifested in the fact that it is characterized by specific set cellular components, and the orderliness of biogeocenosis lies in the fact that it includes certain functional groups of organisms and the inanimate environment associated with them.
2.
Cellular structure: All living organisms have cellular structure, with the exception of viruses.
3.
Metabolism. All living organisms are capable of metabolism with the environment, absorbing from it substances necessary for nutrition and respiration, and excreting waste products. The meaning of biotic cycles is the transformation of molecules that ensure the constancy of the internal environment of the organism and, thus, the continuity of its functioning in constantly changing environmental conditions (maintaining homeostasis).
4. Reproduction, or self-reproduction, - the ability of living systems to reproduce their own kind. This process is carried out at all levels of the organization of living things;
a) DNA reduplication - at the molecular level;
b) duplication of plastids, centrioles, mitochondria in the cell - at the subcellular level;
c) cell division by mitosis - at the cellular level;
d) maintaining consistency cellular composition due to the proliferation of individual cells - at the tissue level;
e) on organismal level reproduction manifests itself in the form of asexual reproduction of individuals (an increase in the number of offspring and continuity of generations is carried out due to mitotic division somatic cells) or sexual (an increase in the number of offspring and continuity of generations is ensured by sex cells - gametes).
5.
Heredity lies in the ability of organisms to transmit their characteristics, properties and developmental characteristics from generation to generation. .
6. Variability- this is the ability of organisms to acquire new characteristics and properties; it is based on changes in biological matrices - DNA molecules.
7.
Growth and development. Growth is a process that results in a change in the size of an organism (due to growth and cell division). Development is a process that results in a qualitative change in the body. The development of living nature - evolution is understood as an irreversible, directed, natural change in objects of living nature, which is accompanied by the acquisition of adaptation (devices), the emergence of new species and the extinction of previously existing forms. The development of a living form of existence of matter is presented individual development, or ontogeny, and historical development, or phylogeny.
8.
Fitness. This is the correspondence between the characteristics of biosystems and the properties of the environment with which they interact. Adaptability cannot be achieved once and for all, since the environment is constantly changing (including due to the influence of biosystems and their evolution). Therefore, all living systems are capable of responding to environmental changes and developing adaptations to many of them. Long-term adaptations of biological systems are carried out thanks to their evolution. Short-term adaptations of cells and organisms are ensured due to their irritability.
9
. Irritability. The ability of living organisms to selectively respond to external or internal influences. The reaction of multicellular animals to irritation is carried out through nervous system and is called a reflex. Organisms that do not have a nervous system also lack reflexes. In such organisms, the reaction to irritation occurs in different forms:
a) taxis are directed movements of the body towards the stimulus (positive taxis) or away from it (negative). For example, phototaxis is movement towards light. There are also chemotaxis, thermotaxis, etc.;
b) tropisms - directed growth of parts plant organism in relation to the stimulus (geotropism - growth of the root system of a plant towards the center of the planet; heliotropism - growth of the shoot system towards the Sun, against gravity);
c) nasty - movements of plant parts in relation to the stimulus (movement of leaves during daylight hours depending on the position of the Sun in the sky or, for example, the opening and closing of the corolla of a flower).
10
. Discreteness (division into parts). Individual organism or another biological system (species, biocenosis, etc.) consists of individual isolated, i.e., isolated or delimited in space, but, nevertheless, connected and interacting with each other, forming a structural and functional unity. Cells consist of individual organelles, tissues - from cells, organs - from tissues, etc. This property allows the replacement of a part without stopping the functioning of the entire system and the possibility of specialization various parts on different functions.
11. Autoregulation- the ability of living organisms living in continuously changing environmental conditions to maintain the constancy of their chemical composition and flow intensity physiological processes- homeostasis. Self-regulation is ensured by the activity of regulatory systems - nervous, endocrine, immune, etc. biological systems At the supraorganismal level, self-regulation is carried out on the basis of interorganismal and interpopulation relationships.
12
. Rhythm. In biology, rhythmicity is understood as periodic changes intensity of physiological functions and formative processes with different periods fluctuations (from a few seconds to a year and a century).
Rhythm is aimed at coordinating the functions of the body with the environment, that is, at adapting to periodically changing conditions of existence.
13.
Energy dependence. Living bodies are systems that are “open” to energy. By “open” systems we mean dynamic, i.e., systems that are not at rest, stable only under the condition of continuous access to energy and matter from the outside. Thus, living organisms exist as long as they receive energy in the form of food from the environment.
14. Integrity - living matter organized in a certain way, subject to a number of specific laws characteristic of it.
4. Levels of organization of living matter.
In all the diversity of living nature, several levels of organization of living things can be distinguished.View educational film“Levels of organization of living things” and, on its basis, drawing up a brief supporting outline.
1. Molecular.Any living system, no matter how complexly organized it is, consists of biological macromolecules: nucleic acids, proteins, polysaccharides, as well as other important organic substances. From this level, various vital processes of the body begin: metabolism and energy conversion, transmission of hereditary information, etc.
2. Cellular.Cell - a structural and functional unit, as well as a unit of development of all living organisms living on Earth. At the cellular level, the transfer of information and the transformation of substances and energy are coupled.
5. Biogeocenotic. Biogeocenosis - collection of organisms different types and varying complexity of organization with environmental factors. In the process of joint historical development of organisms of different systematic groups, dynamic, stable communities are formed.
6. Biosphere.Biosphere - the totality of all biogeocenoses, a system that covers all phenomena of life on our planet. At this level, the circulation of substances and the transformation of energy associated with the vital activity of all living organisms occurs.
5. Practical significance of general biology.
o IN BIOTECHNOLOGY – biosynthesis of proteins, synthesis of antibiotics, vitamins, hormones.
o IN AGRICULTURE – selection of highly productive animal breeds and plant varieties.
o IN THE SELECTION OF MICROORGANISMS.
o IN NATURE CONSERVATION – development and implementation of methods for rational and prudent use of natural resources.
Control questions:
1. Define "biology". Who proposed this term?
2. Why modern biology consider integrated science? What subsections does modern biology consist of?
3. What special sciences can be distinguished in biology? Give them a brief description.
4. What research methods are used in biology?
5. Give a definition of the concept “life”.
6. Why are living organisms called open systems?
7. List the main properties of living things.
8. How do living organisms differ from nonliving bodies?
9. What levels of organization are characteristic of living matter?
Definitions of the nervous system: by location, location and content of types of neurons parts reflex arc. Three shells spinal cord, description of its departments and segment. Cranial nerves: sensory, motor and mixed.
Functions and structure of the epithelium, regeneration of its cells. Types of connective tissue, the predominance of intercellular substance over cells. Chemical composition and physical properties intercellular substance. Bone, fat, cartilage, muscle and nervous tissue.
Characteristics Class fish Class amphibians Class reptiles Class birds Class mammals 1. Number of species 40000 2500 6300 6600 4600 2. Classification
Description of the structure of the skin. Layers of the epidermis and their characteristics. Arterial vessels and nerve endings in the skin. Sweat and sebaceous glands. Nails and hair are like appendages of the skin. Basic functions and properties of the skin. Structure and functions of the muscles of the face and neck.
Circulation. Blood circulation is the continuous movement of blood through a closed system of blood vessels. The heart and blood vessels make up the circulatory system. Blood circulation through the vessels is carried out by the rhythmic contraction of the heart, which is central authority blood circulation
Development of anatomy (scientific anatomy - after the 16th century). Ventricular system of the brain. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), its composition, functions, circulation paths. Elements of the peripheral nervous system. Cranial nerves: characteristics of V–VII pairs.
Respiration as a set of processes that ensure the entry of oxygen into the body and the removal carbon dioxide. Organs that make up the upper and lower respiratory tract. Innervation of the nasal mucosa. Blood supply and lymphatic drainage of the larynx.
Basic principles of histology, which studies the system of cells, non-cellular structures that have a common structure and are aimed at performing certain functions. Analysis of the structure and functions of epithelium, blood, lymph, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue.
Thermoregulation, structure and significance of the skin. System of support and movement, skeleton. Muscles, their structure, functions and work. Development of the human body. Reproduction in the organic world. Pregnancy, development of the embryo and fetus. Human development after birth.
Features of the structure, physiology and chemical composition of the cell. Types and properties of fabrics. Characteristics of an organ system - parts of the body that have only their characteristic shape and structure and perform a specific function. Regulation of functions in the body.
Study of the structural features and functions of muscles - the active part of the human locomotor system. Characteristics of the muscles of the trunk, fascia of the back (superficial and deep), chest, abdomen, head (facial muscles, masticatory muscles). Physiological properties muscles.
Ministry of Education of Ukraine KhSPU im. G.S. Skovoroda Institute of Economics and Law Correspondence Faculty "Legal Studies" ABSTRACT Topic: Nervous system
Fabrics, their types and functions. Reflex nature of muscle activity. The meaning, composition and stages of blood coagulation. The mechanism of respiratory movements, their nervous and humoral regulation. Sections of the brain and their functions. The mechanism and conditions of the conditioned reflex.
The concept of skeletal (somatic) muscles, its structure and elements. Contents of blood vessels and nerves in muscles, their role and significance in normal muscle activity. Classification of muscles by shape, internal structure and action, their types and characteristics.
The nervous system as the most important integrating function of the body. Participation of the human nervous system in the process of adequate adaptation to the environment. Bottom and top absolute threshold sensitivity. Classification of nerve receptors and their functions.