What is phonetics in the Russian language rule. General phonetic rules

Do you know why Russian is so difficult for foreigners to learn? Especially those whose languages ​​are not at all similar to Russian? One of the reasons is that our language cannot be said to mean that words can be written the way they are heard. We say “MALAKO”, but we remember that the word must be written with 3 letters O: “MILKO”.

This is the simplest and obvious example. And, as a rule, no one thinks about what transcription (that is, a graphic recording of sounds) of the words that are most familiar to us looks like. To learn to understand what sounds words are made of, schools and even universities perform such a task as phonetic analysis of a word.

It is not easy for everyone, but we will help you understand and successfully cope with it in class and when preparing homework.

Phonetic analysis words- a task aimed at parsing a word into letters and sounds. Compare how many letters it has and how many sounds it has. And find out that the same letters are in different positions may indicate different sounds.

Vowels

There are 10 vowel letters in the Russian alphabet: “a”, “o”, “u”, “e”, “y”, “ya”, “e”, “yu”, “e”, “i”.

But there are only 6 vowel sounds: [a], [o], [u], [e], [s], [i]. The vowels “e”, “e”, “yu”, “ya” consist of two sounds: vowel + y. They are written like this: “e” = [y’+e], “e” = [y’+o], “yu” = [y’+y], “i” = [y’+a]. And they are called iotized.

Remember that in transcription “e”, “e”, “yu”, “ya” are not always decomposed into two sounds. But only in the following cases:

1. when words appear at the beginning: food [y’eda], ruff [y’orsh], skirt [y’upka], pit [y’ama];
2. when they come after other vowels: moi [moi'em], moe [mai'o], wash [moi'ut], warrior [vai'aka];
3. when they come after “ъ” and “ь”: pedestal [p’y’ed’estal], drinks [p’y’ot], drink [p’y’ut], nightingale [salav’y’a].

If “e”, “e”, “yu”, “ya” appear in a word after soft consonants, they can be confused with [a], [o], [y], [e]: ball [m'ach'] , honey [m'ot], muesli [m'usl'i], branch [v'etka]. They denote one sound in a position after consonants and under stress.

Not under stress “e”, “e”, “yu”, “ya” give the sound [i]: rows [r’ida], forest [l’isok]. In other cases, the letter “I” without stress can be pronounced as [e]: quagmire [tr’es’ina].

Another interesting thing about the relationship between “ь” and vowels: if after a soft sign in a word there is a letter “i”, it is pronounced as two sounds: streams [ruch’y’i].

But after the consonants “zh”, “sh” and “ts” the letter “i” gives the sound [s]: reeds [reeds].

The vowels “a”, “o”, “u”, “e”, “s” indicate the hardness of consonant sounds. The vowels “e”, “e”, “yu”, “ya”, “i” indicate the softness of consonant sounds.

By the way, in many words with the vowel “е” the emphasis always falls on it. But this rule does not work for borrowed words (amoebiasis) and complex words (such as trinuclear).

Consonants

There are 21 consonants in the Russian language. And these letters form as many as 36 sounds! How is this possible? Let's figure it out.

Thus, among the consonants there are 6 pairs according to the voicing of deafness:

1. [b] - [p]: [b]a[b]ushka – [p]a[p]a;
2. [v] - [f]: [v] water - [f] plywood;
3. [g] - [k]: [g]voice – [cow];
4. [d] - [t]: [d’] woodpecker - [t]ucha;
5. [f] - [w]: [f’]life – [sh]uba;
6. [z] - [s]: [z’]ima – o[s’]en.

This is interesting because paired sounds are indicated in different letters. Such pairs do not exist in all languages. And in some, for example, Korean, paired unvoiced and voiced sounds are indicated by the same letter. Those. the same letter is read as a voiced or unvoiced sound depending on its position in the word.

There are also 15 pairs of hardness and softness:

1. [b] - [b’]: [b]a[b]glass – [b’]tree;
2. [v] - [v’]: [v]ata – [v’]fork;
3. [g] - [g’]: [g]amak – [g’]idrant;
4. [d] - [d’]: [d]ozh[d’];
5. [z] - [z’]: [z] gold – [z’] yawn;
6. [k] - [k’]: [k]ust – [k’]bist;
7. [l] - [l’]: [l]swallow – [l’]istik;
8. [m] - [m’]: [m]a[m]a – [m’]iska;
9. [n] - [n’]: [n]os – [n’]yuh;
10. [p] - [p’]: [p]archa – [p’]i [p’]etka;
11. [r] - [r’]: [r]lynx – [r’]is;
12. [s] - [s’]: [s] dog – [s’] herring;
13. [t] - [t’]: [t]apok – [t’]shadow;
14. [f] - [f’]: [f] camera - [f’] fencing;
15. [x] - [x’]: [x] hockey – [x’] ek.

As you can see, the softness of the sounds is ensured by the letter “b” and the soft consonants that come after the consonants.

There are unpaired consonant sounds in the Russian language that are never voiceless:

• [y’] – [y’]od;
• [l] – [l]ama;
• [l’] – [l’]eika;
• [m] – [m]carrot;
• [m’] – [m’] muesli;
• [n] – [n]osoceros;
• [n’]– [n’] bat;
• [r] – [r]daisy;
• [r’] – [r’] child.

To make it easier to remember all the voiced sounds, you can use the following phrase: “We didn’t forget each other”.

And unpaired sounds, which, in turn, are never voiced. Try reading the words from the examples out loud and see for yourself:

• [x] – [x]orek;
• [x'] - [x']surgeon;
• [ts] – [ts]apple;
• [h’] – [h’] person;
• [sch’] – [sch’] bristles.

Two phrases will help you remember which sounds remain deaf in any situation: “Styopka, would you like some soup?” - “Fi!” And “Fokka, do you want to eat some soup?”.

If you carefully read the examples given above, you probably already noticed that some consonants in the Russian language are never soft:

• [g] - [g]bug and even [g]acorn;
• [sh] - [sh]uba and [sh]ilo are read equally firmly;
• [ts] - [ts] scratch and [ts]irk - the same thing, the sound is pronounced firmly.

Remember that in some borrowed words and names “zh” is still soft [zh’]: jury [zh’]juri, Julien [zh’]julien.

Similarly, in the Russian language there are consonants that are never pronounced firmly:

• [th’] – [th’] ogurt;
• [h’] – [h’]chirp and [h’]asy – the sound is equally soft;
• [sch'] - [sch']cheek and [sch']fingers - similar: no matter what vowel comes after this consonant, it is still pronounced softly.

Sometimes in some textbooks the softness of these sounds is not indicated by an apostrophe during transcription - since everyone already knows that these sounds are not hard in the Russian language. It is also often customary to denote “sch” as [w’:].

Remember also that the consonants “zh”, “sh”, “ch”, “sch” are called hissing.

Phonetic analysis plan

1. First you need to spell the word correctly in terms of spelling.
2. Then divide the word into syllables (remember that there are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels in it), designate the stressed syllable.
3. The next point is the phonetic transcription of the word. You don’t have to transcribe the word right away - first try saying it out loud. If necessary, speak several times until you can say with certainty which sounds need to be recorded.
4. Describe all vowel sounds in order: identify stressed and unstressed sounds.
5. Describe all consonant sounds in order: identify paired and unpaired sounds by voicedness/dullness and hardness/softness.
6. Count and write down how many letters and sounds there are in the word.
7. Note those cases in which the number of sounds does not correspond to the number of letters and explain them.

In written phonetic analysis, sounds are written from top to bottom in a column, each sound contains square brackets– . At the end, you should draw a line and write down the number of letters and sounds in the word.

Special transcription characters

Now about how to correctly designate sounds during transcription:

• [ " ] – this is how the stressed vowel in the main stressed syllable is designated (O"sen);
• [`] - this is how a side (minor) sub-stressed vowel sound is designated: usually such a sub-stressed syllable is located at the beginning of a word, found in compound words and words with the prefixes anti-, inter-, near-, counter-, super-, super-, ex -, vice- and others (`aboutE'many);
• [’] – a sign of softening a consonant sound;
• [Λ] – transcription sign for “o” and “a” in the following cases: position at the beginning of a word, the first pre-stressed syllable in the position after a hard consonant (arka [Λrka], king [krol’]);
• – a more “advanced” transcription sign for recording iotated sounds; you can also use [th’].
• [and e] – something in between [i] and [e], used to denote the vowels “a”, “e”, “e” in the first pre-stressed syllable in the position after a soft consonant (blend [bl'i e sleep]) ;
• [ы и] – something between [ы] and [е] or [ы] and [а], used to denote the vowels “e”, “e” in the first pre-stressed syllable in the position after a hard consonant (whisper [shi e ptat '];
• [ъ] – transcription sign for the vowels “o”, “a”, “e” in positions after a hard consonant in a pre-stressed and post-stressed syllable (milk [m'lok]);
• [b] – transcription sign for the vowels “o”, “a”, “ya”, “e” in the position after a soft consonant in an unstressed syllable (mitten [var'shka]);
• [–] – a sign indicating the absence of sound in the place of “ъ” and “ь”;
• [ ‾ ]/[ : ] – transcription signs (you can use one or the other of your choice - it will not be a mistake) to indicate the length of consonants (to be afraid [bΛй’ац:ъ]).

As you can see, everything is very difficult with the transcription of letters into sounds. IN school curriculum As a rule, these more complex and more precise transcription signs are not used or are used little. Only when in-depth study Russian language. Therefore, it is allowed to use the sounds [a], [o], [u], [e], [s], [i] and [th’] in phonetic analysis instead of “and with the overtone e” and other complex designations.

Transcription rules

Don't forget also about following rules transcriptions of consonants:

• voicing of voiceless consonants in position before voiced ones (bending [zg’ibat’], mowing [kΛz’ba]);
• deafening of voiced consonants in the position at the end of a word (ark [kΛfch’ek]);
• deafening of a voiced consonant in a position in front of a voiceless one, for example, a voiced “g”, which can turn into voiceless sounds [k] and [x] (nails [nokt’i], light [l’ohk’iy’]);
• softening of the consonants “n”, “s”, “z”, “t”, “d” in the position before soft consonants (kantik [kan’t’ik]);
• softening of “s” and “z” in the prefixes s-, iz-, raz- in the position before “b” (remove [iz’y’at’]);
• unreadable consonants “t”, “d”, “v”, “l” in combinations of several consonant letters in a row: in this case, the combination “stn” is pronounced as [sn], and “zdn” - as [zn] (district [uy 'ezny']);
• combinations of letters “sch”, “zch”, “zsch” are read as [sch’] (accounts [sch’oty]);
• combinations “chn”, “cht” are pronounced [sh] (what [shto], of course [kΛn’eshn]);
• infinitive suffixes -tsya/-tsya are transcribed [ts] (bite [kusats:b]);
• the endings of -ogo/-him are pronounced through the sound [v] (yours [tvy’evo]);
• in words with double consonants, two transcription options are possible: 1) double consonants are located after the stressed syllable and form a double sound (kassa [kas:b]); 2) double consonants are located before the stressed syllable and give a regular consonant sound (million [m'il'ion]).

Now let's look at the phonetic transcription of words using examples. For recording we will use a simplified system of transcription of consonant sounds.

Examples of phonetic transcription of words

1. departure
2. ot-e"zd (2 syllables, stress falls on the 2nd syllable)
3. [aty'e "st]
4. o - [a] – vowel, unstressed
   t- [t] – consonant, voiceless (paired), hard (paired)
   ъ – [–]
   e - [th’] - consonant, voiced (unpaired), soft (unpaired) and [e] - vowel, stressed
   z - [s] – consonant, voiceless (paired), hard (paired)
   d - [t] – consonant, voiceless (paired), hard (paired)
5. 6 letters, 6 sounds
6. The letter “e” after the separating “b” gives two sounds: [th"] and [e]; the letter “d” at the end of the word is deafened to the sound [t]; the letter “z” is deafened to the sound [c] in the position before the voiceless sound.

One more example:

1. grammar
2. gram-ma"-ti-ka (4 syllables, stress falls on the 2nd syllable)
3. [gram:at"ika]
4. g – [g] – consonant, voiced (paired), hard (solid)
   p – [p] – consonant, voiced (unpaired), hard (paired)
   mm – [m:] – double sound, consonant, voiced (unpaired), hard (paired)
   a – [a] – vowel, stressed
   t – [t’] – consonant, voiceless (paired), soft (paired)
   k – [k] – consonant, voiceless (paired), hard (paired)
   a – [a] – vowel, unstressed
5. 10 letters, 9 sounds
6. Double consonants “mm” give a double sound [m:]

And last:

1. became
2. sta-no-vi"-lis (4 syllables, stress falls on the 3rd syllable)
3. [stanav'i"l'is']
4. s – [s] – consonant, voiceless (paired), hard (paired)
   t – [t] – consonant, deaf (paired), hard (paired)
   a – [a] – vowel, unstressed
   n – [n] – consonant, voiced (unpaired), hard (paired)
   o – [a] – vowel, unstressed
   in – [v’] – consonant, voiced (paired), soft (paired)
   and – [and] – vowel, stressed
   l – [l’] – consonant, voiced (unpaired), soft (paired)
   and – [and] – vowel, unstressed
   s – [s’] – consonant, voiceless (paired), soft (paired)
   b – [–]
5. 11 letters, 10 sounds
6. The letter “o” in an unstressed position produces the sound [a]; the letter “b” does not denote a sound and serves to soften the consonant preceding it.

Instead of an afterword

Well, did this article help you understand the phonetic analysis of words? It is not so easy to correctly write down the sounds that make up a word - there are many pitfalls hidden along this path. But we tried to make the task easier for you and explain all the slippery aspects in as much detail as possible. Now such a task at school will not seem very difficult to you. Don't forget to teach your classmates and show them our helpful instructions.

Uses this article when preparing for lessons and passing the State Exam and Unified State Exam. And be sure to tell us in the comments what examples of phonetic analysis of words you are asked at school.

blog.site, when copying material in full or in part, a link to the original source is required.

Once upon a time, during Russian language lessons at school, back in junior classes, we all carefully articulated under the watchful guidance of the teacher: we rounded or pursed our lips, put our tongues to the roof of our mouths or pushed our teeth... We learned various sounds. And then they explained to us other rules from the phonetics section. We have grown up and forgotten the rules. Who remembers now examples of voicing of consonants and how it generally happens?

What is phonetics

The word "phonetics" comes from the Greek "sound". This is the name of one of the sections of the language that studies sounds, their structure, as well as intonation, stress and syllables. It is important to distinguish sounds from letters - there are more than a hundred of the former, and, as is known, there are thirty-three of the latter in the Russian alphabet. The study of phonetics includes two sides: articulatory (methods of sound formation) and acoustic ( physical characteristics each sound).

Phonetics sections

The discipline consists of five parts:

1. Phonetics - studies, as already said, the sounds themselves and their signs.
2. Phonology - studies phonemes. A phoneme is the minimum sound unit that allows one to distinguish one word from another (for example, in the words “meadow” and “onion” the phonemes “g” and “k” help to understand the difference between them).
3. Orthoepy - studies pronunciation, including the norms of correct literary pronunciation.
4. Graphics - explores the relationship between letters and sounds.
5. Spelling - studies spelling.

Basic concepts of phonetics of the Russian language

The most important thing in this discipline is sounds. They don't have any meaning (unlike whole words), but they help differentiate them from each other different words and forms of the word: sang - drank, house - home - home and so on. On paper, sounds are used to indicate this is called transcription.

There are only ten sounds. They are easier to pronounce than consonants: air easily penetrates through the mouth. Vowels can be stretched, shouted, sung. When artists sing, they draw exactly these sounds. It is their number that determines how many syllables there are in a word. And there are words consisting exclusively of vowels (for example, conjunctions or prepositions).

There are 21 consonants; when pronouncing them, the air encounters an obstacle: either in the form of a gap or in the form of a closure. These are two ways of forming consonants. The gap is formed when the tongue approaches the teeth. This is how the sounds “s”, “z”, “zh”, “sh” are pronounced. This noisy sounds, they emit a hissing or whistling sound. The second way is when the lips are closed. You can’t stretch out such sounds; they are sharp and short. These are “p”, “b”, “g”, “k” and others. But they are very noticeable.

Just as in terms of hardness and softness, consonants can be paired in terms of voicedness and deafness. It is easy to distinguish them: voiced ones are pronounced loudly, unvoiced ones are pronounced dully. These are pairs such as “b” - voiced, and “p” - unvoiced; “d” is voiced, and “t” is unvoiced. There are six such combinations in total. There are, in addition, five consonants that do not have a pair. They always remain loud. These are “l”, “m”, “n”, “r” and “y”.

folding into various words When composing phrases, sounds acquire many properties. Such, for example, as voicing and deafening of consonants. How does it happen?

Voicing consonants: examples

The five letters above (th, l, m, n, p) do not have this property. It is very important to remember this! Voicing of a consonant can only occur if the sound is paired.

A voiceless consonant can become voiced by pairing in some cases. The main condition is that it must be located directly before ringing sound(exactly before, not after!).

So, voicing of a voiceless consonant occurs at the junction of morphemes. A morpheme is a part of a word (there is a root, a prefix, a suffix, an ending; there are also postfixes and prefixes, but they are not so important). Thus, at the junction of a prefix and a root or a root and a suffix, the process of voicing is possible. This does not happen between a suffix and an ending, since the ending usually consists of vowel sounds. Examples of voicing of consonants in this case are the following: transaction (“s” is a prefix, a dull sound, the root of “delo” begins with a voiced “d”, so assimilation occurs, that is, assimilation. We pronounce this word out loud as “deal”), mowing (the root “kos” ends with a dull sound “s” - soft sign is not taken into account, it is followed by a sonorous suffix “b” - assimilation occurs again, and the word is pronounced as “goat”) and so on.

Words with voicing of consonants are also found at the junction independent word and particles (particles are function words: same, would, not, nor, whether and so on). At least (pronounced out loud “walk”), as if (pronounced “kagby”) and other combinations - these are all cases of voicing.

Finally, examples of consonant voicing include situations where necessary sounds are at the junction of an independent word and a preposition (preposition - service part speech helps to connect words into sentences: in, to, with, under, on and others): to the bathhouse (we say “gbane”), from the house (we say “oddoma”) and so on.

Stunning consonants: examples

As with voicing, deafening occurs only in the presence of paired sounds. In such a situation, the voiced consonant should come before the voiceless one.

This usually happens at the end of a word if it ends in a consonant: bread (“bread”), honey (“meth”), bring a lot of chairs (“stulyef”), and so on. Deafening also occurs if in the middle of a word (as a rule, this is a combination of a root and a suffix) the combination “voiced plus unvoiced” occurs. For example: stew (“bread” is a root, ends in a voiced “b”, “k” is a voiceless suffix, at the end we pronounce the word “chowder”), a fairy tale (the root “kaz” ends in a voiced “z”, “k” - a voiceless suffix, the sum we get is “skask”).

The third option, when deafening of a consonant sound occurs, is also at the junction of a word and a preposition: under the ceiling (potceiling), above you (nattoboy) and others. This property of the Russian language is especially difficult for schoolchildren who use the “we hear as well as write” method.

What about others?

The most widespread language in the world - English - has its own phonetics, like any other language. The following distinguishes British phonetics from Russian phonetics:

1. In Russia, vowels are not divided into long and short, but in England they are.
2. Consonants in English language They are always pronounced firmly, but in Russian they can be softened.
3. English consonants are never devoiced because it can change the meaning of the whole word.

It doesn’t matter whether you are a schoolchild or an adult, but if you live in Russia, you must be able to correctly express your thoughts and know the peculiarities native language. After all, our language is our wealth!

Phonetics

Have you ever wondered why German seems so harsh and with a firm tongue? This depends on certain points on which Russian speakers studying German, must pay attention.
This article presents the most important rules in German phonetics, starting with general information and ending with something more specific. By putting them into practice, you can significantly improve your German pronunciation.

1. Intonation

a) Unlike the Russian language, in German almost every word is pronounced separately, which is reminiscent of the staccato rhythm in music.

b) The contrast between stressed and unstressed syllables in German is much greater than in Russian: stressed syllables are emphasized more sharply and intensely, while unstressed syllables are muffled and pronounced weaker.

c) Germans are accustomed to emphasizing the main parts of speech in a sentence: nouns, adjectives, full verbs, numerals, interrogatives and demonstrative pronouns. Functional parts of speech, such as articles, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, personal and possessive pronouns, in turn, are not emphasized.

d) In Russian speech it happens abrupt change between sound heights, while the Germans in their speech for a long time remain at the same pitch. Russian intonation moves within the octave, and German intonation moves within the fifth.

2. Word stress

Unlike Russian stress, in German it is fixed, that is, stress does not transfer from one syllable to another if the form of the word changes.

As a rule, it falls on the first root syllable:
→ Spra che[ˈʃpχaːχə] (language)
→ es sen[ˈɛsən] (eat, eat)
→ glück lich[ˈɡlʏklɪç] (happily, happy)
→ al les[ˈaləs] (All)

However, there are many words with certain prefixes and suffixes that take on the emphasis.

3. Unstressed vowels

Unlike the Russian language, where unstressed vowels are pronounced differently than stressed vowels, German vowels are not reduced and are pronounced in the same way as stressed vowels, only for less duration.

→ Sch o k o lade[ʃokoˈlaːdə] (chocolate)
→ r e gulieren[ʁeɡuˈliːʁən] (regulate)
→ Tsch ai kowski[ʧaɪˈkɔfski] (Chaikovsky)
→j a panisch (Japanese)

4. Long and short vowels

In the German language, there are long and short vowels, on which the meaning of many words can even depend, which is significantly different.

→St aa t[ʃtaːt] ~St a dt[ʃtat] (state ~ city)
→B ee t ~B e tt (flower bed, bed ~ bed)
→ M ie te[ˈmiːtə] ~M i tte[ˈmɪtə] (rent ~ middle)
→ H ö hle[ˈhøːlə] ~H ö lle[ˈhœlə] (cave ~ hell)

5. Long vowels

The vowel sound is long...

...in the case of a double vowel:
→Id ee (idea)
→ d oo f (blunt (persons) )
→ H aa r (hair))

...in front of the mute , which precedes a consonant ///or at the end of a word:
→ oh ne[ˈoːnə] (without)
→ f ah ren[ˈfaːʁən] (to go, ride, drive)
→ Sch uh [ʃuː] (boot)

...before a consonant<ẞ>:
→ Str aß e[ˈʃtχaːsə] (Street)
→gr ü ß en[ˈɡʁyːsən] (greet, say hello)
→bl oß ((one) only)

...before a combination of letters ,

, ,
, , :
→ Z ebr a[ˈtseːbʁa] (zebra)
→ J agd (hunting (chase) )
→ K eks (cookie)

...in percussion open syllable:
→ N a me[ˈnaːmə] (Name)
→ l e sen[ˈleːzən] (read)
→ w o (Where)

...in percussion closed syllable, which when inflected opens:
→T a g (day)~ T a ge
→ r o t[ʁoːt] (red)~ r o tes
→t u n (do)~ t u

6. Short vowels

The vowel sound is short...

...before a double consonant:
→ P upp e[ˈpʊpə] (doll)
→ schn ell [ʃnɛl] (quickly, fast)
→ h off en[ˈhɔfən] (hope)

...before a consonant :
→ H ex e[ˈhɛksə] (witch)
→b ox en[ˈbɔksən] (box)
→ Ax t (axe)

...before letter combinations , , , , , :
→ K opf (head)
→n ich t (Not)
→ w asch en[ˈvaʃən] (wash, wash)

...in a closed syllable:
→ u nd [ʊnt] (And)
→ f i n den[ˈfɪndən] (find)
→ k a lt (cold, cold)

7. Semi-long vowels

The vowel sound is semi-long...

...in an unstressed open syllable:
→ Ak k u [ˈaku] (battery)
→ d i rect (directly, immediate)
→ Ph y sik (physics)
→ D e batte (debate, argument)
→ au t o matisch (automatically)

8. Double consonants

Double consonants in German are always pronounced as single consonants, unlike in Russian, where they are certain cases may lengthen.

→A nn a[ˈana] (Anna)
→ Ka ss e[ˈkasə] (cash register)
→ Su mm e[ˈzʊmə] (sum)

9. Voiceless aspirated consonants

Consonants in Russian<К>, <Т>And<П>lightly pronounced as [g], [d] and [b]. However, German analogues , And

In most cases they are pronounced with strong aspiration.

→ K a k ao (cocoa)
→ T an t e[ˈt ʰ ant ʰ ə] (aunt)
→ P a p a[ˈp ʰ ap ʰ a] (dad)

10. Stunning of voiced consonants

As in the Russian language, German voiced consonants in certain cases lose their sonority.

At the end of a word/syllable:
→ Gel d [ɡɛlt] (money)
→ tä g lich[ˈtɛːklɪç] (daily, daily)
→ A b ga s [ˈapɡaːs] (exhaust gas)

Before a voiceless consonant within a word:
→aben ds (in the evenings)
→ O bs t (fruits)
→ gewa gt [ɡəˈvaːkt] (risky, risky)

11. Similarity of consonants

When consonant sounds occur at the end and at the beginning of a word or syllable, then at the normal rate of speech they become similar. There are two types of assimilation - complete and partial.

With complete assimilation, consonants with the same place of articulation completely merge:
→mi t T ina (with Tina)
→ a m M ontag (on Monday)
→na ch r echts (right)
→ au f W iedersehen (Goodbye)

With partial assimilation, the deafness of the consonant at the end of the word is transferred to the first consonant next word, which automatically loses its sonority:
→bi s d ann (see you)
→ sei t g estern (since yesterday)
→ a b S amstag (from Saturday)
→dan k B en (thanks to Ben)

12. No softening of consonants

In the Russian language there is a phenomenon of softening of consonants, for example. in the word "shadow" (). In this regard, soft and hard consonants are distinguished. In German, no softening of consonants ever occurs.

→ Ti sch (table)
→ la chen[ˈlaχən] (laugh)
→ Dü bel[ˈdyːbəl] (dowel)
→ ke hren[ˈkeːʁən] (sweep)

13. Hard attack

German vowel sounds can be pronounced with the vocal cords amplified, which produce a slight clicking sound. It is this so-called hard attack that gives German speech its specific harshness. This sound is pronounced at the beginning of the word/syllable that begins with a vowel sound.

At the beginning of the word:
→ i n A sien[ ʔ ɪnˈ ʔ aːziən] (in Asia)
→ u m ei ns[ ʔ ʊmˈʔ aɪns] (at one o'clock)
→ außer O pa[ ʔ aʊsɐˈ ʔ oːpa] (except grandfather)
→ viel e nger (much narrower/tighter)

Inside the words:
→ Er i nnerung[ ʔ ɛɐˈ ʔ ɪnɐʁʊŋ]/[ ʔ ɐˈ ʔ ɪnɐʁʊŋ] (memory, reminder)
→ The a ter (theater)
→Po e t (poet)
→ver ei sen/ (freeze)

14. Strong indentation

In German, short and long vowel sounds are added differently to the consonants that come after them. Long vowels join consonants more smoothly (as in Russian), while short vowels join consonants more abruptly, with the consonant sound stopping the sound of the vowel. This phenomenon is called “strong indentation” and is explained by the fact that short vowels mainly appear in closed syllables.

→ Schal[ʃaːl] ~ Sch a ll[ʃal] (scarf ~ sound)
→ Fete[ˈfeːtə] ~F e tte[ˈfɛtə] (party, celebration ~ fat)
→ Koma[ˈkoːma] ~K o mma[ˈkɔma] (coma ~ comma)
→ Hüte[ˈhyːtə] ~H ü tte[ˈhʏtə] (hats ~ hut, hut)

15. Shva

Many languages ​​have so-called reduced schwa sounds. There are two such sounds in the German language.

The first one is always represented by the letter<Е>and is found exclusively in unstressed syllables. As certain unstressed prefixes and suffixes, this letter seems to be “swallowed” at a normal rate of speech, as, for example, the first<О>in the Russian word “milk”, i.e. it is practically inaudible. The quality of her pronunciation depends only on the rate of speech:
→b e reit (ready, ready)
→ leb e n[ˈleːbən] (live)
→At e m[ˈaːtəm] (breath)
→Ig e l[ˈiːɡəl] (hedgehog)
→ Aug e [ˈaʊgə] (eye)
→G e müs e [ɡəˈmyːzə] (vegetables)

The second schwa sound in German is the middle of the sounds [a], [ɔ] and [ə]. This sound can be displayed either as a letter , or a combination of letters<ЕR>, namely at the end of a word or syllable. This means the consonant is in such cases it is vocalized:
→ fü r (for, for)
→ wi r (We)
→ Natu r (nature)
→ Frisö r (hairdresser)
→ Mutte r/Mutt er [ˈmʊtɛɐ]/[ˈmʊtɐ] (mother)
→ve r Gessen/v er Gessen/ (forget)

Notes: For a better understanding of all the rules, you necessary listen to the audio recording! These rules are general overview and after the first familiarization do not need to be memorized, since understanding and the ability to apply many points comes only in the process of studying and practice. The concept of “hard and soft consonants” has in Russian and German languages completely different meanings. In German we simply mean voiceless and voiced consonants, so if a German insists that “consonant is soft and consonant - solid,” then don’t be surprised. Unlike modern German, to which the rules in this article correspond, before the first stage of German spelling reform, the consonant letter<ẞ>most often placed after short vowels. Accordingly, people of the older generation still combine it with short vowels, which makes foreigners learning German confusing. delusion. You will find more information on this topic in the section. | |

Phonetics – a branch of linguistics that studies the sound structure of a language.

Orthoepy is the science of pronunciation norms.

Graphics is a branch of linguistics that studies the principles of reflection sounding speech in writing, as well as these principles themselves.

Orthography is a branch of linguistics that studies the system of rules for spelling morphemes in words of different parts of speech that are not regulated by the rules of graphics, as well as the spelling rules themselves.

Sound and letter

Sound is the minimal, indivisible unit of sounding speech. A letter is a graphic sign to indicate a sound in a letter, that is, a drawing. Sounds are pronounced and heard, letters are written and perceived by sight. There are sounds in any language, regardless of whether it is written or not; spoken speech is primary in relation to speech written in letters; in phonographic languages, letters reflect spoken speech (unlike languages ​​with hieroglyphic writing, where meanings, rather than sounds, are reflected).

Unlike others linguistic units(morphemes, words, phrases, sentences), sound itself doesn't matter. The function of sounds is reduced to formation and differentiation morphemes and words ( small - say - soap).

There are 33 letters in the Russian alphabet: : Ahh- "A", BB- “be” Vv– “ve”, GG- “ge” Dd- “de” Her– “e”, Her– “e”, LJ- “zhe” Zz– “ze”, Ii- "And", Yikes– “th”, Kk- “ka” Ll– “el”, Mm- “um” Nn– “en” Ooh- "O", pp- “pe” RR– “er” Ss– “es”, Tt- “te” Ooh- “y” Ff– “ef”, Xx- “ha” Tsts– “tse”, Hh– “what” Shh– “sha” Shch– “sha” ъ- "firm sign" Yyy– “s”, b- "soft sign" Uh- “uh” Yuyu- "Yu", Yaya- "I". The Russian alphabet is called Cyrillic, or Cyrillic.

Letters have a lowercase version (the letter in the line does not rise above the other letters) and an uppercase version (the letter differs from the lowercase in height). There is no uppercase option for letters ъ And b, and a capital letter Y used only in foreign-language proper names to convey real pronunciation (the sound [ы] does not occur at the beginning of Russian words).

10 letters are intended to indicate vowel sounds and are conventionally called vowels ( a, y, o, s, e, i, yu, e, and, e), 21 letters are intended to indicate consonant sounds and are conventionally called a consonant ( b, c, d, d, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, f, x, c, h, w, sch),ъ And b are classified as neither vowels nor consonants and are called graphic signs.

There are 36 consonant sounds that are clearly distinguished in the Russian language (for example, before vowels): [b], [b"], [v], [v"], [g], [g"], [d], [ d"], [g], [z], [z"], [th"], [k], [k"], [l], [l"], [m], [m"], [ n], [n"], [p], [p"], [p], [p"], [s], [s"], [t], [t"], [f], [f "], [x], [x"], [ts], [h"], [w], [sch"] (in the speech of people of the older generation in individual words, such as yeast, reins, splashes etc., a long soft consonant [zh"] can be pronounced). There are more consonant sounds in the Russian language than consonant letters (36 and 21, respectively). The reason for this is one of the features of Russian graphics - the softness of paired consonant sounds in Russian it is indicated not by a consonant letter, but by a vowel letter ( e, e, yu, i, and) or b(small[small] – crumpled[m"al], con[con] – horse[con"]).

There are 10 vowel letters: a, y, o, s, i, uh, i, yu, e, e. There are 6 vowel sounds that differ under stress: [a], [u], [o], [s], [i], [e]. Thus, in the Russian language there are more vowels than vowel sounds, which is due to the peculiarities of the use of letters i, yu, e, yo(iotized) . They perform the following functions:

1) designate 2 sounds ([y"a], [y"u], [y"o], [y"e]) in the position after vowels, separating marks and at the beginning of a phonetic word: I ma[y"áma] , moI [ma y"á] , volumeI t[ab y"a T"];

2) indicate the vowel and the softness of the preceding paired consonant sound in terms of hardness/softness: me l[m" O l] - cf.: they say[mol] (an exception may be the letter e in borrowed words, not denoting the softness of the preceding consonant – puree[p"uré]; since a whole series of words of this kind borrowed by origin have become commonly used in the modern Russian language, we can say that the letter e in Russian it has ceased to denote the softness of the preceding consonant sound, cf.: pos[t"e]l - pas[te]l);

3) letters e, e, yu after an unpaired consonant in terms of hardness/softness, the vowel sound [e], [o], [y] is indicated: six[shes "t"], silk[sholk], parachute[parachute].

Phonetic transcription

To record spoken speech, phonetic transcription is used, which is built on the principle of a one-to-one correspondence between a sound and its graphic symbol.

Transcription is enclosed in square brackets; in words of two or more syllables, stress is indicated. If two words are combined with the same stress, they form one phonetic word, which is written together or using a league: to the garden[fsat], [f sat].

In transcription, it is not customary to write capital letters and use punctuation marks (for example, when transcribing sentences).

Words consisting of more than one syllable are stressed.

The softness of a consonant sound is indicated by an apostrophe: sat down[Sal].

The three main educational complexes do not offer quite same solution to denote soft unpaired consonants. Complex 1 denotes the softness of all unpaired ones ([h"], [sch"], [th"]). Complex 2 at the beginning of the phonetics section does not indicate the softness of unpaired ones ([ch", [sch], [th]), then in In the theory textbook, softness is indicated for all unpaired soft ones, as in complex 1 ([h"], [sch"], [th"]), and in the practice textbook, the sound [sch"] is designated by the transcription sign [w"], as in accepted in higher school. Complex 3, like complex 1, denotes the softness of all unpaired soft ones ([h"], [sch"],), while the sound [th] is indicated, as is customary in higher education, using [j] with the difference that that in higher education softness [j] is not indicated, since it is associated not with additional, but with the main articulation of this sound. To better remember that unpaired [h"], [ш"], [й"] are soft, we decide to denote their softness using an apostrophe.

To record vowel sounds, the following transcription signs are used: stressed vowels: [а́], [о́], [у́], [и́], [ы́], [е́], unstressed vowels: [а], [и], [ы], [y]. Transcription does not use iotated vowels i, yu, e, yo.

Complex 3 uses the transcription symbols [a], [ы], [i], [u], [i e] (“i, inclined to e”), [ы e] (“ы, inclined with e”) to denote unstressed vowels "), [ъ] ("er"), [ь] ("er"). Their correct use will be discussed in the section on unstressed vowels.

Formation of vowels and consonants

Sounds are pronounced during exhalation: a stream of air exhaled from the lungs passes through the larynx and oral cavity. If located in the larynx vocal cords tense and close together, the exhaled air causes them to vibrate, resulting in a voice (tone). Tone is required when pronouncing vowels and voiced consonants. If the vocal cords are relaxed, no tone is produced. This position of the speech organs is inherent in the pronunciation of voiceless consonants.

Having passed the larynx, the air stream enters the cavities of the pharynx, mouth, and sometimes the nose.

The pronunciation of consonants is necessarily associated with overcoming an obstacle in the path of the air stream, which is formed by the lower lip or tongue when they approach or close with upper lip, teeth or palate. Overcoming an obstacle created by the speech organs (a gap or a bow), the air stream creates noise, which is an essential component of a consonant sound: in voiced people, noise is combined with tone, in deaf people it is the only component of sound.

The pronunciation of vowels is characterized by the work of the vocal cords and the free passage of an air stream through the oral cavity. Therefore, the vowel sound contains voice and no noise. The specific sound of each vowel depends on the volume and shape oral cavity– position of the tongue and lips.

Thus, from the point of view of the relationship between voice and noise, there are three groups of sounds in the Russian language: vowels consist only of tone (voice), voiced consonants - of noise and voice, voiceless consonants - only of noise.

The ratio of tone and noise for voiced consonants is not the same: paired voiced consonants have more noise than tones, unpaired ones have less noise than tones, therefore voiceless and paired voiced consonants are called noisy in linguistics, and unpaired voiced ones [th", [l], [l "], [m], [m"], [n], [n"], [r], [r"] – sonorous.

Vowel sounds and vowel letters

Stressed vowels

In the Russian language, there are 6 vowel sounds under stress: [á], [ó], [ú], [í], [ы́], [é]. These sounds are indicated in writing using 10 vowel letters: a, y, o, s, i, uh, i, yu, e, e.

The sound [a] can be indicated in writing by letters A(small[small]) and I(crumpled[m "al]).

The sound [y] is indicated by letters at(storm[bur"a]) and Yu(muesli[m "convention" and]).

The sound [o] is indicated by letters O(they say[they say]) and e(chalk[m"ol]); according to established tradition, in printed literature not intended for children or for teaching reading and writing, instead of the letter e the letter is used e, if this does not interfere with understanding the meaning of the word.

The sound [s] is indicated by the letter s(soap[soap]) and And- after and,w And ts(live[zhyt"], sew[shyt"], circus[circus]).

The sound [and] is indicated by the letter And(Mila[m "ila]).

The sound [e] is indicated by the letter e(measure[m "era] or - after a hard consonant in some borrowings - uh(mayor[mayor]).

Unstressed vowels

In unstressed syllables, vowels are pronounced differently than under stress - more briefly and with less muscular tension of the speech organs (this process in linguistics is called reduction). In this regard, unstressed vowels change their quality and are pronounced differently than stressed ones.

In addition, fewer vowels are distinguished without stress than under stress: vowels that differ under stress in the same morpheme (for example, in the root) in unstressed position cease to differ, for example: WithA ma And WithO ma- [With A ma], lAnd sa And le sa– [l" And sa] (this process is called neutralization).

In the Russian language, there are 4 vowel sounds in the unstressed position: [a], [u], [ы], [i]. Unstressed [a], [i] and [s] differ in pronunciation from the corresponding stressed ones: they are pronounced not only shorter, but also with a slightly different timbre, which is caused by less muscle tension during their pronunciation and, as a consequence, a shift of the speech organs to more neutral position (resting position). Therefore, their designation using the same transcription signs as stressed vowels is to a certain extent arbitrary.

The sounds [o] and [e] in Russian occur only under stress. The only exceptions are a few borrowings ( cocoa[cocoa], canoe[canoe]) and some function words, for example conjunction But(cf., for example, the pronunciation of the preposition on and union But:I wenton exhibition, exhibitionBut the exhibition was closed).

The quality of an unstressed vowel depends on the hardness/softness of the preceding consonant.

After hard consonants the sounds [u] ( hand[hand]), [a] ( milk[malako]), [s] ( soap maker[soap maker], stomach[belly], turn yellow[zhylt "et"], horses[lashyd "hey"]).

After soft consonants the sounds [u] ( be in love[l"ub"it"]), [and] ( worlds[m "iry", watch[h "isy", lie[l "izhat"]).

As can be seen from the examples given, the same unstressed vowel can be displayed in different letters in writing:

[y] – letters at(empty[blank"]) and Yu(the Bureau[b "uro]),

[a] – letters A(heat[heat]) and O(bed[pass"t"el"]),

[s] – letters s(thinker[thought "it"il"]), And(life[zhyz"n"]), A(regret[zhal "et"] / [zhyl "et"] – in some words after hard unpaired [zh], [sh], [ts] pronunciation variability is possible), e(iron[zhyl "eza]),

[and] – letters And(piston[p"iston]), e(nectar[m "idok]), A(an hour[h "isok]), I(ranks[r"ida]).

What has been said above about the correspondence of unstressed vowels and the letters denoting them can be generalized into a diagram convenient for use when transcribing:

After a solid consonant, except [zh], [sh], [ts]:

		hand[hand
		herself[herself
		soma[herself
		wash you[we]t
		test[you]steer

After [zh], [w], [ts]:

		make noise[make noise
		sixth[shy]wait
		chocolate[shy]kolad
		shock[sha]ki
		balls[sha]ry
		horses lo[shy]dey
		chick[chick
		wide[shi]roky

After a soft consonant:

		be in love[l "u] kill
		wonderful[wonderful
		worlds[m"ry]
		change[m"i]yay
		nickel[p"and]so
		watch[h"i]sy

At the beginning of a phonetic word:

		lesson[lesson
		cart[a]rba
		window[a]kno
		a game[a game
		floor[i]tazh

These phonetic laws regulate the pronunciation of unstressed vowels in all unstressed syllables, except for individual borrowings and function words(see above), as well as the phonetic subsystem of post-stress endings and formative suffixes. Thus, these morphemes represent the pronunciation of the letter reflected in the letter I unstressed [a] after a soft consonant: storm[bur"a], wash yourself[my "s"a], reading[h"ita"a].

Complex 3 describes the system of unstressed vowels differently. It says that under stress, vowels are pronounced clearly; the sounds [i], [s], [u] are pronounced clearly and in unstressed syllables. In place of letters O And A in unstressed syllables a weakened sound [a] is pronounced, which is less distinct (denoted as [a]). In place of letters e And I in unstressed syllables after soft consonants, [and e] is pronounced, that is, the middle sound between [i] and [e] (p[i e]grater, s[i e]lo). After hard hissing [zh], [sh] and after [ts] in place e pronounced [y e] (zh[y e]lat, sh[y e]pt, ts[y e]na). In some unstressed syllables, instead of [a], a short vowel [ъ], close to [ы] (m[ъ]loko), is pronounced; after soft syllables, a short vowel [ь], close to [i] ( is reading– [h"itaj"lt]).

It seems that this material requires some comment.

First, it is necessary to designate the names of these vowels: [and e] (“and, inclined to e”), [ы e] (“ы, inclined with e”), [ъ] (“er”), [ь] (“er”)

Secondly, it is necessary to clarify when the sounds [a], [ы е] and [ъ] are pronounced, and when [and е] and [ь]. Their differentiation depends on the position in relation to the stress and to the beginning of the phonetic word. Thus, in the first prestressed syllable (the syllable before the stressed vowel) and in the position of the absolute beginning of the word, the unstressed vowel is longer than in the remaining unstressed syllables (non-first prestressed and unstressed); It is in these positions that the vowels [a], [ы е] and [и е] are pronounced.

The sounds [a] and [ы e] occur after hard consonants ([ы e] - only after [zh], [w], [ts]) and are indicated in writing by letters A(herself[herself], horses[lishy e d "ej"]), O(soma[herself]), e(turn yellow[zhy e lt "et"]).

The sound [and e] occurs after soft consonants and is indicated by letters e(blizzard[m"and e t"el"), A(watch[h "i e sy]), I(row[r"and edoc]).

The sound [ъ] is pronounced after hard consonants in non-first pre-stressed and post-stressed syllables and is indicated by letters A(locomotive[pravos]), O(milk[malako]), e(yellowness[zhalt "izn"]).

The sound [b] is pronounced after soft consonants in non-first pre-stressed and post-stressed syllables and is indicated by letters e(transition[p"р"ihot]), I(private[r"davoj"]), A(hourly[h"savoj"]).

The pronunciation of unstressed vowels presented in this complex is called “ekany” in linguistics and, representing the so-called “senior” pronunciation norm, is outdated (see also the following subsection “Orthoepy”).

Thus, vowels in unstressed syllables are pronounced differently than in stressed syllables. However, this change in the quality of vowels is not reflected in writing, which is due to the basic principle of Russian orthography: only independent, meaningful features of sounds are reflected in writing, and their change, caused by the phonetic position in a word, is not reflected in writing. It follows from this that the unstressed position of the vowel is a signal of the spelling. From the point of view of spelling rules, unstressed vowels can be divided into three groups: those checked by stress, unchecked by stress (dictionary), vowels in roots with alternations.

Consonants and consonants

The formation of a consonant sound is associated with overcoming obstacles in the oral cavity created by the tongue, lips, teeth, and palate by an air stream. When overcoming an obstacle, noise arises - an essential component of a consonant sound. In some (voiced) consonants, in addition to noise, there is a voice created by the vibration of the vocal cords.

There are 36 consonant sounds in the Russian language ([b], [b'], [v], [v'], [g], [g'], [d], [d'], [zh], [z] , [z'], [y'], [k], [k'], [l], [l'], [m], [m'], [n], [n'], [p] , [p'], [p], [p'], [s], [s'], [t], [t'], [f], [f'], [x], [x'] , [ts], [h'], [sh], [sh']) and 21 consonant letters ( b, c, d, d, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, f, x, c, h, w, sch). This quantitative difference is associated with the main feature of Russian graphics - the way of reflecting the hardness and softness of consonants in writing.

Voiceless and voiced consonants

Voiced and voiceless consonants differ in the participation/non-participation of the voice in the formation of the consonant sound.

Voiced sounds consist of noise and voice. When pronouncing them, the air stream not only overcomes the obstacle in the oral cavity, but also vibrates the vocal cords. Voiced are the following sounds: [b], [b'], [c], [c'], [d], [g'], [d], [d'], [g], [z], [z'], [th'], [l], [l'], [m], [m'], [n], [n'], [r], [r']. The sound [zh’] found in speech is also voiced individuals in words yeast, reins and some others.

Voiceless consonants are pronounced without voice, when the vocal cords remain relaxed, and consist only of noise. The following consonant sounds are voiceless: [k], [k'], [p], [p'], [s], [s'], [t], [t'], [f], [f'], [x], [x'] [ts], [h'], [w], [w']. To remember which consonants are voiceless, there is a mnemonic rule (rule for remembering): in the phrase “ Styopka, would you like some?» – « Fi!» contains all voiceless consonants (paired in hardness/softness - only in hard or soft varieties).

Based on the presence or absence of voice, consonants form pairs; sounds in a pair should differ in only one feature, in this case, deafness / voicedness. There are 11 pairs of consonants contrasted in deafness / voicedness: [b] - [p], [b'] - [p'], [v] - [f], [v'] - [f'], [g] - [k], [g'] - [k'], [d] - [t], [d'] - [t'], [z] - [s], [z'] - [s'], [g] – [w]. The listed sounds are, respectively, either voiced pairs or voiceless pairs.

The remaining consonants are characterized as unpaired. Voiced unpaired ones include [й'], [l], [l'], [m], [m'], [n], [n'], [р], [р'], and unpaired unpaired sounds include sounds [x], [x'], [ts], [h'], [w'].

If a long sound [zh’] is present in the speech of a native speaker, then it is a voiced pair to the consonant [uh’]; in this case, the voiceless/voiced pair is 12.

Positional stun/voicing

In the Russian language, both voiceless and voiced consonants are found in certain positions. This is the position before vowels ( volume[volume] - house[house]) and before consonants [в], [в'], [й'], [л], [л'], [m], [м'], [н], [н'], [р ], [R'] ( With howl[mine'] - h over there[ringing], With chalk[sm’ila] – rah chalk[crushed], WithR Ouch[sroy’] – rah Roy[ruin’]). These positions, as rightly noted in Complex 2, are strong in voicelessness/voice.

But the appearance of a dull or voiced sound can be predetermined by its position in the word. Such deafness/voiceness turns out to be dependent, “forced,” and the positions in which this occurs are considered weak in deafness/voiceness.

Voiced pairs are deafened (or rather, changed to voiceless)

1) at the absolute end of a word: pond[rod];

2) in front of the deaf: booth[bottle].

Voiceless paired consonants standing before voiced ones, except [v], [v'], [th'], [l], [l'], [m], [m'], [n], [n'], [р], [р'], are voiced, that is, they change to voiced: threshing[malad'ba].

Articulatory similarity of sounds is designated in phonetics by the term assimilation. Assimilation can result in long consonants that occur when similar sounds are combined. In transcription, the length of a consonant is indicated by an overbar or a colon after the consonant ( bath[van] or [van:a]). The direction of influence is from the subsequent sound to the previous one (regressive assimilation).

Reflection of deafness/voicing of consonants in writing

Writing using special consonants ( T am –d am) only independent deafness/voicing of consonants is reflected; positional deafness/voicing (the result of positional devoicing/voicing) is not reflected in writing, like most other positional phonetic changes. The exception is 1) the spelling of prefixes on s/z-: scatter, smash; The reflection of pronunciation here is not carried out completely, since only the assimilation in deafness / voicedness is reflected, but not in terms of characteristics associated with the place of formation of the obstruction in the consonant: stir up[rashyv’il’it’], 2) spelling of some borrowings: transcribeP tion–transcribeb edit.

Hard and soft consonants

Hard and soft consonants differ in the features of articulation, namely the position of the tongue: when soft consonants are formed, the entire body of the tongue moves forward, and the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate; when hard consonants are formed, the body of the tongue moves back.

Consonants form 15 pairs, contrasted by hardness/softness: [b] – [b'], [c] – [v'], [g] – [g'], [d] – [d'], [z] – [z'], [k] – [k’], [l] – [l’], [m] – [m’], [n] – [n’], [p] – [p’] , [p] - [p'], [s] - [s'], [t] - [t'], [f] - [f'], [x] - [x'].

Hard unpaired consonants include the consonants [ts], [sh], [zh], and soft unpaired consonants include the consonants [ch'], [sch'], [y'] (unpaired soft is also the sound [zh'], found in some words in the speech of individual native speakers).

The consonants [ш] and [ш'] (as well as [ж] and [ж']) do not form pairs, since they differ not only in hardness/softness, but also in brevity/longitude.

This can be summarized in the following table:

Positional softening of consonants

In the Russian language, both hard and soft consonants are found in certain positions, and the number of such positions is significant. This is the position before vowels ( they say[they say] – chalk[m’ol]), at the end of a word: ( con[con] – horse[kon’]), for sounds [l], [l’] regardless of their position: ( shelf[shelf] - polka[pol'ka]) and for the sounds [s], [s'], [z], [z'], [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [n], [ n'], [p], [p'] before [k], [k'], [g], [g'], [x], [x'], [b], [b'], [ p], [p'], [m], [m'] ( jar[jar] - bathhouse[jar], blizzard[blizzard] - earring[s'ir'ga). These positions are strong in hardness/softness.

Positional changes regarding hardness/softness can only be caused by the influence of sounds on each other.

Positional softening (exchange of a hard consonant for a soft consonant) is carried out in modern Russian inconsistently in relation to different groups of consonants.

In the speech of all speakers of the modern Russian language, only the replacement of [n] with [n’] before [ch’] and [sch’] occurs consistently: drum[drum’ch’ik], drummer[drummer]

In the speech of many speakers, positional softening also occurs [s] before [n’] and [t’], [z] before [n’] and [d’]: bone[kos’t’], song[p'es'n'a], life[zhyz’n’], nails[nails].

In the speech of some speakers (in modern language this is more the exception than the rule), positional softening is also possible in some other combinations, for example: door[d'v'er'], I'll eat[s'y'em].

Indication of hardness and softness of consonants in writing

Unlike deafness/voicedness, hardness/softness of paired consonants is indicated not using consonant letters, but by other means.

The softness of consonants is indicated as follows.

For paired consonants in terms of hardness/softness, softness is indicated:

1) letters I, e, e, yu, and:small - crumpled, supposedly - chalk, peer - pen, storm - bureau, soap - cute(before e in borrowing, the consonant can be hard: puree);

2) soft sign - at the end of the word ( horse), in the middle of a word u [l’] before any consonant ( polka), after a soft consonant preceding a hard one ( very, earlier), and in a soft consonant standing before soft [g’], [k’], [b’], [m’], which are the result of changes in the corresponding hard ones ( earrings- Wed earring) – see positions that are strong in terms of hardness/softness.

In other cases, a soft sign is not written in the middle of a word to indicate the softness of paired consonants ( bridge, song, isn't it), because positional softness, like other positional changes in sounds, is not reflected in writing.

For unpaired consonants there is no need for an additional designation of softness, so graphical rules are possible " cha, cha write from A».

The hardness of paired consonants is indicated by the absence of a soft sign in strong positions (con, bank), writing letters after the consonant a, o, y, s, e(small, they say, mule, soap, peer); in some borrowings the hard consonant is pronounced before e(phonetics).

The hardness of unpaired hard consonants, as well as unpaired soft consonants, does not require additional designation, therefore it is possible that there may be a graphic rule for writing live And shi, spelling instillations about writing And And s after ts(circus And Gypsy),O And e after and And w(rustle And whisper).

Functions and spelling of b and b

The hard sign performs a dividing function in the Russian language - it indicates that after a consonant, the iotated vowel letter does not denote the softness of the consonant, but two sounds: I– [y’a], e– [y’e], e– [y’o], Yu– [y’u] ( hug[aby'at'] , will eat[sy'est] , shooting[sy'omka]).

The functions of a soft sign are more complex. It has three functions in the Russian language - dividing, the function of indicating the independent softness of paired consonants, and the grammatical function:

The soft sign can perform a similar dividing function in front of i, yu, e, yo, and inside a word not after a prefix ( blizzard, nightingale) and in some foreign words before O: (broth, companion).

A soft sign can serve to indicate the independent softness of a paired consonant at the end of a word and in the middle of a word before a consonant (see above): horse, bathhouse

A soft sign after a consonant that is unpaired in hardness/softness can perform a grammatical function - it is written according to tradition in certain grammatical forms, without carrying any phonetic load (cf.: key - night, studies - study). At the same time, the soft sign does not indicate softness not only in unpaired hard consonants, but also in unpaired soft consonants.

Positional assimilation of consonants based on other characteristics. Dissociation of consonants

Consonants can be similar to each other (subject to assimilation) not only in deafness / sonority, hardness / softness, but also in other characteristics - the place of formation of the barrier and its nature. Thus, consonants are subject to assimilation, for example, in the following combinations:

[s] + [sh] [shsh]: sew[shshyt’] = [shyt’],

[s] + [h’] [sch’] or [sch’ch’]: with something[sch’emta] or [sch’ch’emta],

[s] + [sch’] [sch’]: split[rasch’ip’it’],

[z] + [f] [lj]: get rid of[izhzhyt’] = [izhzhyt’],

[t] + [s] [ts] or [tss]: wash[muscle] = [muscle], sleep it off[atsypat’],

[t] + [ts] [ts]: unhook[atsyp’it’] = [atsyp’it’],

[t] + [h’] [h’h’]: report[ach’ch’ot] = [ach’ot],

[t] + [sch’] [h’sch’]: split off[ach’sh’ip’it’].

Several features of consonants can be subject to positional change at once. For example, in the word count[pach’sh’ot] there is an alternation of [d] + [sh’][ch’sh’], that is, a similarity is presented in terms of deafness, softness and signs of the location and nature of the obstacle.

In some words, the process opposite to assimilation is represented - dissimilation (dissimilation). Yes, in words easy And soft instead of the expected assimilation due to deafness and the formation of a long consonant ([g] + k’][k’k’]), the combination [k’k’][x’k’] ( easy[lokh’k’iy’], soft[makh’k’iy’]), where the dissimilarity of sounds according to the nature of the barrier is noted (when pronouncing the sound [k’], the organs of speech close, and when pronouncing [x’] they come closer). At the same time, dissimilation on this basis is combined with assimilation on the basis of deafness and softness.

Simplification of consonant clusters (unpronounceable consonant)

In some combinations, when three consonants are connected, one, usually the middle one, drops out (the so-called unpronounceable consonant). Consonant deletion is presented in the following combinations:

WithT l– [sl]: happy happy,

WithT n– [sn]: local me[sn]y,

hd n– [sn]: late po[z’n’]y,

hd ts– [sc]: by the reins under the [sts]s,

nd w– [ns]: landscape la[ns]aft,

nT G– [ng]: x-ray re[ng']en,

nd ts– [nc]: Dutch goll[nc]s,

Rd ts– [rts]: heart s[rts]e,

Rd h– [rh’]: little heart s[rch’]ishko,

l nc– [nc]: Sun so[nc]e.

The sound [й’] between vowels is also not pronounced if it is followed by a vowel [i]: my[maivo].

Qualitative and quantitative relationships between letters and sounds in the Russian language

Ambiguous qualitative and quantitative relationships are established between letters and sounds in the Russian language.

The same letter can represent different sounds, for example, the letter A can represent sounds [a] ( small[small]), [and] ( watch[ch'isy]), [s] ( regret[zhyl’et’]), which is associated with a change in the pronunciation of vowels in unstressed syllables; letter With can represent sounds [s] ( garden[sat]), [s’] ( guest[gos’t’]), [z] ( pass[zdat’]), [z’] ( do[z’d’elat’]), [w] ( compress[burn’]), [w] ( embroider[rashhyt’]), [sch’] ( split[rash’sch’ip’it’]), which is associated with the similarity of consonants according to various characteristics.

And vice versa: the same sound can be indicated in writing by different letters, for example: the sound [and] can be indicated by letters And(world[world]), A(watch[ch'isy]), I(ranks[r'ida]), e(warbler[p'ivun]).

If we consider a word from the point of view of those quantitative relationships that are established between letters and sounds, then the following possible relationships can be identified:

One letter can represent one sound: wO V[chof]; this relationship occurs when a vowel comes after a consonant that is unpaired in hardness/softness and the vowel letter denotes only the quality of the vowel sound: for example, the letter O in a word table[table] cannot be an illustration of this unambiguous relationship, since in this case it denotes not only the sound [o], but also the hardness of the consonant [t].

One letter can represent two sounds: I ma[y'ama] (letters i, yu, e, yo at the beginning of a word, after vowels and separators).

A letter may not have a sound meaning: monthsT ny[m'esny'] (unpronounceable consonant) , mouseb [mouse] (soft sign in the grammatical function after consonants unpaired in hardness/softness).

One letter can indicate a sound attribute: conb [con’] , banb ka[bank'ka] (soft sign to indicate the softness of a paired consonant at the end and middle of a word).

One letter can represent a sound and a sign of another sound: mI l[m'al] (letter I denotes the sound [a] and the softness of the consonant [m’]).

Two letters can represent one sound: myts I[moitsa] , Notss I[n'os'a].

It may seem that three letters can also represent one sound: Wets I[mytsa], however this is not so: the sound [ts] is indicated by letters T And With, A b performs a grammatical function - indicates the form of the infinitive.

Syllable

A phonetic syllable is a vowel or a combination of a vowel with one or more consonants, pronounced with one expiratory impulse. There are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels; two vowels cannot be within the same syllable.

Syllables can be stressed or unstressed.

Most syllables in the Russian language end in a vowel, that is, they are open: milk[ma-la-ko]. Thus, in the sequence SGSGSG (where S is a consonant, G is a vowel), only one syllable division option is possible: SG-SG-SG.

However, in the Russian language there are also syllables ending with a consonant (closed). Closed syllables occur:

1) at the end of a phonetic word: railway carriage[railway carriage],

2) in the middle of a word with a combination of two or more consonants, if

a) after [th"] any other consonant follows: war[wai"-na],

b) after the remaining unpaired voiced ones ([l], [l"], [m], [m"], [n], [n"], [r], [r"]), a consonant paired in deafness/voicedness follows : lamp[lamp].

In other cases of consonant clusters, the syllabic boundary passes before the group of consonants: booth[bu-tka], spring[in "i-sna".

A phonetic syllable should be distinguished from a transfer syllable. Although in large number cases, the transfer is carried out at the place of syllable separation ( mo-lo-ko, lamp-pa), but in some cases the syllable to be transferred and the phonetic syllable may not coincide.

Firstly, the transfer rules do not allow one vowel letter to be transferred or left on a line, however, the sounds it denotes can form a phonetic syllable; for example, the word pit cannot be transferred, but must be divided into phonetic syllables [y"a-ma].

Secondly, according to the transfer rules, identical consonant letters should be separated: van-na, cash-sa; the boundary of the phonetic syllable passes before these consonants, and at the place where identical consonants meet, we actually pronounce one long consonant sound: bath[wa-na], cash register[ka-sa].

Thirdly, when transferring, morpheme boundaries in a word are taken into account: it is not recommended to tear off one letter from a morpheme, so you should transfer smash, forest, but the boundaries of phonetic syllables are different: smash[ra-zb "it"], forest[l "i-snoy"].

Accent

Stress is the pronunciation of one of the syllables in a word (or rather, the vowel in it) with greater force and duration. So phonetically Russian accent forceful and quantitative (in other languages ​​there are other types of stress: forceful (English), quantitative (Modern Greek), tonic (Vietnamese).

Other distinctive features of the Russian accent are its diversity and mobility.

The diversity of Russian stress lies in the fact that it can fall on any syllable in a word, as opposed to languages ​​with a fixed stress place (for example, French or Polish): tree, road, milk.

The mobility of stress lies in the fact that in the forms of one word the stress can move from the stem to the ending: legs - legs.

Compound words (i.e. words with several roots) may have multiple stresses: instrumentation aircraft manufacturing, however many Difficult words have no side accent: steamship[parachot].

Stress in Russian can perform the following functions:

1) organizing - a group of syllables with a single stress makes up a phonetic word, the boundaries of which do not always coincide with the boundaries of the lexical word and can combine independent words together with service ones: into the fields[fpal "a", he's the one[onta];

2) semantically distinctive - stress can distinguish

a) different words, which is due to the variety of Russian accents: flour - flour, castle - castle,

b) forms of one word, which is associated with the diversity and mobility of Russian stress: earth - earth.

Orthoepy

The term “orthoepy” is used in linguistics in two meanings:

1) a set of norms of a literary language related to the sound design of significant units: norms of pronunciation of sounds in different positions, norms of stress and intonation;

2) a science that studies the variation of pronunciation norms of a literary language and develops pronunciation recommendations (spelling rules).

The differences between these definitions are as follows: in the second understanding, those pronunciation norms, which are associated with the action of phonetic laws: changes in the pronunciation of vowels in unstressed syllables (reduction), positional deafening / voicing of consonants, etc. In this understanding, the sphere of orthoepy includes only those pronunciation norms that allow variability in literary language, for example, the possibility of pronunciation after hissing both [a] and [s] ([heat], but [zhysm "in]).

Educational complexes define orthoepy as the science of pronunciation, that is, in the first meaning. Thus, according to these complexes, all pronunciation norms of the Russian language belong to the sphere of orthoepy: the implementation of vowels in unstressed syllables, deafening/voicing of consonants in certain positions, softness of a consonant before a consonant, etc. These pronunciation norms were described above.

Of the norms that allow variability in pronunciation in the same position, it should be noted the following standards, updated in school course Russian language:

1) pronunciation of hard and soft consonant before e in borrowed words,

2) pronunciation of combinations in individual words Thu And chn like [pcs] and [shn],

3) pronunciation of sounds [zh] and [zh"] in place of combinations lj, zzh, zzh,

4) variability of positional softening of consonants in separate groups,

5) variability of stress in individual words and word forms.

It is these pronunciation norms related to the pronunciation of individual words and word forms that are the object of description in spelling dictionaries.

Let us give a brief description of these pronunciation norms.

Pronunciation of hard and soft consonant before e in borrowed words it is regulated separately for each word of this type. So, one should pronounce k[r"]em, [t"]ermin, mu[z"]ey, shi[n"]el, but fo[ne]tika, [te]nnis, sw[te]r; In a number of words, variable pronunciation is possible, for example: prog[r]ess and prog[r"]ess.

Pronunciation of combinations in individual words Thu And chn both [pcs] and [shn] are also specified as a list. So, with [pcs] the words are pronounced what to, with [sh] – words of course boring, in a number of words, variable pronunciation is acceptable, for example, two [ch"n"]ik and two [sh"]ik, bulo[ch"n]aya and bulo[sh]aya.

As already mentioned, in the speech of some people, mainly the older generation, there is a long soft consonant sound [zh "], which is pronounced in individual words in place of combinations of letters LJ, zzh, zhd:yeast, reins, ride, rain: [trembling"i], [vozh"i], [th"ezh"u], [dazh"i". In the speech of people younger generation in place of combinations LJ And zzh the sound can be pronounced [zh] = [zhzh] ([trembling], [th "ezhu]), at the place of the combination railway in a word rains– [zhd "] (thus, when deafening in a word rain we have pronunciation options [dosh"] and [dosht"]).

The variability of positional softening in individual groups of consonants has already been discussed when describing cases of positional softening. Mandatory positional mitigation in different groups words are not the same. In the speech of all speakers of the modern Russian language, as already mentioned, only the replacement of [n] with [n"] before [ch"] and [sch"] occurs consistently: drum[drum "h"ik], drummer[drummer]. In other groups of consonants, softening or does not occur at all (for example, shops[lafk"i]), or it is represented in the speech of some native speakers and is absent in the speech of others. Moreover, the representation of positional softening in different groups of consonants is different. Thus, in the speech of many speakers there is a positional softening [s] before [n"] and [t"], [z] before [n"] and [d"]: bone[kos "t"], song[p"es"n"a], life[zhyz"n"], nails[gvóz "d"i], the softening of the first consonant in the combinations [zv"], [dv"], [sv"], [zl"], [sl"], [sy"] and some others is more an exception than rule (for example: door[dv"er"] and [d"v"er"], I'll eat[sy"em] and [s"y"em], If[y"esl"i] and [y"es"l"i]).

Since Russian stress is varied and mobile and, because of this, its placement cannot be regulated by rules uniform for all words, the placement of stress in words and word forms is also regulated by the rules of orthoepy. "Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language" ed. R.I. Avanesova describes the pronunciation and stress of more than 60 thousand words, and due to the mobility of Russian stress, all forms of this word are often included in the dictionary entry. So, for example, the word call in present tense forms the accent is on the ending: you call, it calls. Some words have variable stress in all their forms, e.g. cottage cheese And cottage cheese. Other words may have variable stress in some of their forms, for example: weaved And weaved,braid And braid

Differences in pronunciation may be caused by a change in the orthoepic norm. Thus, in linguistics it is customary to distinguish between “senior” and “junior” orthoepic norms: new pronunciation gradually replaces the old one, but at some stage they coexist, although mainly in speech different people. It is with the coexistence of the “senior” and “junior” norms that the variability of positional softening of consonants is associated.

This is also related to the difference in the pronunciation of unstressed vowels, which is reflected in educational complexes. The system for describing the change (reduction) of vowels in unstressed syllables in complexes 1 and 2 reflects the “minor” norm: in an unstressed position in pronunciation, the sound [and] after soft consonants are the same, all vowels that differ under stress, except [y]: worlds[m "iry", village[with "ilo", five[p"it"orka]. In an unstressed syllable, after hard hissing [zh], [sh] and after [ts], an unstressed vowel [s] is pronounced, reflected in the letter by the letter e(f[y]lat, sh[y]pt, ts[y]na).

Complex 3 reflects the “senior” norm: It says that the sounds [and], [s], [y] are pronounced clearly not only in stressed, but also in unstressed syllables: m[i]ry. In place of letters e And I in unstressed syllables after soft consonants, [and e] is pronounced, that is, the middle sound between [i] and [e] (p[i e]grater, s[i e]lo). After hard hissing [zh], [sh] and after [ts] in place e pronounced [y e] (zh[y e]lat, sh[y e]pt, ts[y e]na).

Pronunciation variability may be associated not only with the dynamic process of changing pronunciation norms, but also with socially significant factors. Thus, pronunciation can distinguish between literary and professional use of a word ( compass And compass), neutral style and colloquial speech (thousand[thousand "ich"a] and [thousand"a]), neutral and high style ( poet[paet] and [poet]).

Complex 3 proposes to carry out, in addition to phonetic (see below), orthoepic analysis, which should be done “when there is a possible or mistake in pronunciation or stress in a word.” For example, more beautiful– the stress is always on the second syllable; kone[sh]o. Orthoepic analysis, in addition to phonetic analysis, is necessary when variability in the pronunciation of a given sound sequence is possible in a language or when the pronunciation of a word is associated with frequent errors (for example, in stress).

Graphic arts. Spelling

Graphics is defined in all three complexes as a science that studies the designation of spoken speech in writing.

Russian graphics have specific features relating to the designation of soft consonants in writing, the designation of the sound [th"] and the use of graphic signs (see above). Graphics establishes writing rules for all words, determines how language units are conveyed in all words and parts of words ( in contrast to spelling rules, which establish the spellings of specific classes of words and their parts).

Spelling is a branch of linguistics that studies the system of rules for the uniform spelling of words and their forms, as well as these rules themselves. The central concept of spelling is spelling.

A spelling is a spelling regulated by a spelling rule or established in a dictionary order, i.e., a spelling of a word that is selected from a number of possible spellings from the point of view of the laws of graphics.

Spelling consists of several sections:

1) writing significant parts words (morphemes) - roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings, that is, the designation by letters of the sound composition of words where this is not determined by graphics;

2) continuous, separate and hyphenated spellings;

3) use of capitals and lowercase letters;

4) transfer rules;

5) rules for graphic abbreviations of words.

Let us briefly describe these sections.

Writing morphemes (meaningful parts of a word)

The spelling of morphemes in Russian is regulated by three principles - phonemic, traditional, phonetic.

The phonemic principle is the leading one and regulates more than 90% of all spellings. Its essence is that phonetically positional changes - reduction of vowels, deafening, voicing, softening of consonants - are not reflected in writing. In this case, vowels are written as if under stress, and consonants as in a strong position, for example, a position before a vowel. In different sources, this basic principle may have different name– phonemic, morphematic, morphological.

The traditional principle governs the spelling of untested vowels and consonants ( WithO tank, andP theca), roots with alternations ( slA gat - slO live), differentiating spellings ( coole g – coolO G).

The phonetic principle of orthography is that in individual groups of morphemes the writing can reflect the actual pronunciation, i.e., positional changes in sounds. In Russian spelling, this principle is implemented in three spelling rules - the spelling of prefixes ending in salary(rah beat - raWith drink), spelling of the vowel in the prefix roses/times/ros/ras(RA write-off - pO write off) and spelling of roots starting with And, after prefixes ending in a consonant ( And history - prevs history).

Continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling

Continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling is regulated by the traditional principle, taking into account the morphological independence of the units. Single words are written mainly separately, except for negative and indefinite pronouns with prepositions ( no one with) and some adverbs ( hugging), parts of words - together or with a hyphen (cf.: in my opinion And In my).

Use of uppercase and lowercase letters

The use of uppercase and lowercase letters is regulated by a lexical-syntactic rule: proper names and denominations are written with a capital letter ( MSU, Moscow State University), as well as the first word at the beginning of each sentence. The rest of the words are written with a lowercase letter.

Transfer rules

The rules for transferring words from one line to another are based on the following rules: when transferring, first of all, the syllabic division of the word is taken into account, and then its morphemic structure: war,smash, but not * war, *smash. One letter of the word is not carried over or left on the line. Identical consonants in the root of a word are separated when transferred: cash register.

Rules for graphic abbreviations of words

Abbreviating words in writing is also based on the following rules:

1) only the integral, undivided part of the word can be omitted ( litera – literature, higher education – higher education);

2) when abbreviating a word, at least two letters are omitted;

3) you cannot shorten a word by dropping its initial part;

4) the abbreviation should not fall on a vowel letter or letters y, y, y.

Get information about correct spelling words can be found in Russian spelling dictionaries.

Phonetic analysis

Phonetic analysis of a word is carried out according to the following scheme:

Transcribe the word, adding emphasis.

On the transcription, hyphens (or vertical lines) indicate the syllable division.

Determine the number of syllables, indicate the stress.

Show what sound each letter corresponds to. Determine the number of letters and sounds.

Write down the letters of the word in a column, next to them are the sounds, indicate their correspondence.

Indicate the number of letters and sounds.

Characterize sounds according to the following parameters:

vowel: stressed / unstressed; consonant: voiceless/voiced with pairing indicated, hard/soft with pairing indicated.

Sample phonetic analysis:

its [th"i-vo] 2 syllables, second stressed

In phonetic analysis, they show the correspondence of letters and sounds by connecting letters with the sounds they denote (with the exception of the designation of hardness/softness of a consonant by the subsequent vowel letter). Therefore, it is necessary to pay attention to the letters denoting two sounds, and to the sounds denoted by two letters. Particular attention should be paid to the soft sign, which in some cases indicates the softness of the preceding paired consonant (and in this case, like the preceding consonant letter, it is combined with a consonant sound), and in other cases does not carry a phonetic load, performing a grammatical function (in in this case, a dash is placed next to it in transcription brackets), for example:

Please note that for consonant sounds, pairing is indicated separately on the basis of deafness / voicedness and on the basis of hardness / softness, since in the Russian language not only absolutely unpaired consonants are represented ([y"], [ts], [ch"], [ Ш "]), but also consonants, unpaired only according to one of these features, for example: [l] - voiced unpaired, hard paired, [zh] - voiced paired, hard unpaired.

(from Greek Phone– sound) studies the sounds of speech and everything connected with them (compatibility, formation, change, etc.). Accordingly, the object of phonetics is sound. The sounds themselves have no meaning, but they form the material shell of the word.

In writing, sounds are conveyed by letters. The letter is symbol, which serves to indicate speech sounds in writing. The ratio of letters and sounds in the Russian language is not the same: for example, 10 letters of the Russian alphabet represent vowel sounds (there are 6 of them), and 21 letters represent consonants (there are 36 + 1 of them), and the letters and sounds do not represent sounds at all. For example, festive– 11 letters and 10 sounds [pra´z"n"ich"ny"], her– 2 letters and 4 sounds [th "iii" o´], etc.

The phonetics of the Russian language is distinguished by an abundance of classifications of sounds: voiceless / voiced, hard / soft, stressed / unstressed, paired / unpaired etc. But even among these “rules” there are exceptions: for example, unpaired solids([zh], [w], [ts]) and unpaired soft([h"], [w"], [j]), unpaired voiced (sonorant)([l], [l"], [m], [m"], [n], [n"], [p], [p"], [j]) and unpaired deaf([x], [x"], [ts], [h], [sch]). They need to be remembered so that meeting them does not seem like a sad and unpleasant incident. And remembering all the classifications is quite difficult, so you should resort to with the help of imagination: for example, “ LIMON - paradise"– all sonorants of the Russian language, “ Stepka, do you want to eat the soup? - F and!» – everyone is deaf, etc.

We speak largely intuitively, so when pronouncing words we don’t think about the sounds we pronounce and the processes that occur with the sounds. Let us recall, for example, the simplest phonetic processes– stunning, voicing and assimilation by softness. See how the same letter - depending on the conditions of pronunciation - turns into different sounds: With the most – [With a´my"], With go – [c" id"e´t"], With sew– [w sew], With friend – [h friend´m], about s ba– [pro´ z" ba], etc.

Often, ignorance of the phonetics of the Russian language leads to errors in speech. Of course, this primarily concerns trap words like meter(unit of measurement) and master (outstanding man) and words to remember like shi[ n"e]l. Moreover, it is enough simple words Despite their ease of pronunciation, they often create problems during transcription: spring– [in "isna´", watch– [h"isy´], etc. Let's not forget that e, e, yu, i, and (in some cases) produce two sounds under certain conditions.

In other words, knowledge of Russian phonetics and the ability to use its mechanisms is not only an indicator of a person’s level of education and culture, but also very useful knowledge that will be useful at school and can be useful in extracurricular life.

Good luck in learning Russian phonetics!

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