Iraqi territory. Official name: Republic of Iraq

IRAQ, Republic of Iraq (Al-Jumhuriya al-Iraqiya). - state-su-dar-st-vo in South-West Asia.

In the south-east, it is washed by the Persian Gulf of the Indian Ocean (the length of the coastline is 58 km). Gra-ni-chit in the north with Tur-tsi, in the east with Iran, in the southeast with Kuwait, in the south and southwest -pas-deux with the Saudi Ara-vi-ey, on the za-pas-deux with Ior-da-ni-ey, on the se-ve-ro-za-pas-deux with Si-ri-ey. Area 434.1 thousand km2 (according to other data, 437.1 thousand km2). Population 34.8 million (2008). The capital is Ba-gdad. The official languages ​​are Arabic and Kurdish. De-tender unit - Iraqi di-nar. Administrative-territorial division: 18 mu-ha-phases (table).

Iraq is a member of the UN (1945), IMF (1945), IBRD (1945), Arab League (1945), OPEC (1960), Organization of the Islamic Conference (1975) .

Political system

Iraq is a federal state. Constitution of approval for re-fe-ren-du-me on October 15, 2005. Form of government - par-la-ment-skaya re-pub-li-ka.

The head of state is the president, from the bi-paradise of the lower pa-la-that par-la-men-ta with a majority of 2/3 of the sro -com for 4 years (with the right of one re-examination). A native of Iraq who has a family of Iraqis and is over 40 years old can be elected pre-si-den.

The highest za-ko-no-dative organ is a two-pa-lat par-la-ment, consisting of the Council of representatives and the Council ve-ta soyu-za. Council of representatives (1 de-pu-tat from every 100 thousand inhabitants) from-bi-ra-et-sya for 4 years, by-the-way everything-about- the first, direct and secret voice of the country and represents everything in the country. The council of soy-wives must consist of the representatives of the re-gi-o-novs and pro-vin-tions that are not part of the re- gi-o-nov. The composition of the Co-ve-ta, the conditions of membership in it, the scope of its comp-ten-tion and other issues will be discussed in the future -re-de-le-ny behind-ko-no.

The executive power is exercised jointly by the ministries headed by the prime minister. The composition of the pra-vi-tel-st-va ut-ver-is-waiting-with-that before-sta-vi-te-lei in in-di-vi-du-al-nom in a row -ke; The government program must be approved by the absolute majority of members of the Council of Representatives .

The fe-de-ra-tiv-naya system of Iraq pre-la-ga-et includes in it the capitals of the country, regions, pro-wines tions not included in the regions, and local administrative units.

Constitution pro-voz-gla-sha-et is-lam the official re-li-gi-e of the state and the main source for-ko-no-da-tel-st-va (not a single law can be adopted if it is against the basic norms of is-la-ma). At the same time, the Islamic identity of the majority of the Iraqi people at the same time is recognized research on the religious rights of every person, the freedom of his religion and the freedom of religious ob-ryadov.

There is a multi-party system in Iraq. Leading Shi-it parties: The Supreme Council of the Islamic Revolution in Iraq, the “Islamic Call” (“Daa-wa "). Leading Kurdish parties: Democratic Party of Kur-di-sta-na, Patriotic Union of Kur-di-sta-na. Sunni party - Iraqi Islamic party. Other parties: As-Syrian Democratic Movement, Front of Tur-ko-manov of Iraq, Iraqi National Consent Movement, Ob-e-di- not-for-the-vi-si-my Iraqi de-mo-kra-tov, the Iraqi National Congress, the Iraqi Communist Party.

Nature

Relief. Most of the territory of Iraq is equal to the Upper and Lower Me-so-po-ta-mi. Upper Me-so-po-ta-miya, or Ba-di-yat-el-Ja-zi-ra, located in the middle part of the Tigris and Ev rivers -frat, presents himself as a hundred-year-old de-well-yes-qi-on-but-ak-ku-mu-la-tiv-equal with a height of 200-500 m, located separately from the os-tan-tso-you-mi, up to 1460 m high (Sinjar Mountains); there are so-lon-cha-ko-vye de-press-sii (seb-hi), the largest of which - fall-di-na so-le-no- th Lake Tartar. Along the periphery of the shi-ro-ko dis-pro-country-sloping pro-lu-vi-al equals with stones mi and gip-so-you-mi po-lu-pus-you-nya-mi. Lower Me-so-po-ta-miya (Shatt al-Arab, lower of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers) - extensive al-lu-vi-al-naya bottom -ness, no more than 100 m high above sea level. Mo-no-ton-ny rel-ef low-men-no-sti na-ru-sha-et-sya about-to-ka-mi, be-re-go-you-mi va-la-mi, ir -ri-gational ka-na-la-mi, behind-the-lake-ren-ny-mi in-low-the-niya-mi. The southern part of the Lower Me-so-po-ta-mii is strongly behind-bo-lo-che-na.

In the north and north-east of Iraq there are low and mid-high-rise warehouse mountains ridges of the Armenian and Iranian mountains up to 3587 m high (Mount Ha-ji-Ib-ra-him is the highest point in Iraq). The western and southwestern parts of Iraq (Syrian desert, El-Khidzhar desert) are located in the region of Syria -riy-sko-Ara-viy-sko-go-go-go-go-go-go-go-go-go-go-go-go-go-go-pla-to-pla-to up to 900 m.

Geo-logical structure and useful resources. In technical terms, the southern and western parts of Iraq are located in the northeastern region of the Arabian plateau. forms, where the dis- lo West-nya-ki with go-ri-zon-ta-mi phos-fo-ri-tov, clay, etc.) fa-ne-rose-zoy cover-la power 6 -7.5 km. A warehouse comes to the north of Iraq from the east. -th movement of the belt. The ridges of Armenia and Iran on the mountains are folded into folds and above them to the right le-nii south-za-pa-da (in a hundred-ro-well plat-for-we) me-zo-kai-no-zoy-ski-mi kar-bo-nat-no-ter-ri-gen- we are from-lo-same-mi, accommodating thicknesses of so-la-nyh kind. At the extreme north-east there is a zone above the sea, along which you stand. lik-you of the oceanic crust (ofio-li-you). Warehouse-cha-taya sys-te-ma and before-Kem-Briy-skaya plat-for-ma raz-de-le-ny Me-so-po-there-skim-re-do-vy pro-gi- bom, behind-the-full neo-gen-four-vertical-mi about-lo-moch-ny-mi from-lo-zhe-niya-mi (mo-las-soy), used the most efficient warehouse de-for-ma-tions. For the northern and northeastern regions of Iraq, there is a higher seismicity. The most seismically active students and regions of possible strong earth-shaking races - along the border of the Iran-mountain with the Me-so-low-men-ness.

The most important mineral resources of Iraq are oil and natural combustible gas. Most of the oil prices come from the largest oil and gas loci de-ni-yah Kir-kuk, El-Ru-may-la, Ez-Zu-bayr, Er-Ra-ta-vi, Mand-jun, from-no-sya-sya to Per-sid-sko -go for-li-va oil-te-ga-zo-nos-no-mu bass-sey-nu. There are several of its own gas places (Chia-Surkh and Kha-nu-ka). Pro-mysh-len-but-know-we-place-of-rozh-de-niya s-ry (Mish-rak, El-Fat-ha and La-za-ga on s-ve-re), phos- fo-ri-tov (Ak-shat and Er-Rut-ba on the other-pa-de, near-the-lying East-but-Middle-earth-no-sea-mu phos-fo-ri-to-nos-no-mu bass-sey-nu), cement-from-vest-nya-kov, stone-men-noy so-li. Also known are the places of iron and lead-zinc ores, gypsum, brick clays. You-yav-le-ny ru-do-pro-yav-le-niy me-di, nik-ke-la, hro-mit-tov, as-be-sta, tal-ka, etc.

Climate. In the northern part of Iraq, the climate is subtropical continental, with dry hot summers and rainy and in the cold winter. Average temperatures in July are 34 °C, in January 7 °C (Mo-sul). In winter there is snow in the mountains. In the southern part of the country the climate is tropical and con- ti-nen-tal. Average temperatures in January are 12 °C, in August 34 °C, and maximum temperatures are 48 °C (Bas-ra). The amount of precipitation in mountainous areas is 500-1500 mm per year (sometimes you are surrounded by snow), in the south in eastern countries 50-150 mm per year. Most of the precipitation occurs from December to March. In the south of Iraq there are often dust storms.

Inland waters. Re-sur-sy at the top of the hundred (75 km3) og-ra-ni-chen-ny. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which cross the territory of Iraq from the north, have the most important economic significance - yes to the south-east. Near the city of El-Kurna, the Tigris and Ev-frat merge and form the Shatt al-Arab River, which flows into the Persian Gulf. In the borders of Iraq, the Tiger has quite large left wings (Big Zab, Small Zab, Diya-la), in Ev- fra-ta in Iraq there are no significant acquisitions. In the regions of the Lower Me-so-po-ta-mii, the Tiger and Eu-phrates spread out branches on the ru-ka-va, form a lot of Numerous floodplain lakes and swamps. The max-si-mum of the river comes at the spring, when there is no water, at the end of the summer and in the autumn there are little rivers of water. For the Kha-rak-te-ren rivers there is a significant solid flow; in the lower reaches there is a high concentration of salts in the water. de due to the discharge of drainage water from the fields. For desert areas, there are temporary water-do-to-ki - va-di.

About 80% of newly generated water resources are used for economic purposes (of which 92% goes to agricultural railways, 3% - for commercial needs, 5% for industrial enterprises). Hydro-energy resources (700 thousand MW) are located mainly in the Tigris River basin. To re-gu-li-ro-va-niya the water supply and fight against flood-water, a lot of flood-water has been created in the country. storage (down to the Tigris and Euphrates rivers). In the valleys of the rivers Ev-frat, Big Zab and Small Zab, complex hydro-units were built. Straight-tight si-tua-tion with water-to-provide-pe-che-ni-em ha-rak-ter-na for the basin of the Eu-frat River, since a significant part a hundred rivers are used for irrigation. Regular shipping is possible mainly along the Shatt al-Arab River.

Soil, plant and living world. In the valleys of the main rivers of Iraq (Tigris with its rivers, Ev-frat, Shatt al-Arab), al-lu-vi-al soils are developed - poor before-native, but the places are behind-the-large or behind-the-linen. In Verkhnyaya Me-so-po-ta-mii there are gray-ro-ze-we and gray-ko-rich-not-new soils. Large areas on the plains of the Lower Me-so-on-ta-mii are secondary to saline soils, that -ky-ry and sand-ki, the emergence of which is connected with many non-rational practices -koy or-shae-mo-go earth-le-de-lia. For the northern and northeastern parts of the country, mountainous brown and mountainous soils are typical. In the rest of the territory, there are desert rocks, including hypnosous soils, as well as sand-ki and so-lon-cha-ki.

In most of the territory of Iraq there are desert steppes (evils, fields, numerous ephemerals) and half-deserts, moving in the south and south-pas-de-deux into tropical deserts. Forests cover no more than 2% of the area of ​​Iraq. The foothills of the mountains cover a number of bushes. -kov, on the southern slopes there are state-dominated formations of the terrestrial-sea-type: ma-k-vis, raz-re-zhen-nye Du-bo-vye and fis-tash-ko-vye forests, higher up on the slopes, replacing can-ve-ve-you-red-ko-les-i- mi. In the upper parts of the mountain slopes there are al-piy meadows. On the plains along the rivers there are forests from the Ev-frat-sko-to-la, willows, ta-ma-ri-skovs. For the southern regions, ti-pic-ny na-sa-zh-de-niya fi-ni-ko-howl palm-we. In the valleys of the Tigra and Eu-fra-ta, the lands are irrigated.

The living world is very depleted, mainly due to the morning of the habitat. Over 80 species of mammals, of which 11 are under threat of extinction. Fully used is the Syrian ku-lan, the Ara-viy ga-zel dor-kas, ver-ro-yat-but, from the territory of Iraq The Arabian oryx and the Iranian fallow deer also disappeared. Among the large mammals preserved were the wolf, the hyena, and the sha-kal. There are about 400 species of birds in the or-ni-to-fauna, including over 170 nesting species. The water-lands of Me-so-po-ta-mii are the only nesting places in the world for the Iraqi Ka-mya. seam-ki and Iraqi thrush-do-howl ti-melia (en-de-mi-ki of Iraq), as well as the wintering grounds of many rare water-swimming birds (pink fla-min-go, curly pe-li-kan, etc.) - mostly de-gra-di-ro-va-li following-st-vie osu-shi- corporal measures in the middle of the 20th century, as well as in the results of military actions. In Ioak, a total of 8 oh-so-holy territories were created with a total area of ​​541 hectares (2005); they all have a not-so-holy status. Teach the value of landscapes Me-so-po-ta-mii for maintaining a high-different-of-ra-zia or-ni- to-fau-ny, Inter-people's Union of Bird Conservation (Birdlife International) in the territory of Iraq you-de-lil 42 key or-ni- to-logical territories of international significance (total area 3.5 million hectares).

Additional literature:

Countries and nations. Trans-Russian Asia. Southwest Asia. M., 1979;

Fisher W. Iraq: Physical and social geography // Middle East and North Africa. L., 1994;

Alek-see-va N. N. Modern landscapes of overseas Asia. M., 2000.

Population

Most of the villages of Iraq (71.3%) are Arab-Iraqis. In the north-east of Iraq live the Kurds (about 14%), in the north-east there live the Yezidis (about 2%), As-Si-riys (1.2 %). Azerbaijanis make up 5.3% of the country's population, Arab-Egyptians - 2%, Pa-lestinians - 0.5%, per -sy - 1.1%, immigrants from Turkestan (Turkmen) - 1.1%, Lu-ry - 0.3%, Armenian - 0.2%, immigrants from the Caucasus ka-za (“cher-ke-sy”) - 0.1%, tsy-ga-ne - 0.1%, etc.

The natural growth of the population (2.6% in 2007) is due to the high birth rate (31.4 per 1000 inhabitants), almost 6 times the highest mortality rate (5.3 per 1000 inhabitants); po-ka-za-tel fer-til-no-sti 4.1 children per 1 woman; infant mortality rate is 47 per 1000 live-days. The average age of the population is 20 years (2007). In the age structure of the village, you-so-ka do-la children (up to 15 years old) - 39.4%, persons of working age - no age (15-64 years) - 57.6%, over 65 years old - 3%. The average life expectancy is 69.3 years (men - 68, women - 70.6). For every 100 women, there are 102 men. The average population density is 80.2 people/km2 (2008). The closest to the rivers Tigris, Euphrates, and Shatt al-Arab are the most dense. The share of the urban population is 67% (2005). Large cities (thousands of people, 2008): Baghdad 6432 (with 10634), Mosul 2595, Basra 1862 (with 10634 -da-mi 3803), Er-bil 1628, Su-lei-ma-niya 1201, Kir-kuk 676, En-Nad-jaf 615.

Internal des-ta-bi-li-za-tion after prolonged military operations led to significant external and internal -ren-nim mi-gra-tsi-yam na-se-le-niya. According to the UN (end of 2006), over 1.8 million people left Iraq, mainly to Syria and Jordan; There are more than 1.6 million people living in the country's interior.

Eco-no-mi-che-ski active population 7.4 million people. About 20% of workers are in agriculture (2004; estimate). The unemployment rate is 18-30% (2006).

Religion

According to data (2007) of the Temporary Military Administration of the Coalition Forces in Iraq, about 97% of the Iraqi population is Muslim, of which 60-65% - shii-you, 32-37% - sun-ni-you; about 3% are Christians and representatives of other religious groups (Jews, Yezidis, Man-Deis, Ba-hai-you).

Iraq is one of two Arab countries(next to Bach-rein), where after the shi-it-sko-th on the right-le-niya is-la-ma number pre-ob-la-da-yut over the-after-va-te-la-mi sun-nit-skogo on-right-le-niya.

The faithful women of Shi-iz-ma make up 96-99% of the population in the mu-ha-fa-zakhs of Ka-di-siya, Ker-be-la, Ba-bil, Di-Kar, Va-sit and Mai-san, as well as the pressing pain-shin-st-vo - in mu-ha-fa-zakh Nad-zhaf, Mu-tan -na and Bas-ra. Zna-chi-tel-na do-la shii-tov in mu-ha-fa-zakh Diya-la (45%), Baghdad and Sa-lah-ed-Din (25-30%). In the northern mu-ha-fa-zakhs of Iraq, up to shi-it-sko-go na-se-le-niya not-know-chi-tel-na: in Ta-mi-me - 8%, Nai-na -ve and Da-hu-ke - 5% each. In Er-bi-le, Su-lei-ma-nii and An-ba-re there is no shii-tov practically. The overwhelming majority of the country's rural residents are Shii. Shi-it religious centers: En-Nad-jaf, Ker-be-la, Sa-mar-ra, Baghdad district of El-Ka-zi-miya. Shi-it-sky Islam in Iraq is represented by several on-right-le-niya-mi: ima-mi-you, shey-hi-you, ali-ila-hi ( Ahl-i Haqq), is-mai-li-you. Ima-mi-you (ja-fa-ri-you) make up 95% of the Iraqi Shiites. Ima-mi-you are presented with two schools. The largest number of students at the Usu-liy-un school, whose female students account for over 80% of imams . The second school - Ah-ba-riy-un - has less than 20% of ima-mi-tov. Shei-hi-you make up about 3% of Shi-itov (live in the southern regions of Iraq along the border with Iran), Ali-ila- hi - 1-1.5% Shii-tov (live mainly in the northern mu-ha-fa-zakhs of Iraq, to ​​the north and east of Mo-su- la and to the west of Er-bi-la). Ali-ila-khi - Kurds (in El-Ama-diya, Er-bi-le, Ra-van-du-ze and the Ha-na-ki-na region) and Iraqi Azer-bai-jan- tsy. I don’t know much about the is-mai-li-tov of Iraq, they are mainly Azeris, Pa-ki-stans, a small group pa kur-dov (district Man-da-li).

Sun-ni-you make up over 90% of the population in the mu-ha-fa-zakhs of An-bar, Su-ley-ma-niya, Er-bil and Ta-mim, about 80% in Sa -lah-ed-Di-ne, more than 68% - in Nai-na-ve, more than half-lo-vi-ny - in Ba-gda-de and Diya-le. In the mu-ha-fa-zakhs of Bas-ra (over 21%), Nad-zhaf, Mu-tan-na (5-10%) sun-ni-you are the least-shin-st- vom, in Ker-be-le they are practically from-sut-st-vu-ut. Over 65% of Iraqi sun-ni-tov are pri-ver-zhen-tsy ha-ni-fit-skogo maz-ha-ba, about 34% are sha-fi-you, a little more than 1% are ma -liki-you and khan-ba-li-you. There are several Sufi ords operating in Iraq. Among the Kurdish villages of the northern provinces, Na-ksh-ban-diya has a significant influence. The second largest order - Ka-di-riyya - has a loyal following of women among the Arabs and sometimes the Kurds of Ba-gda. and Sa-lah-ed-Di-na. Or-den Ri-faya has a small number of sto-ron-niks among the sun-ni-tov of Bas-ra.

Christianity in Iraq is represented by 11 different churches. The largest of them is the Chaldean Catholic Church (represented by the Pat-ri-ar-shey diocese of the bishop of Ba -gdad, ar-hi-epi-skop-st-va-mi Bas-ra, Mo-sul, Kir-kuk, Er-bil, bishop-skop-st-vom Za-ho). In addition, on the territory of Iraq there are dey-st-vu-yut: As-si-ri-church of Vos-to-ka, Si-ro-ka-lichaya church -kov, Syrian right-glorious (Yako-Vit-skaya) church, Armenian Apostolic church, parishes of Rome -that of the Holy Church, the Coptic Right-Glorious Church, the An-ti-Ohian Right-Glorious Church; work is underway to open the Russian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate in Iraq. The largest volume of pro-tes-tant-de-no-mi-na-tions - As-samb-ley of Evangelical pre-swi-te-te- Christian churches in Iraq, which includes 5 churches: National Evangelical Protestant Church (Kir-kuk), As-si -Riy Evangelical Pre-Svi-te-ri-an-Church (Baghdad), Arab Evangelical Pre-Svi-te-ri-an-Church ( Baghdad), National Protestant Evangelical Church (Mo-sul) and National Pre-Swi-te-ri-an-Church (Bas-ra).

On the territory of Iraq there are religious saints, who according to the Iraqi mu-sul-ma na-mi: mo-gi-la Ez-d-ry (Ozey-ry) and Ie-ze-kii-la (Dhul Ki-fil), as well as Kur-na (Nabk Kor-na) - sacred the place where Ti-gra and Eu-phra-ta merged, where Av-ra-am made the sacrifice.

Is-to-ri-che-sky essay

Iraq in ancient times. The oldest traces of human activity on the territory of Iraq are about 500-400 thousand years ago. back (ru-bi-la and ha-medical tools of the place-on-the-walk-de-niya of Bar-da-Bal-ka). Ma-te-ria-ly of the era-hi Mu-stye from-ve-st-ny in the caves of Kha-zar-Mard, Sha-ni-dar, etc. Towards the late paleo- li-tu and per-re-ho-du to me-zo-li-tu from-but-syat cult-tu-ry Bar-ra-dost and Zar-zi (they are represented in Sha -no-da-re). These traditions will continue in the memory of “beyond the gross me-zo-li-ta” (Ka-rim-Sha -hir, Ze-vi-Che-mi-Sha-ni-dar, etc.), associated with na-chat-ka-mi about-from-the-go-host -va, the formation of something about-the-same-by-the-ma-te-ria-lam in the se-le-ny Jar-mo, Mag-za-lia, etc. The increase in the population around the end of the 7th - beginning of the 6th millennium BC os-in-i-lo north al-lu-vi-al-noy before li-ny Me-so-po-ta-mii (Sot-to). But-si-te-li cult-tour with the development of agricultural trade-di-tsi-ey (Khas-su-na, Ha-laf, Ubeid) inhabited the whole Me-so -by-that, they began to use artificial irrigation, to start the processing of non-ferrous metals, by the end of this epo-hi na-cha-li from-go-tav-li-vat ke-ra-mi-ku on the pottery wheel; about the complex social architectural constructions, pe-cha-ti-amu-le-you (see also in the articles Ar-pa-chia, Gav-ra, Sa-mar-ra, Sav -van, Eri-du, Yarym-Te-pe).

On the basis of the traditions of Ubi-da, by the middle of the 4th millennium in Me-so-po-ta-mii, a culture of the Uruk type was formed and replaced -shay her cult-ra “about-the-writing-men-no-go-perio-da” (see in the article Jem-det-Nasr), when complex ir-appeared irrigation systems, mass craft production, urban centers with complex mo-nu-mental complexes sam-mi and stone skul-p-tu-roy, writing-men-nost. All this formed the basis of the Shu-mer ci-vi-li-za-tion (see the article Shu-mer). The Shu-mer world represented a con-glo-me-rat of cities-states (Uruk, Ur, La-gash, etc.), bo-rov-shih -sya between each other. Despite the political fragmentation, the Shu-mers are united by the same name, the proximity of the cults (En- lil, etc.) and cultural convergence. To this, “early-ne-di-na-sti-che-sko-mu”, per-io-du from-no-si-tsya shi-ro-some race-about-st-ra-ne- from bronze, the appearance of royal ne-cro-po-leys, where people were buried together ve-che-ski-mi sacrifice-in-pri-no-she-niya-mi and bo-ga-tei-shim in-ven-ta-rem (for example, in Ur), the composition of epic tales for-niy (about Gil-ga-me-she, etc.). Economic and social development of more northerly than Su-mer culture on the territory of modern Iraq from sta-va-lo from Me-so-po-ta-mii, but it went in the same direction.

Since the middle of the 3rd millennium, the Eastern Semitic tribes of the Ak-Kad-tsev settled in Me-so-po-ta-mii. Along with shu-me-ra-mi, they also appeared created-da-te-la-mi and but-si-te-la-mi me-sopo-tam qi -vi-li-za-tion (see Ak-kad). At the end of the 3rd-2nd millennia, the Ak-Kadian language and writing were not used in the Sumerian language. Until the middle of the 1st millennium, the Ak-Kad language remained the diplomatic and literary language of the entire Near East. For ak-kad-sko-go va-ri-an-ta me-so-po-there-tsi-vi-li-za-tion it was-lo ha-rak-ter-but pre-ob-la-da -the lack of royal power over the priestly and the desire to create large-scale states. At the end of the 24th century, the Ak-Kadian king Sargon the Ancient took over all the cities of the city and created a large state organization -zo-va-nie, the borders of something stretched from the Persian Gulf to the Middle-Earth Sea. In the 22nd century, the Ak-Kad kingdom of Rukh-nu-lo was under the pressure of the Iranian tribes of the Ku-ti-evs, who, in turn, were -they are the pra-vi-te-lem of Ur, having created the so-called new-in-shu-mer-der-zha-vu (III di-na-stiya of Ur king-st- in, XXI century). This is a go-su-dar-st-vo for almost a hundred years of con-tro-li-ro-va-lo Me-so-po-ta-miyu, relying for a multi-branch bureaucratic ap-ra-t and a large royal economy.

After the pa-de-niy of the kingdom of Ur under the ud-ra-mi of Ela-ma and the Amo-re-ev political centers of Me-so-po-ta-mii windows-cha- tel-but moved to the north to Isin and Lar-su, and later - to Va-vi-lon, located in the Middle Eu-fra- those. Va-vi-lon dos-tig ras-tsve-ta in the reign of king Ham-mu-ra-pi (XVIII century), under-chi-niv-she-go Middle and Lower Two-speech and pro-sla-viv-she-go-sya with-sta-le-ni-em de-tal-no-go svo-da for-ko-nov (see Ham-mu-ra-pi laws). During this period, an old Vilonian literary tradition was formed, which had a decisive influence on the future neck development of me-so-there literature. The next period of the history of Va-vi-lo-nii - the era of the rule of the Kas-sit kings (XVI-XII centuries ) - from-weight-ten less. Presumably, when dealing with the issues, the role of the royal owner and the os-la-be-va is This is a frequent economic initiative, ha-rak-ter-naya for the old-ro-va-vi-lon era.

To the north of Va-vi-lo-nii, in As-si-ria, located in the middle part of Ti-gra (historical centers - Ash-shur, then Ni-ne-viya), warehouses of the ancient center of the me-so-there-ci-vi-li-za-tion. Old-ro-as-si-riy pe-ri-od (XX-XVI centuries) from the noted large-scale economic ex-pan-si-ey as-si-rii- residents in Eastern Ana-tolia and the main trading colonies. Subsequently, the trade-eco-no-mic activity of the merchants of Ash-shu-ra was interrupted, and As-sy-ria itself for several years kov left the historical scene, having fallen into a za-vi-si-most from strong neighbors (Mi-tan-ni). Its political rise began in the 14th century and continued until the 7th century. As-Sy-ria became the leading state of Near East. Its po-li-ti-ka, especially in the 9th-7th centuries, was due to ag-res-siv-ness and continu- ous attempts ka-mi military ex-pan-sia in from-no-she-nii Va-vi-lo-nii, Middle-earth-no-sea and Urar-tu. More than once, the As-si-riy der-zha-va os-la-be-va-la and te-rya-la for the war-vin-tions, but then again kon-so-li-di-ro-va-la and goiter-new-la-la ex-span-siyu; on the pi-ke of its own power, under-chi-ni-la the entire territory of the so-called Bla-go-dat-no-go Po-lu-me-sia- Tsa (Elam, Si-ro-li-van-sky re-gi-on and Egypt). Va-vi-lon in union with ple-me-na-mi hal-de-ev (kal-du), ras-se-liv-shi-mi-sia in Southern Me-so-po-ta-mii in the 9th century, for several hundred years, the os-ta-val-sya was mainly opposed to the As-Si-riy-tsev, who had defended them more than once -you and raz-ru-sha-li this city. In the 1st half of the 1st millennium, in Me-so-po-ta-mii, a population of ara-me-evs settled down, moving from the side The Syrian desert and the Middle Euphrates, and the Aramaic language in the Ste-pen-but you-tes-nil no-vo-va-vi-lon-sky and but -in-as-si-riy dialect-you are ak-kad-sko-th language.

In 616-606, the Assi-riy kingdom fell under the uda-ra-mi mi-dyan and va-vi-lo-nyan. The northern region of the As-Syrian lands became part of the Median state; Most of the Bla-go-dat-no-go Po-lu-me-sa-tsa found itself under the rule of the New-vo-vi-lon-skogo tsar-st-va. The tops of their race are Va-vi-lon dos-tig in the reign of Na-vu-ho-do-no-so-ra II (605-562). However, the exhaustion of the forces of the state-su-dar-st-va in the course of the external ex-pan-siya, as well as the conflict of the king of Na-bo-ni -yes (556-539) with the priest made Va-vi-lon easy to reach the Persian king Cyrus II. In 539, the Persians grabbed Va-vi-lo-niyu and included it in the composition of the Akh-me-ni-dov go-su-dar-st-va.

The Persian rule had a small influence on the social-ci-al-no-eco-no-mic relations and cultural-religious si -tua-tion in re-gio-not. Va-vi-lon became one of the re-zi-den-tions of the Persian kings. The Aramaic language, which reigned in Me-so-po-ta-mii, was the language of the state documents of the western regions of the state of Ache-me- no-dov. At the end of the 6th - beginning of the 5th centuries in Va-vi-lo-nia, there were more than one rebellions against the Persian rule.

In 331, in the battle of Gav-ha-melah, Alexander Macedonian delivered a decisive blow to the Persian king Da-rius III, ov -la-del Va-vi-lo-ni-ey and other regions of the state of Akh-me-ni-dov. Va-vi-lon became the capital of the empire of Alek-san-d-ra, and after its dissolution it became part of the state of Se-lev-ki-dov, from a significant eth-no-cultural-tour pe-st-ro-toy. The state-dominated position in it is due to immigrants from Greece and Ma-ke-do-nii, who settled -in many cities. One of them - Se-lev-kiya on the right bank of the Ti-gra - became the capital of the state and took over the role of Va-vi-lo-na as a trader. in the th tse-nt-ra. All subsequent political centers of Me-so-po-ta-mii were located on the banks of the Ti-gra, since frequent -the lack of Rus-la Ev-fra-ta created the difficulty of economic development of this river.

In the 2nd century, Se-lev-ki-dy in step-pen-but ut-ra-ti-li control over their eastern provinces, in 141 BC Me-so- po-ta-miya was-la for-hwa-che-na par-fya-na-mi. After this, Va-vi-lon window-cha-tel-but fell into decline. The Par-Fyan kings di-na-stii Ar-sha-ki-dov made their military camp Kte-si-fon on the left bank gu Ti-gra, opposite Se-lev-kiya, has preserved his el-li-ni-stic features for a long time. In the state of Ar-sha-ki-dov, there is a pre-ob-la-da-la syn-creatic Greek-Eastern culture; In political terms, the Parthian kingdom was amorphous: it included autonomous Greek cities in its composition and you-sal-nye dominions, including the kingdom of Adia-be-na with a capital in Ar-be-le (on the left-be-re-zhie of the Middle Ti -gra) or Hat-ra (in Northern Me-so-po-ta-mii). The par-fa-were not the main opponents of the Roman Empire. Rome-la-not for-hva-you-va-li Me-so-po-ta-miyu under Emperor Traian (115 AD) and Sept-ti-mii Se-ve-re (199), but they couldn’t hold it for long.

In 227, the power of the di-na-stia of the Ar-sha-ki-dov was overthrown by Sa-sa-ni-da-mi, the rule of which oz-on-me- but-va-elk-ro-zh-de-ni-em of the ancient Iranian cultural-tour-but-po-ly-tic-tra-di-tion (including the influence of zo-roa-st-ris- ma). Although in ethnic and cultural terms Me-so-po-ta-miya did not belong to the Iranian world, she was political , economic and de-mo-graphic center of the village of Sa-sa-ni-dov. Sto-ly-cey im-per-rii os-ta-val-sya Kte-si-fon, and na-lo-gi with Me-so-po-ta-mii were the main source up to the state. Most of the village of Me-so-tamia is composed of Ara-Mei, among which some races are Christians -st-vo not-sto-ri-an-sko-go and mo-no-fi-zit-sko-go senses. Fore-mountains of Za-gro-sa on-se-la-li are the ancestors of the Kurds, in Va-vi-lo-nii there are large Jewish-days ko-lo-nii, in the steppes to the west of Eu-fra-ta ko-che-va-li Arab plen-na. IN V-VI centuries ara-ra-zo-va-li under-chi-nyon-noe Sa-sa-ni-dam the state of Lah-mi-dov with a capital in Khi-re. Upper Me-so-po-ta-mia was the object of the hundred-year-old military co-operation of Vizantium and Sa -sa-ni-dov, who-has-shiv-she-both sides and has-lightened-the-war-in-front of Asia ara-ba-mi .

Iraq in the Middle Ages. The first ranks of Arabs-mu-sul-man appeared in the steppes near Euphrates in 633 and took over Khi-roy. The decisive clash between the Sa-sa-nid army and the Ara-ba-mi took place at Ka-di-siya south of Khi-ra (637); in it the per-sy-ter-pe-li-ra-zhe-nie and from-stu-pi-li from Me-so-po-ta-mii. The territory of modern Iraq became part of Ha-li-fa-ta. The is-to-ri-ko-geographical term “Iraq” appeared in medieval Arabic geographical literature to designate the southern part of Me-so -po-ta-mii (from the city of Bas-ra to the city of Tik-rit). The land to the north of this zone is called “al-Ja-zi-ra”.

In those several centuries after the Muslim conquest of Iraq on its territory, the pro-is-ho-di-la on-ste- pen-naya ara-bi-za-tion and is-la-mi-za-tion of local ara-me-ev. Already in the 7th century, significant masses of Ara-vi-tyan migrated to Iraq. They were grouped mainly on the lands around two war-built cities - Ku-fa and Bas-ry; in Northern Meso-po-ta-mi, Mo-sul became the center of Arab power. The village of Iraq took an active part in the internecine war of 656-661 between Ali ibn Abi Ta-li-b and Mua-vi-ey ibn Abi Suf-ya-nom, os-no-wa-te-lem di-na-stii Omey-ya-dov. In these events, Iraq served as the main base for Ali's parties, and after his death (661) it became the center of anti-ti -omey-yad-sky op-po-zi-tion, you-stu-fell under the shi-it-ski-mi lo-zun-ga-mi.

The power of Omei-ya-dov was overthrown in the re-zul-ta-te of the re-establishment of 747-750, led by the head of the flax Ab-ba-si-da-mi . Under the new di-na-stia, the political and economic center of Ha-li-fa-ta moved to Iraq. In 762, Ha-lif al-Man-sur os-no-val in Middle Me-so-po-ta-mii on the banks of the Tigris River a new capital - Baghdad. It would have become one of the most significant cities in the East (in the whole of Ba-gda in the 10th century -you-va-lo about 1.5 million people), place-pre-va-no-e-yard and ad-mi-ni-st-ra-tion, environment -I eat Ara-bo-mu-Islamic science and culture. Although in the reign of Ha-li-fa Ha-ru-na ar-Ra-shi-da (786-809), the Iraqi provinces reached their highest point -his economic and cultural race, pro-ti-bor-st-in-between his sons al-Amin and al -Maa-mu-nom (811-813) with major destruction in Ba-gda and eco-disruption -no-mi-ki Ira-ka.

During the reign of al-Maa-mu-na (813-833), the center of Ha-li-fa-ta experienced a new cultural upsurge associated with os-voe-ni-em ara-ba-mi (with-in-the-middle-of-the-neighbor-Christians) an-tich-no-go na-uch-no-fi -losophical heritage. In 836-889, the re-zi-den-tion of ha-li-fov and the political center of the state of ras-po-la-ga-li in the city of Sa-mar-ra on the Tigris (130 km to se-ve-ru from Ba-gda-da). To re-re-no-su hundred-li-tsy ha-li-fov-bu-di-li-frequent conflicts of Turkic guards-dey-tsev-not-vol-ni-kov (gu- la-mov) with ba-gdad-tsa-mi. In the re-zul-ta-th of the Guards-dei-me-the-zhey in the 2nd half of the 9th century in between the river Ti-gra and Ev-fra-ta na-ras-ta- la anarchia; in the course of new inter-internal conflicts, Baghdad experienced another disastrous siege (865). Co-creation of do-ho-dov Ha-li-fa-ta you-nu-di-lo ha-li-fa al-Mu-ta-di-da (892-902 years) give to from-kup po-lo-vi-nu lands of Iraq; according to the st-p-le-niy from them, they fell in the re-zul-ta-te zind-jay uprising of 869-883, in the course of something go pov-stan-tsy ov-la-de-li throughout Southern Iraq and raz-ru-shi-li Bas-ru. In 876, in the south-east of Iraq, Kha-lif's troops from-ra-zi-li on-station on Baghdad Yaku-ba ibn Ley-sa as-Saf -fa-ra (see the article Saf-fa-ri-dy), and since 890 Southern Iraq became the arena of the re-establishment of kar-ma-tov. The weakening of the central government and the removal from Kha-li-fa-ta of the majority of provinces have led to the fact that in the middle of the 10th century, the direct power of the Kha-li-fs spread only to Baghdad with its districts, to the Middle and Lower Me-so-po-ta-miyu.

In 945, Baghdad came under the control of the Bui-dov di-nasty; Ab-ba-sid-kha-li-fs found themselves in the same place as their even-numbered captives. The rule of the Bui-ds, the followers of the Shi-tiz-ma women, was from-me-che-but in Iraq, growing up for the Shi-its and the Usi -le-ni-em is a lie-w-deb-no-sti between-zh-du n-mi and sun-ni-ta-mi. Ba-gdad actually fell into separate quar-ta-lys, which were one of the same in eth-no-confes-sio -nal-nom from-no-she-nii, ok-ru-zhe-ny st-on-mi and had their own city infra-structure-tu-ru and organ-ga-ny sa-mo-up -equalities. In the 10th - early 11th centuries, most of Northern Me-so-po-ta-mia came under the rule of Arab di-nasties of be-du-in-sko-go-is-ho- railway - Kham-da-ni-dov, Ukay-li-dov and others. Despite the inter-do-uso-bi-tsy of the Bu-id-vi-te-lei, as well as the breakdown of irrigation systems in Southern Iraq and the growing current in the village, Baghdad remained an island until the 13th century -a leading in-tel-lek-tu-al center of the Muslim world, a place of interaction between various cultures and religions .

In 1055, Iraq was captured by the Sel-ju-ka-mi and became one of the provinces of their vast state. Ho-tya sul-ta-ny from di-na-stiy Sel-ju-ki-dov, apart from Bui-dov, were at-ver-wives-tsa-mi sun-niz-ma , the status of the ab-ba-sid-kha-li-fs did not endure the noticeable ones. They co-preserved the av-to-ri-tet of the spiritual heads of the Muslim world; the real power in Ba-gda-de and Iraq as a whole is under-le-zha-la village-juk-on-me-st-ni-kam. At the beginning of the 12th century, the power of the Sel-ju-ki-ds was os-lab-la, and their state began to disintegrate. On the territory of modern Iraq in the 1110s, the Western Seljuk (Iraqi) sul-ta-nat was formed, consisting of some input -di-is also Azerbaijan-bai-jan, Si-ria, Khu-ze-stan (Khu-zi-stan), Is-fa-khan and other regions. Iraqi sul-ta-nat pro-su-sche-st-vo-val until the end of the 12th century in the settlement va with political co-per-ni-ka-mi: in Mo-su-le in 1127 the di-na-stia of Zen-gi-dov was established, in the north -in Iraq their own state was created by the is-mai-li-you, and the ab-ba-sid-kha-li-fs in the middle of the 12th century you led the central regions of Iraq from under the authorities of Sel-ju-ki-dov. Av-to-ri-tet Ab-ba-si-dov and prestige Ba-gda-da especially-ben-but grew under ha-li-fah al-Muk-ta-fi (1136-1160 years), al-Mus-tand-ji-de (1160-1170) and al-Mus-ta-di (1170-80), which were su-me-li-raz-mit from- a number of Turkic and Arab emirs, ov-la-det El-Hil-loy, Ku-foi and Wa-si-tom and spread their power to Central and Southern Iraq. Their successor Kha-lif an-Nasir (1180-1225) pre-ten-do-val for the role of political li-de-ra of the Muslim world. One-on-one attempt ha-li-fov to unite the mu-sul-man in front of the face of the eastern Mongolian Ugric -you were not successful. On February 12, 1258, Baghdad was captured by the ar-mi-ey of the Mongol il-kha-na Hu-la-gu. In those 40 days, the city was plundered; Mon-go-ly per-re-bi-li about 100 thousand Ba-Gdadians and Kaz-ni-li Kha-li-fa al-Mustasima (1242-1258). Pa-de-nie Ba-gda-da and the capture of Iraq mon-go-la-mi shook the Muslim world and were you perceived in it as an apo-ka-lip -tic events. The territory of modern Iraq became part of the chin-gi-sid-sko-go ulu-sa Hu-la-gui-dov.

As a result of the Mongolian nas-st-viy, with ly regions, were the irrigation systems destroyed in the south of Iraq and the agricultural system in al-Jah destroyed -zi-re that for several centuries the pre-pre-de-li-lo economic, de-mo-graphic and cultural stagnation of the country. Trade-go-vo-eco-no-mic center of the Middle Eastern region per-re-mes-til-xia from Iraq (Baghdad) to the north of Iran (Teb-riz and Sul-ta- tion). From the-no-she-ness between the language-ni-ka-mi-mon-go-la-mi and the Muslim majority of their sub-given first-in-on- chal-but there were hostile-deb-us, in si-lu what Hu-la-gui-dy on-kro-vi-tel-st-vo-va-li christ-an-skim and the Jewish community of Iraq, willingly using non-mu-sul-man in the public service. Nevertheless, the Mongolian nobility gradually came under the influence of the Arab Muslim culture. In 1295, Ga-zan Khan accepted Islam and promoted its state re-li-gi-ey; after this there is a wave of go-ne-niy on the me-so-there Christians. Despite the torture of Ga-zan-khan and his predecessors, they insist on the economic life of the Middle East and Ukraine -drink state structures, the Los-kut-state of the Hu-la-gui-dov dissolved as a result of unsuccessful wars with the Golden Horde , Cha-ga-tai-da-mi, mam-lyuk-skim Egypt. In 1335, a significant part of the modern territory of Iraq actually came under the control of the Mongol military group of pirates (and those di-na-stii) J-lai-ri-dov, having re-accepted the Arab-bo-mu-Sulman culture. Since 1340, Jelai-ri-dy re-sta-sta-moved ma-rio-inaccurate il-ha-nov-Hu-la-gui-dov and already formal-mal- but they ruled Iraq and northwestern Iran as non-for-vi-si-my go-su-da-ri. At the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th centuries, Iraq more than once ra-zed the troops of Ti-mur, who exterminated its inhabitants. In the re-zul-ta-te of Ti-mu-ra’s movements in the southern and central parts of Me-so-po-ta-mii, the Christian-sti-an-s-e-vanished le-nie (communities of non-sto-ri-an-as-si-riy-tsev were kept only in the vicinity of Mo-su-la and the Kur mountains -di-sta-na).

With the death of Ti-mu-ra (1405), Jelai-ri-dy regained his control over Central Me-so-po-ta-mi-ey and Ba-gda -house, one-on-one in 1410 it suffered in the fight against the con-fe-de-ra-tsi of some Turkmen tribes Eastern Ana-to-lii - Ka-ra-Ko-yun-lu (“black-no-ba-ran-nyh”). Almost a hundred years of Ka-ra-Ko-yun-lu and their co-per-ni-ki Ak-Ko-yun-lu (“white-lo-ba-ran-nye”) power in most of the territory of Me-so-po-ta-mii. This was a period of deep decline in urban life and the economy of Iraq.

Iraq in the Ottoman era. At the beginning of the 16th century, part of the territory of Iraq became part of the power of the Se-fe-vids (Baghdad was captured by the army of Sha-ha Is-mai-la I in 1508), which is a reference to the se-fe-vid-skogo Iran and the Ottoman Empire. In the battle of Chal-dy-ra-n (August 23, 1514), the Ottoman army defeated the Iranian troops, after which Upper Me-so -po-ta-mia came under the control of Stam-bu-la. In 1533-1535 and 1548-1555 Su-lei-man I Ka-nu-ni also fought Lower Me-so-po-ta-miya with Ba-gda-dom and Bas- Roy. According to the agreement of the world, concluded in 1555 in Ama-sya, the Iranian Shah Tah-masp I recognized the Ottoman power in Iraq, one -for more than 80 years, the country settled across two im-periments. In 1623, Shah Abbas I fought a significant part of Iraq with Ba-gda-dom and the sacred cities of Ker-be-la and Ne for the Shiites -jef (En-Na-jaf). Se-fe-vid-dy held Iraq until 1638, until it was again conquered by the Turkish army and finally included in the composition Osman Empire. Under Se-fe-vid-dah, the Iraqi sun-ni-you came under attack; The same fate befell the local Shiites after the restoration of Osman power. The border, established between Osman-Iraq and Iran, according to the agreement of 1639, almost coincidentally not with the modern border of the two countries.

Having confirmed their dominion in Iraq, the Os-mans divided it into a number of provinces (ey-let-tov; ey-a-let-tov) with prices tra-mi in Mo-su-le and Ba-gda-de (later - in Bas-re). To the Iraqi region, tya-go-te-li is the same eya-le-you Shah-ri-zor (to the east of Ti-gra) and El-Ha-sa (in the western be- re-gu Per-sid-skogo-th hall). IN XVI-XVII centuries Frequent wars interfered with the economic development of Iraq, the area of ​​cultivated lands was not significant -tel-noy, until the po-lo-vi-ny on-se-le-niya led a co-che-voy or a po-lu-ko-che-voy way of life. By the end of the 17th century, the power of the os-mans in Iraq os-lab-la, local pa-shi began to use a wide-ro-coy auto-tono-mi-ey. At the beginning of the 18th century, the Iraqi ey-let-you (with the exception of Mo-su-la and the Kurdish principalities) were united under power Kha-san-pa-shi (1704-1723), ar-nau-ta (al-ban-tsa) by origin. Vos-pol-zo-vav-shis ira-no-os-man-ski-mi how-on-mi 1720-1740s and the re-establishment of the Arab tribes, his pre-em-ni -ki-Ha-sa-ni-dy turn-ti-your power into the next one. Until the 1830s, power in Iraq was in the hands of the mam-lyuks (Turkish - kyu-le-men-ny). At the beginning of them Ha-san-pa-sha himself lived, having gone to school in Ba-gda-de, in some -roy trained and became future mothers. They were brought from Kavkaza (mainly from Georgia; they retained their language and connections with their homeland). Mam-lu-ki in Iraq created not only a military force, including the personal guard of the government, but also the administrative elite. Although the kan-di-da-tu-ry of the Iraqi p-shays were ut-ver-awaited in Stam-bu-le, their appointment to the post was due to the use fight between the Iraqi mother-luk-ski-mi to-ma-mi, from the palace intrigues, in the zi-tion of the major Arab and Kurdish tribes, and often from foreign influence.

The internal and external situation of Iraq under the Mam-lu-kahs was smooth; only because of a rare occurrence did it go wrong that Yany-Char (1748) came into conflict with Iran (on-pa -the de-niya of Mam-lu-kov on Ker-man Shah in 1723 and Kha-ma-dan in 1724, the invasion of the Iranian Na-dir-sha-kha in 1733 and 1742) and on- le-ta-mi vah-ha-bi-tov from Ara-via (capture and destruction of Ker-be-ly in 1802). Mam-Luk-skie pra-vi-te-li so-dey-st-vo-va-li developed-vi-tiyu re-myo-sel, built medical-re-se, ba-za-ry and ka -ra-van-sa-rai, keep the irrigation systems in good condition. From the middle of the 18th century, British, Dutch and Portuguese merchants settled in southern Iraq; representative offices of the British East India Company were opened in Basra (1763) and Bagda (1798). Under Su-ley-man-pa-she Ve-li-kom (Arabic - Su-ley-man al-Ka-bir, Turkish - Bu-yuk Su-ley-man) in 1780-1802 and Da- Agriculture and trade have come to life.

In 1831, the Ottoman authorities forced themselves under the Iraqi rulers. Pa-de-nie Yes-ud-pa-shi sov-pa-lo with epi-de-mi-ey chu-we, on-water-not-any and hunger, that at-ve- led to partial depopulation of the country (the number of people in Iraq at the beginning of the 19th century was 1.28 million people, the restoration appeared only in the 1870s, reached the beginning of the First World War), the breakdown of its irrigation systems and ecology -mic life. In the 1830-1850s, in the economy of Iraq, the importance of economics, cities and urban re-grew increased. the place fell into decline (the number of inhabitants of Ba-gda-da went from 150 thousand to 20 thousand people, Bas-ry - from 80 thousand to 5-6 thousands of people). The border conflicts with Iran continued. In 1842-1843, the Ottoman troops invaded Su-ley-ma-nia and Ker-be-lu from the armies of Kadzhar and ras- right with the dis-loyal Stam-bu-lu shi-it-skim on-se-le-ni-im Iraq. The conclusion between the Ottoman Empire and Iran Er-ze-rum until 1847 did not settle them mutual claims on Kurdi-stan and along the banks of the Shatt al-Arab River.

Iraq's exit from the social and economic crisis was associated with large-scale reforms (see the article Tan-zi-mat), about -ve-den-ny-mi Os-man-sky ad-mi-ni-st-ra-tsi-ey in the 2nd half of the 19th century. Back in 1848, the 6th (Baghdad) corps of the Osman army was created and military and administrative power in Iraq was created, which is how -st-vo-va-lo og-ra-ni-che-niu of power pa-shi (va-li) and the center-tra-li-za-tion of administrative control. The Osman authorities paid special attention to the repair of irrigation canals and dams, focusing on go-about-lo-zhe-niya and-land-from-no-she-ny. Desiring to unite the dis-rose pro-vinces of Iraq and uk-re-drink its connections with Stambul, the Osman-governments -that in the 1860s from-me-whether internal ta-mo-wives went and uso-ver-shen-st-st-vo-va-li transport-port-coms- mu-ni-ka-tion (pro-treasure-ka li-ny tele-gra-fa; na-cha-lo pa-ro-movement-no-go-society along the Tigris; construction of highways).

The most intensive developments in Ottoman Iraq were connected with the activities of the government na-to-ra Ba-gda-da A. Mid-hat-pa-shi in 1869-1872. Under him, Baghdad was re-built, industrial enterprises, an ar-senal were created, and on a small scale, the would be some oil. Mid-hat-pa-sha co-de-st-vo-val develop-vi-tiy system of ob-ra-zo-va-niya, release of the first newspaper in Iraq “Az- Za-hurray” in Turkish and Arabic, encouraged the transition of nomads to settlement. In 1871, under the leadership of Mid-hat-pa-shi, the Otto-man troops of Iraq under the pre-log-g with the help of the right-to-vi-te-lu of the Saudi Arabian Emirates that Ab-dal-la-hu ibn Fei-sa-lu in the internecine struggle is ok-ku-pi-ro-va-li of the prince of El-Ha-sy. In fact, the expansion of the Turkish presence in Arabia was a requirement for Stam-bu-la pro-ti -act-to-tort-to-be-for-an-attachment on the coast of the Per-Sid-Gulf. Before the military operation of Iraq, she fought from Kuwait Sheikh Ab-dal-la-ha ibn Sa-ba-ha ( 1866-1892) recognition of the Os-man-syu-ze-re-ni-te-ta and declared him as my own (kai- ma-ka-mom).

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, the in-tel-lek-tu-al-nu-nuyu and spiritual-at-mo-sphere in the Iraqi society op-re-de-la-li mu -Sulman religious institutes and pat-ri-ar-hal-nyy way of life. The rise of the Arab na-tsio-na-liz-ma after the Young Turkish Revolution of 1908 weakly affected the village of Iraq , most of the co-maintained ar-ha-ich-nyy way of life was iso-li-ro-va-na from the political and cultural influence of European powers. However, a number of Ottoman officials of the Iraqi pro-is-ho-zh-de-niya stood in the secret organizations “al-Kah-ta-niyya” and “al-Ahd”, you fell for the non-vis-si-most of the Arab provinces of the empire.

Republic of Iraq, state in the South-West Asia, Mesopotamia. The name appeared in the 7th-8th centuries. n. e. after Arab, conquest of territory along the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates, inhabited in ancient times. Arab, Iraq "shore, coast".

Geographical names of the world: Toponymic dictionary. - M: AST. Pospelov E.M. 2001.

Iraq

(Iraq), a state in the Middle East, between Syria, Turkey, Iran and Saudi Arabia; on the E. it comes out in a narrow strip towards Persian Gulf . Pl. 441.8 thousand km²; consists of 18 governorates. Capital – Baghdad ; other large cities – Basra , Mosul , Erbil , Kirkuk , Karbala , Nasiriyah, Najaf , Umm Qasr (main seaport). Population 23.3 million people. (2001); city ​​residents – 76%; Arabs 75%, in the north live Kurds (18%; have had national autonomy since 1977), Assyrians, Turkmens, Armenians, Chaldeans. The majority of the population are Shiite Muslims (60–65%; live mainly in the south, their sacred centers are Najaf, Karbala, Samarra) and Sunni Muslims (32–37%; in the center and northwest); a small number of Yezidis, Christians, Mandaeans. Official language – Arabic; Kurdish - in the northern regions ( Kurdistan ). The population is concentrated in river valleys Tiger And Euphrates , as well as in the urban agglomerations of Baghdad and Basra.
Mesopotamia (Interfluve) is one of the oldest centers of civilization. The first states (Ur, Kish, Lagash) arose in the area between the Tigris and Euphrates in the 4th–3rd millennia BC, and in the 3rd–1st millennia – Akkad, Babylonia, Assyria, which in the middle of the 6th century. BC. were conquered by the Persians in the middle of the 4th century. BC. – Alexander the Great, in the 3rd century. BC. - Parthians. From the 3rd century. AD The territory of Iraq was part of Persia (Iran), in the middle of the 7th century. it was conquered by the Arabs (incorporated into the Abassid Caliphate), and in 1534 by the Ottoman Turks. In 1914 South. Iraq was occupied by British troops, and since 1922 all of Iraq became a British mandated territory. Since 1932, Iran has been an independent emirate, and since 1958, it has been a republic. In 1979–2003 The country was ruled by the totalitarian regime of Saddam Hussein, who waged wars with its neighbors (Iran, Kuwait) and against which the UN introduced economic control in 1990. sanctions. In the spring of 2003, the Anglo-American coalition overthrew this regime by military means, and all the previous states. institutions (Ba'ath Party, Revolutionary Command Council, Majlis el-Watani) were abolished. Management is carried out by an interim American administration, which will be replaced by an Iraqi one after the elections.
B.h. I. occupies Mesopotamian lowland , on the NW. plateau Jezire (Upper Mesopotamia), in the west and south - Syrian And Arabian desert , on the NE. - south spurs Zagros(the highest point of Haji Ibrahim is 3613 m). In the north the climate is Mediterranean continental type, in the south - dry tropical; Sufficient precipitation falls only in the mountains. From NW. to the SE. The country's territory is crossed by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers; merging near the Persian Hall. (near El-Qurn), they form the river. Shatt al Arab (193 km), the valley of which is very swampy. Steppes predominate, turning into deserts and semi-deserts. The Euphrates and Tigris valleys have fertile alluvial soils.
The basis of the economy is oil production (more than 11% of the world's oil reserves are concentrated in India; the main centers are Kirkuk, Ain Zala, Ez-Zubair, Rumaila) and the export of crude oil, which provide 95% of the country's income. Oil is exported through a network of oil pipelines (4,350 km) to ports in the Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf. Econ. UN sanctions and the oil-for-food program limited its exports in the 1990s. Currently At the time, the oil sector was controlled by Anglo-American companies. Extraction of natural gas, sulfur, phosphates, salt. Petrochemical, metal, electrical, cement, text, food industry After hostilities 1980–88, 1991, 1998–99, 2003 The country's economy fell into decline, and to this day. time most prom. enterprises are not working. Only 12% of the territory is cultivated and cultivated; irrigated agriculture predominates. Barley, wheat, rice, vegetables, cotton, melons, tobacco, and date palms (in the Basra region) are grown. Sheep and cattle are raised. Basic transport axes: Mosul - Baghdad - Basra, Erbil - Kirkuk - Baghdad, Baghdad - Ramadi - Qusaiba, Tigris and Euphrates rivers; basic ports - Umm Qasr, Fao, Ez-Zubair, Basra; intl. Baghdad airport. Numerous monuments of ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia (Babylon, Nineveh, Nippur, Nimrud, etc.), Muslim shrines, and mosques have been preserved. Cash unit – Iraqi dinar and US dollar.

Dictionary of modern geographical names. - Ekaterinburg: U-Factoria. Under the general editorship of academician. V. M. Kotlyakova. 2006 .

Republic of Iraq, a state in South-West Asia. In the north it borders with Turkey, in the east with Iran, in the west with Jordan and Syria, in the south with Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, and in the extreme southeast it has access to the Persian Gulf. For a long time, Iraq, jointly with Saudi Arabia, owned the neutral zone, used by the nomadic pastoralists of both countries. In 1975 and 1981, agreements were reached on the division of this territory, which actually took place in 1987. The border between Iraq and Iran along the Shatt al-Arab River remains controversial: Iraq claims the entire riverbed, and Iran believes that the border should run in the middle rivers.
Iraq occupies the territory between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, known since biblical times as Mesopotamia. Its inhabitants created the ancient Sumerian civilization, based on irrigated agriculture. Later, Mesopotamia was part of the great ancient states of Babylonia and Assyria.
NATURE
Terrain, water resources and minerals. The territory of Iraq is divided into four main natural regions: the mountainous north and northeast, Upper Mesopotamia (Al-Jazeera Plain), the alluvial plains of Lower Mesopotamia and the desert plateaus of the southwest.
The mountainous region is located east of the Tigris River valley. The northern mountains are spurs of the Eastern Taurus, and the northeastern ones are the Zagros. The surface of this area gradually rises from the Tigris valley to the northeast from 500 to 2000 m. Individual mountain ranges rise above 2000 m above sea level, and the peaks in the border zone rise above 3000 m above sea level. Here, on the border with Iran, is the highest unnamed peak in the country - 3607 m above sea level.
Folded mountains with steep slopes and often peneplained ridges stretch parallel to the Iraqi-Turkish and Iraqi-Iranian borders. They are composed of limestones, gypsum, marls and sandstones and are deeply dissected by numerous watercourses of the Tigris basin. The Rawanduz gorge with the Shinek mountain pass stands out especially. The road connecting Iraq and Iran runs through this gorge.
The hilly plain of El Jazeera (translated as “the island”) is located on the interfluve of the middle reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers north of the cities of Samarra (on the Tigris River) and Hit (on the Euphrates River) and rises northward from about 100 to 450 m above sea level In some places, the flat nature of the area is broken by low mountains. In the east, the Makhul and Khamrin ridges extend submeridionally (with a peak 526 m above sea level), and in the northwest, sublatitudally - more high mountains Sinjar (with the peak of Shelmira 1460 m above sea level). The plain is deeply dissected by numerous wadi channels, the flow of which is directed into the Euphrates or internal depressions and lakes. The Tigris and Euphrates within El Jazeera flow in narrow valleys, most deeply incised in the north and northwest.
Lower Mesopotamia extends southeast all the way to the Persian Gulf and has a length of approx. 500 km, area approx. 120 thousand sq. km, is composed of alluvial deposits and is characterized by a flat topography. Its absolute heights are usually less than 100 m above sea level. (in the north, near Baghdad, 40 m; in the south, near Basra, 2–3 m). The monotonous topography is broken in places by natural coastal levees, numerous channels, irrigation and drainage canals. In many areas, the bottoms of the Tigris and Euphrates are raised above the adjacent terrain. The slopes of the riverbeds of both rivers are insignificant, so the flow is difficult and extensive swamps have formed in the southeast. In addition, Lower Mesopotamia abounds in lakes. The largest of them are El-Milkh, El-Hammar, Es-Saadiya, and El-Habbaniya.
The southwestern desert region is a continuation of the Syrian-Arabian Plateau. Its surface gradually decreases towards the Euphrates River valley and to the south from 700–800 m in the west to 200–300 m in the east and south. Flat-topped remnant hills and hills rise above the gravelly-pebble surface. Sometimes there are sandy deserts and dune fields. The plateau is separated from the alluvial plain by a clear ledge up to 6 m high. Within the plateau, numerous wide wadis originate, the flow of which is directed to the Euphrates valley. Wadis fill with water only after rare rainfalls.
The Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which cross the entire country and are the deepest in the entire Middle East, play an important role in the economy of Iraq. The Euphrates originates from the confluence of the Karasu and Murat rivers, the sources of which are located on the Armenian Highlands in Turkey, then through the territory of Syria it enters Iraq. In these countries, the waters of the Euphrates are largely used for hydropower and other economic needs. The length of the Euphrates (from the sources of the Murat River) is approx. 3060 km. In the upper reaches of the Euphrates is a turbulent mountain river, in Syria its flow slows down somewhat, near the Syrian-Turkish border the width of the channel is 150 m, and the flow speed is 1.5–2 m/s. The height difference is on average 1 m per 1 km. After the city of Heath, the width of the river is approx. 1.5 km with average depths of 2–3 m, the current is calm with a height difference of less than 9 cm per 1 km. At the confluence of the Euphrates and the Tigris, a deep stream, the Shatt al-Arab, is formed, approx. 190 km, flowing into the Persian Gulf. Below the city of Faisalia, the bed of the Euphrates bifurcates and reunites above the city of Es-Samawa. Further, downstream, south of the city of Nasiriyah, the river bifurcates again and changes its flow direction to sub-latitudinal. One stream flows near the city of Al-Qurnah into the Shatt al-Arab, and the other feeds the lake-swamp system of Al-Hammar and, flowing from the lake of the same name, also flows into the Shatt al-Arab above Basra. The peak of the flood occurs in April - June, when the snow melts in the mountains, and the low water period is in August - October.
The Tigris River, 1850 km long, originates from Lake. The Khazar River is in the Armenian Highlands in Turkey and flows for almost 1,500 km through Iraq. In its middle course, this rather turbulent river has a narrow channel that runs through a number of mountain ranges in northern Iraq. Within the Mesopotamian lowland, the width of the channel ranges from 120 to 400 m, and the depth from 1.5 to several meters. Current speed approx. 2 m/s. Since the water surface here is almost 1.5 m higher than the surrounding area, the riverbed is artificially embanked. Unlike the Euphrates, the Tigris has large tributaries that originate in the mountains of northeastern Iraq. The largest tributaries are the Greater and Lesser Zab, Diyala, Kerhe, and El-Uzaim. The water content of the Tigris increases significantly from October to March. The peak of high water occurs in April, less often in March, and low water in August - September. Floods in Iraq are often catastrophic and cause severe economic damage. Meanwhile, Iraq has significant hydropower resources.
The Euphrates, Tigris and Shatt al-Arab rivers carry large amounts of sediment, which are deposited on the floodplain during floods. Together with silty sediments, due to high evaporation, up to 22 million tons of chemical substances are deposited annually on the soil surface. As a result, soil salinity increases south of Baghdad, which significantly limits agricultural activities, especially south of 32°N.
Many ore and non-ore minerals are hidden in the depths of Iraq. The leading place among them is occupied by huge reserves of oil, natural gas, solid bitumen and asphalt. The main oil reserves are concentrated in the vicinity of Kirkuk (Baba Gurgur, Bai Hassan, Jambur fields) and Khanaqin in the foothills of the Zagros Mountains, in the south in the Basra region (Er-Rumaila field) and in the north near Mosul. Brown coal deposits have been explored in the area of ​​Kirkuk, Zakho and in the Hamrin mountains, table salt in the vicinity of Baghdad, iron ore in Sulaymaniyah, copper ore, sulfur, bitumen near Mosul. Silver, lead, zinc, chromium, manganese, and uranium were also discovered. Iraq has huge reserves of building materials such as marble, limestone, quartz sand, dolomite, gypsum, clay, etc.
Climate, soils, flora and fauna. Iraq's climate is subtropical Mediterranean with hot, dry summers and warm, rainy winters. Two seasons are most pronounced: a long, hot summer (May–October) and a shorter, cool, and sometimes Cold winter(December – March). In summer the weather is usually cloudless and dry. There is no precipitation at all for four months, and in the remaining months of the warm season it is less than 15 mm.
The northern mountainous regions are characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, warm winters with rare frosts and frequent snowfalls. El Jazeera has dry, hot summers and mild, rainy winters. Lower Mesopotamia is characterized by hot summers and warm winters with rain and relatively high relative humidity. The southwestern region is characterized by dry, hot summers and cool winters with rare rains. Significant seasonal and diurnal temperature changes (sometimes reaching 30°C) have been recorded in many areas of Iraq.
Average July temperatures are 32–35° C, maximum – 40–43°, minimum – 25–28°, absolute maximum – 57° C. Average January temperatures +10–13° C, average January maximum 16–18° C, minimum – 4–7° C, the absolute minimum in the north of the country reached –18° C.
Precipitation falls mainly in winter (December - January), and there is little of it in the central and southern regions countries: average annual precipitation in Baghdad is 180 mm, in the southwest approx. 100 mm, in Basra 160 mm. As you move north, their number increases and amounts to approx. 300 mm on the plains and up to 500–800 mm in the mountains.
In the summer (May–June), northwestern winds blow continuously, carrying masses of sand (so-called dust storms), and in winter northeastern winds predominate, especially strong in February.
The most fertile alluvial-meadow and meadow soils are widespread in the valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris and its tributaries . True, in the south and east they experience severe salinization. In the southwest, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, especially north of Baghdad, and on the left bank of the Tigris, gray soils of subtropical steppes and semi-deserts, often saline, are widespread. On the higher plateaus of El Jazeera, chestnut soils of dry and desert steppes predominate, and in the mountains of the northeast, mountain chestnut and mountain brown soils predominate. In the south, barren sands are widespread, the southeastern regions of Iraq are heavily swamped, and the soils are often saline.
The most widespread in Iraq is subtropical steppe and semi-desert vegetation, confined to the western, southwestern and southern regions (west and south of the Euphrates Valley) and represented mainly by wormwood, saltwort, camel thorn, juzgun, and astragalus. In El Jazeera and the northeast of the country, steppe xerophytic and ephemeral-forb vegetation predominates. Above 2500 m, summer pastures are common. In the mountains in the north and northeast of the country, tracts of mountain oak forests have been preserved, in which oaks predominate and there are comb (tamarix), pine, wild pear, pistachio, juniper, etc. At the foot of the mountain ranges, thorny bushes are common. The floodplain of the Euphrates, Tigris and its tributaries is confined to tugai forest vegetation with shrubby undergrowth, including poplars, willows, and comb grass. In the southeast of the country, large swampy areas are occupied by reed-reed thickets and salt marsh vegetation. Currently, in the river valleys of central and southern Iraq, right up to the coast of the Persian Gulf, significant areas are devoted to date palm plantations.
The fauna of Iraq is not rich. Gazelle, jackal, and striped hyena are found in the steppes and semi-deserts. Rodents and reptiles are widespread, including monitor lizards and the poisonous cobra snake. Many waterfowl (flamingos, pelicans, ducks, geese, swans, herons, etc.) live along the river banks. Rivers and lakes abound with fish. Carp, carp, catfish, etc. are of commercial importance. Horse mackerel, mackerel, barracuda, and shrimp are caught in the Persian Gulf. The real scourge of Iraq is insects, especially mosquitoes and midges, carriers of malaria and other diseases.
POPULATION
Demography. As of July 2004, Iraq will have about 25.4 million inhabitants. For several decades, the country's population has increased rapidly due to high natural growth. From 1957, when there were 6.4 million people, until 1998, this figure exceeded 2.5% per year. The birth rate has gradually decreased, from 4.9% in the 1950s to less than 3.2% in the 1990s. City dwellers in 1957 made up 39% of all residents, and in 1997 - 72%. Mortality rates fell even faster than birth rates, from 2.2% in the early 1950s to 0.8% in the late 1990s, primarily due to a decline in infant and child mortality. An estimated 42% of residents were children under 15, 55% were between 15 and 65 years of age, and 3% were 65 years of age or older.
Immigration was balanced to a large extent by emigration: in the 1980s, approx. 1 million people from some Middle Eastern and other Asian countries. Several hundred thousand Iraqis live beyond its borders, in Western Europe and the United States, as well as in other Arab countries, particularly Syria and the Gulf states. In 1980–1988, during the Iran-Iraq War, ca. 500 thousand Iraqi Shiites were deported to Iran. In the summer of 1988, after the defeat of the uprising in Iraqi Kurdistan, thousands of its residents fled to neighboring areas of Turkey.
Ethnolinguistic and religious composition population. 75% of the country's population are Arabs, approx. 18% are Kurds, 7% are Turkmen, Assyrians, Armenians and other small ethnic groups. Kurds form a majority in the northern and northeastern regions of the country. Throughout the 20th century. Kurdish leaders and their followers fought for independence or autonomy within modern Iraq. The Kurds initially belonged primarily to semi-nomadic tribes, but then switched to a sedentary lifestyle, and the spread of education, population migration to cities and various political shifts contributed to a decrease in the power of the Kurdish tribal leaders. Sunni Turkmen live mainly in the city of Kirkuk. The Assyrians originally belonged to an ancient Christian community, like the Armenians, most of whom are descendants of refugees who arrived in Iraq during or immediately after the First World War.
The most common language is Arabic, used in government and educational institutions. Kurdish, spoken in the north of the country, also has official status.
The overwhelming number of Iraqi residents (95%) profess Islam and belong to the Imami (almost all of them Arabs) and Sunni communities. Shiites make up about half of all Muslims and predominate in the south. In other areas the majority is Sunni. There are many Imami shrines in Iraq: in Najaf, Karbala, Samarra and Al-Kazimiyah (one of the urban areas of Baghdad). Christianity is practiced by 3% of the population.
Modern Iraq is led predominantly by Sunni Arabs, originally from Baghdad and Mosul. However, in recent decades, some Shiites and Iraqi Christians, such as Sadoun Hamadi and Tariq Aziz, have held senior government positions. Educated Iraqis from remote small towns were also appointed to some leadership positions, regardless of their religious or national affiliation.
Cities. According to the 1998 census, the population of Baghdad was 5,123 thousand people, approximately a quarter of the total population of Iraq. The capital grew from rural migrants and their descendants, who settled primarily in the urban areas of Saur and Ash-Shura. In 1998, there were approximately 1.5 million each in Mosul and Basra, and approx. in Kirkuk. 800 thousand people.
STATE STRUCTURE
Legislative and executive powers. Iraq was declared a republic after the overthrow of the monarch in 1958. An interim constitution adopted that same year declared the people to be the supreme authority in the country, Islam state religion, and Iraq is part of the “Arab nation”. The Constitution confirmed the right to private property, freedom of speech and press. In 1964, a new provisional constitution was approved. All citizens were given equal rights, regardless of race, religion or language. The Constitution declared the main goal to achieve Arab unity. Subsequently, new temporary constitutions came into force in 1968 and 1970, the latter being amended in 1973, 1974 and 1995. The most important of them was the recognition of the “rights of the Kurdish population”. In 1973, the President of the Republic, in addition to the post of Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, received the post of Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), which consisted of 9 members and had the exclusive prerogatives of the highest legislative body until the first elections in 1980 National Council(unicameral parliament). Parliament considers bills adopted by the SRC and submits them to the president for publication, and also independently reviews bills that do not relate to issues of financial, military and public security and transmits them to the SRC. The latter, if the bill is approved, gives it to the president for signature. Thus, legislature includes the president, the SRC and parliament, consisting of 250 deputies (30 of them are appointed by the president). The first parliamentary elections took place in 1980. At the same time, elections were held for the Legislative Council of the Kurdish Autonomous Region, consisting of 50 deputies. The term of office of the National Council is 4 years. The last election campaign took place in 2000.
To occupy the post of president, initially it was enough to receive two-thirds of the votes in the SRC. In accordance with the constitutional amendment of 1995, the head of state is elected for a 7-year term in a popular referendum. On October 15, 1995, a referendum extended the powers of Saddam Hussein for another term, and on October 15, 2002, another similar referendum was held, extending the president’s tenure in office for another 7 years. In fact, Saddam Hussein is an absolute dictator. The head of state is in charge of the Council of Ministers, whose members are appointed and dismissed by his order.
Judicial system. Iraq has adopted a mixed system of law, including Islamic law (to determine personal status) and European, mainly French, law. There are three schools of Islamic law: Hanafi (among Sunni Arabs), Shafi'i (among Sunni Kurds) and Ja'fari (among Shiite Arabs). Civil and economic cases are heard in numerous local courts of first instance, consisting of one judge appointed by the Ministry of Justice. The verdicts of these courts can be appealed to the five circuit courts of appeal. The highest appellate body in civil cases is the Court of Cassation in Baghdad. In parallel with the courts of first instance, there are Sharia courts, which consider domestic, inheritance and religious cases. In each territorial unit, under the jurisdiction of a particular court of appeal, there are criminal courts that have jurisdiction over criminal cases. In addition, there are revolutionary courts that consider political, economic and financial disputes related to the security of the state.
Administrative-territorial division. The main administrative units of Iraq are governorates (provinces). They are divided into kazy (districts) and nakhiya (districts). There are a total of 18 governorates, three of which – Dohuk, Erbil and Sulaymaniyah – form the Kurdish Autonomous Region in the north of the country.
Political parties and social movements. Under the monarchical system, from 1921 to 1958, political power belonged mainly to a small circle of privileged families. Despite the fact that from the beginning of the 1920s parliament was convened and the activities of parties were officially allowed, the possibilities for opposition activities and criticism of the ruling elite remained extremely limited. As a result, legal political organizations, although not completely devoid of influence, were characterized by small numbers and consisted mainly of supporters of well-known political figures. The most authoritative parties—the Iraqi Communist Party, the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (Baath) and the Kurdistan Democratic Party (founded in 1946)—operated underground.
Iraqi Communist Party. Under the monarchical regime, the Iraqi Communist Party (ICP), founded in 1934, was the most influential political organization. Along with opposing the authorities, she supported social reforms and gaining national independence. After the overthrow of the king, under the government Abdel Kerim Kasem(1958–1963), the party was in a semi-legal position for a short time. When the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party was in power, especially in 1963 and after 1979, the ICP was brutally persecuted, many of its members were arrested and executed. Like all other opposition forces, the ICP is outlawed. In the late 1970s, the Communist Party supported liberation movement in Kurdistan, having entered into an alliance with the Kurdistan Democratic Party. In the 1960s and then in the late 1980s, the PCI split into several factions. Most PCI activists opposed to the regime live in exile, mainly in Western Europe. In 1996, the “renewed” PCI was allowed to operate openly in the country, but it does not play any political role.
Arab Socialist Renaissance Party(Baath). The fundamental principles of Baathism are “a single Arab nation with an eternal mission”, expressed in the slogan “unity (creation of a single Arab state), freedom (liberation of all Arab states from colonial dependence) and socialism (building a unified Arab socialist society)” were developed in the late 1940s in Syria, where the Baath Party was created in 1947. In Iraq, the Arab Socialist Revival Party began functioning in 1954 as a regional branch of the pan-Arab Baath Party. In 1957, together with the PCI and other parties, it joined the National Unity Front and took part in the 1958 revolution. The party was represented in the first republican government.
In February 1963, supporters of the ideas of “Arabism” - the military and the Baathists overthrew Kassem and launched repressions against the communists and their supporters. The Baath Party formed a government (which fell in November). The Ba'ath Party was forced underground. This party came to power again in July 1968 as a result of a coup d'etat. In the early years, Saddam Hussein - the second person in the state after President Bakr - invited former bitter enemies, the communists and the Kurdistan Democratic Party, to join the Baath within the framework of the Progressive National Patriotic Front, which was realized in 1973.
By the late 1970s, membership in the Baath became a sign of loyalty to the ruling regime. After Saddam Hussein assumed the presidency of Iraq on July 16, 1979, and especially during the war with Iran in 1980–1988, the party began to be identified with Hussein himself, who, together with his closest associates and relatives, monopolized power.
Kurdistan Democratic Party. The Iraqi branch of the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) was created in 1946 by Mustafa Barzani. One of the most important points of disagreement between Barzani and the central government was the borders of Kurdistan, in particular Barzani's demand to include Kirkuk and its surroundings, where most of Iraqi oil was produced, into the Kurdish Autonomous Region. Soon after the Ba'ath came to power in 1968, military operations began in Kurdistan. Realizing that it would not be possible to defeat the Kurds using military force, and trying to buy time, Saddam Hussein signed an agreement with Barzani in March 1970, known as the March Manifesto, which declared significant concessions to the Kurds. However, almost immediately after the release of the manifesto, the government began forcibly expelling Kurds from their homes, trying to change the ethnic composition of the population of some areas, and in 1971 deported approximately 100,000 Kurds from Iraq. 40 thousand Shiite Kurds (faili). On March 11, 1974, in accordance with the provisions of the March Manifesto, the Law on the Autonomy of Kurdistan was adopted and the authorities of the Kurdish Autonomous Region were created.
In March 1975, the Iran-Iraq agreement was signed in Algeria, according to which Mohammad Reza Pahlavi took upon himself the obligation not to provide further assistance to Barzani and not to allow the rearmament or regrouping of Kurdish forces on Iranian territory. In response, Iraq agreed to move its border with Iran along the Shatt al-Arab River in the area below Basra from the left (eastern) bank to the middle line of the riverbed. In 1979, after the overthrow of the Shah's regime, the KDP, led by Barzani's sons Idris and Masoud, supported by the new Shiite regime in Iran, again took up arms against Baghdad. Throughout the 8 years of the war with Iran, Kurdistan remained the main center of organized armed opposition to the Baathist regime. The Kurds were supported by communist resistance forces and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan, an organization led by Jalal Talabani, which broke away from the KDP in 1975. Beginning in 1981, the central authorities began to carry out mass executions and deportations of hundreds of thousands of Kurds in Kurdistan.
Shia opposition movement. The Shia political movement in Iraq dates back to the late 1950s. Alarmed by the growing communist influence in their community, several prominent religious leaders (ulema) of An-Najaf, led by Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr, founded their own political organization, the Association of Ulema of An-Najaf, in the fall of 1958.
In the late 1960s, the Najaf Ulema Association was transformed into the Islamic Call political party, to which the Baath responded with brutal repression. In 1974, five ulemas were executed without trial, and in February 1977, during the religious holiday of Muharram, numerous arrests were made in cities where Muslim shrines are located. Eight clerics were executed and fifteen were sentenced to life imprisonment. Inspired by the Islamic Revolution of 1979 in Iran, where political power passed into the hands of Shia religious leaders, the Islamic Call came into open conflict with its own government. Ba'ath institutions and police stations were attacked, and support for the new Iranian leadership was openly declared. In turn, the Baath took punitive measures against the Islamic Call, declaring membership in this party a crime deserving a death sentence. Already in April 1980, Ayatollah Mohammed Bakir al-Sadr and his sister Bint Huba were executed. The war with Iran that began in September served as a pretext for launching the fight against the Shiite movement in Iraq.
Foreign policy. Iraq's foreign policy in the 1970s–1980s was carried out taking into account the growing influence of Saudi Arabia and the small oil-producing states of the Arabian Peninsula, which was associated with an increase in their income from oil exports in 1973–1980. During this period, especially during the war with Iran, Iraq improved relations with most Arab countries. The exception was Syria, which supported Iran. After the ceasefire in the fall of 1988, Iraq began to provide military assistance to the commander of the Lebanese Armed Forces, General Michel Aoun, who opposed the Syrian army stationed on Lebanese territory. Saddam Hussein tried to weaken the position of Syrian President Hafez Assad and expand and strengthen his influence in the region. Territorial claims to Kuwait, its occupation and attempted annexation in August 1990 led to the announcement of a UN embargo on trade with Iraq and the start of a new war. It was attended by a large international military contingent, mainly consisting of American troops operating from the territory of Saudi Arabia and some other states.
Iraq is a member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), the Arab Cooperation Council, the League of Arab States, and the UN.
Armed forces. In 2002, the Iraqi army numbered approx. 430 thousand people, Republican Guard - 80 thousand people, there are 650 thousand trained reservists. The army was armed with 2,200 tanks, the air force consisted of 350 combat aircraft and 500 helicopters, 2,400 artillery pieces, and 4,400 armored vehicles. There are also paramilitary groups (" people's army"), which numbered 650 thousand people, and three complementary security services.
ECONOMY
National income. In the 1970s, huge government revenues from oil exports made it possible to finance the dynamic growth and modernization of the country's economy. This process was interrupted due to military operations in the Persian Gulf in 1980–1988 and 1990–1991, the reorientation of resources for military needs and the imposition of an embargo and economic sanctions by a UN decision, as well as due to the fall in oil prices. In 1988, Iraq's GDP was equal to $57.6 billion, or $3,380 per person, and in 1994, according to Western experts, it was only approx. 15 billion dollars, while by 1999 it had grown to 59.9 billion.
Production structure and planning. Iraq, according to its constitution, is a country with a state-regulated capitalist economy. The state is called upon to directly control the production and export of oil, most other leading industries, all banks and almost all foreign trade; it must also allocate contracts for large construction projects to favorable loans and maintain the exchange rate of the currency. The state undertakes to assist investors in organizing capital-intensive agricultural enterprises, such as irrigated fruit growing and horticulture, and broiler production. Agricultural producers lease government land at preferential prices, receive preferential loans, and benefit from favorable exchange rates. Private entrepreneurs are allowed to invest in construction, freight transportation, retail trade and the service sector. The state also regulates prices for a number of goods.
The UN sanctions on foreign trade introduced in 1991 made significant adjustments to the state economic policy. Currently, private entrepreneurs are allowed to enter the foreign market, even related to oil exports.
Labor resources. In the mid-1990s, approx. 40% of all employment was concentrated in the service sector, 30% in agriculture, 10% in manufacturing, another 8% in trade and 2% in the mining industry. The economic boom of the 1970s brought large numbers of migrants from Arab and other Asian countries to Iraq in search of jobs. Qualified foreign specialists were invited to manage some high-tech processes in the construction and manufacturing industries. Moroccan and Egyptian peasants were recruited to work in the agricultural sector.
Mining and manufacturing industry. Oil production is concentrated mainly in fields around Kirkuk and Mosul in the north and near Basra and Rumailah in the southeast. Several smaller deposits are being developed in other parts of the country. Crude oil is supplied to refineries (Basra, Ed-Daura, Baiji, Salah-ed-Din, etc.) and chemical plants (Ez-Zubair and Baghdad and its environs). In Mishraq, west of Mosul, sulfur ore deposits are being developed. From it sulfur is obtained and sulfuric acid. Phosphorites are mined in two deposits north of Baghdad. They are used for the production of mineral fertilizers in the chemical plants of Al Qaim and Baiji. Other important public sector industries include metal processing, electric power, gas, cement, textile, electrical and food processing, synthetic fiber production, and truck, bus and engine assembly. Most of the large and high-tech enterprises, built mainly by foreign companies, are under state control, mainly in the vicinity of Baghdad, in Mosul and Basra.
Energy. Iraq produces approx. 28.4 billion kWh (1998) of electricity, 97.7% from oil and gas processing, 2.1% from the use of hydro resources. Almost the entire country is electrified, and 95% of the population has access to energy supply. Only in the distant rural areas The population uses kerosene and firewood for heating and other household needs. Annual energy consumption is estimated at 26.4 billion kWh (1998).
Agriculture. The area suitable for agriculture is approx. 5450 thousand hectares (1/8 of the territory of Iraq). Up to 4,000 thousand hectares are occupied by pastures. The remaining lands were taken out of agricultural use due to drought conditions and soil salinization, including those caused by insufficient drainage of previously irrigated lands. The main crops are wheat, barley and rice. Half of the arable land is allocated for them, mainly in the better moistened northern regions. Large areas in river valleys are devoted to date palm plantations. Livestock farming is based on sheep and goats, and to a lesser extent cattle, and is developed in mountainous areas.
Transport. In the late 1990s, Iraq had a well-developed network highways total length approx. 45.5 thousand km (of which 38.8 thousand km are paved), which included a number of expressways. The length of railways is 2450 km. The country has two international airports - in Baghdad and Basra and more than 100 that provide connections on local lines (in Al-Hadit, Kirkuk, Mosul, etc.). The main Iraqi ports in the Persian Gulf - Basra, Umm Qasr, Fao and Al-Zubair - were slightly damaged during the military conflicts.
Within Iraq, the oil fields of Kirkuk (in the north) and Al-Rumaila (in the southeast) are connected by a network of reversible pipelines to oil consumption and processing areas, as well as to ports on the Persian Gulf coast. The total length of oil pipelines is 4350 km, oil product pipelines 725 km, gas pipelines 1360 km. Through pipelines laid through the territories of Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Syria and Lebanon, Iraqi oil can flow to the ports of the Red and Mediterranean Seas, and from there to foreign markets.
Monetary and banking systems. In Iraq, there is a Central Bank that issues the Iraqi dinar, state-owned agricultural cooperative, industrial banks and two commercial banks under state control - the Rafidain Bank and the Rashid Bank. The authorities encourage the creation of private banks.
Budget. The treasury's main income comes from the oil industry, on which the viability of the Iraqi economy depends. The expenditure part of the budget is not strictly fixed and, if necessary, is redistributed between the usual cost items of government departments and “semi-independent agencies” that control key government and other enterprises related to oil production and refining, as well as annual development programs.
SOCIETY
Iraqi society was formed mainly under the influence of Islam and Arabic culture. Throughout the 20th century. Under the influence of Western civilization, growing urbanization and modernization, traditional social groups have been eroded, but have not completely disappeared. Communities of small towns, villages and nomads have survived as separate social units, and for the bulk of the population religious affiliation remains the most important factor self-identification.
Public associations and the labor movement. The influence of the state in Iraq is so strong that all trade unions and various public organizations are the mouthpiece of the official political power.
Trade unions are under the control of the ruling Baathist regime. All workers employed in industry are required to be members of trade unions. The latter, together with associations representing 150 thousand agricultural workers and 475 thousand service workers, form the General Federation of Workers' Trade Unions of Iraq. The rural population is for the most part involved in the General Union of Peasant Cooperative Associations. Trade union members have the right to free medical care and social benefits, as well as to purchase industrial goods on credit in cooperative stores. Strikes are prohibited and suppressed by the authorities.
Several organizations protect the interests of small urban traders and entrepreneurs. Teachers, doctors, pharmacists, lawyers and artists also have their own associations and trade unions. These associations perform certain social functions, and their headquarters serve as social clubs and leisure centers.
Social Security. Institutions in this area are primarily under the jurisdiction of the state. State system Social Security guarantees pensions and disability benefits. Various professional associations also pay pensions to their members. Private and public charities provide assistance to the needy and disabled.
Since 1959, the state has helped migrants from rural areas flocking to Baghdad in housing construction. For this purpose, a belt of “model cities” with cheap housing has been created around the capital.
With the exception of a few private hospitals, almost all medical institutions in the country are public. Medical care is provided to the population free of charge or at low prices. With the assistance of the World Health Organization, Iraq operated a program to combat malaria, schistosomiasis and trachoma.
CULTURE
Iraq is home to various ethnic and religious groups whose traditions have influenced Iraqi culture. The Muslim worldview and philosophy underlie the life of society.
Education system. The state provides universal free secular education at all stages - from kindergarten to university. Initial schooling compulsory for all children from the age of six. It lasts for 6 years and ends with exams, based on which students move to secondary school. Secondary education includes two three-year levels. In 1998, secondary schools educated approx. 71% boys and 46% girls of the corresponding age. After graduating from high school, young people can enter technological institutes or universities. In higher educational institutions preference is given to humanities education. Their graduates often go to work in government agencies. IN humanitarian universities They also train specialists in creative professions. The language of instruction is Arabic, with the exception of the northern regions, where in the first grades primary school Training is conducted in Kurdish. English is taught from the fifth grade. There are six universities in Iraq: three in Baghdad and one each in Basra, Mosul and Erbil. There are also 19 technological institutes. In 1998, more than 70 thousand students studied at higher educational institutions in the country.
According to data at the beginning of 1998, approx. 80% of the population.
Literature and art. Poetry is considered the most highly valued form of creative expression in Iraq. This is true folk literature, addressed not only to the educated or wealthy strata. Less popular is fine art. The country's painters and sculptors are searching for modern artistic forms that would reflect the traditions and culture of Iraq. The art of ornamentation and calligraphy is especially developed. Many modern artists create in the style of abstractionism, surrealism, cubism, and symbolism, although their works are not without national features. One of the most famous innovative artists of recent times is Javad Salim, whose work has received international recognition.
Dramatic performances usually carry a socio-political message. Most often, plays by Iraqi playwrights are staged, although performances based on scripts by European authors (both classical and modern) are regularly performed on stage. There are several thriving theatres, the Modern Theater being particularly successful. Certain efforts are being made to revive folk music and dance. Among the mass audience, the most popular songs are in colloquial Arabic. Jalil Bashir and some other composers write music for traditional Arabic instruments such as the udd (lute) and the qanun (zither).
Museums and libraries. The Iraqi Museum in Baghdad houses rare archaeological collections. Together with its large library, this institution represents the main center of scientific archaeological and historical research. In addition, the capital has the Museum of Arab Antiquities, museums of modern art, ethnographic and natural history. All major cities in Iraq have libraries. The largest collections are located in the Public Library in Baghdad. There are also public rural libraries.
Publishing. Most publications are carried out by government organizations. Several scientific societies publish journals in various fields of social and natural sciences.
Baghdad publishes 7 daily newspapers in Arabic or English. The largest circulations are “Al-Saura” (250 thousand copies, the printed organ of the Baath Party), “Al-Jumhuriya” (150 thousand copies, a government newspaper) and the weekly socio-political and literary and artistic magazine “Alif Ba” "(150 thousand copies). A number of government and public organizations have their own press organs. The Ministry of Information and Culture publishes the monthly political and literary magazine Al-Afaq al-Arabiya (Arab Horizons, 40 thousand copies), the Progressive National Patriotic Front - the daily newspaper Al-Iraq (Iraq, 30 thousand copies), Iraqi Communist Party - monthly socio-political magazine "Al-Sakafa al-Jadida" (New Culture, 3 thousand copies), General Union of Agricultural Cooperative Societies - weekly newspaper "Saut al-Fellah" (“Voice of the Peasant”, 40 thousand copies), General Federation of Workers’ Trade Unions of Iraq - weekly “Wai al-Ummal” (“Workers Consciousness”, 25 thousand copies). The newspaper Al-Qadisiya (armed forces), Al-Iraq and popular magazines for children, women, workers and other groups of the population are also published.
Broadcasting, television and cinema. State radio broadcasting, including an information block, music, entertainment and educational programs, is carried out around the clock. State television, which operates mainly in the evening hours, shows programs from both local and foreign production. Iraq's film industry is underdeveloped; On average, one full-length film is produced per year. Egyptian, Indian, American and Italian films are popular with viewers.
Sport. Baghdad and other major cities have large stadiums. Iraqi athletes excel in sports such as weightlifting, freestyle and classic wrestling, football, volleyball and basketball. Traditionally, wrestling, shooting at a target, and running are the most popular among the population.
Holidays and significant dates. As in the rest of the Islamic world, Iraq especially celebrates such major religious holidays as the birthday of the Prophet Muhammad, Eid al-Adha (Kurban Bayram - the holiday of sacrifice) and Eid al-Fitr (Eid al-Fitr - the holiday of breaking the fast), which ends Ramadan, the ninth month of the Muslim lunar calendar. The country also deeply honors Ashura (day of mourning) - a day of mourning among Shiite Muslims (during this period all entertainment events, radio and television broadcasts are under strict control) in memory of the “martyrdom” of Hussein, Ali’s son, cousin and son-in-law Prophet Muhammad. The first day of spring is also celebrated - Nowruz, the national holiday of the Kurds. There are two secular holidays in July: July 14 is Republic Day (the anniversary of the 1958 revolution) and July 17 is the Day the Baath Party came to power in 1968. In addition, Labor Day is celebrated on May 1 and Army Day on January 6.
STORY
In 539 BC Cyrus II the Great defeated the Chaldeans and incorporated Mesopotamia into the Persian Achaemenid state. Their reign lasted until the collapse of the monarchy as a result of the conquests of Alexander the Great, between 334 and 327 BC. About 100 years later, the territory of Iraq became part of the Parthian kingdom. It survived (except for two short periods when it was under the rule of the Roman Empire) until its conquest in 227 AD. new Iranian rulers, the Sasanians, whose power extended from eastern Iran to the Syrian Desert and Anatolia. The period of Sassanid rule lasted ca. 400 years. see also Mesopotamia, ancient civilization.
Arab conquest. Beginning in 635, the Sassanids began to gradually lose their positions to the onslaught of Arab troops. The Sassanids suffered their final defeat at the hands of Arab armies at the Battle of Qadisiyah in 637. By the late 640s, most of the local Christian inhabitants had converted to Islam. After the death of the Prophet Muhammad, intense rivalry began for the throne of the Caliph. After the Umayyad dynasty seized power over the Arab Caliphate in 661, moving its capital from Medina to Damascus, a period of long schism began in Islam. The inhabitants of Iraq, as followers of Ali (cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad), who was caliph for a short time (from 656 to 661, before the victory of the Umayyads), professed Shiism. With the Umayyads coming to power, Sunnism began to be implanted in the country. The confrontation between the Shiites and the Umayyads was a major factor in the defeat that the Umayyads suffered from the Abbasids in 750.
Abbasid Dynasty. Under the Abbasids, Baghdad became the seat of power and the capital of the Arab Caliphate, which stretched from Morocco to North India. The construction that took place in the city is associated with the reign of Caliph Al-Mansur (754–775). By the end of the 9th century. The rulers of Baghdad lost their dominance over the rest of the Islamic world. see also Abbasids.
Mongol and Persian rule. In 1258, the Abbasids were overthrown by the Mongols, led by Khan Hulagu, who sacked Baghdad and devastated Mesopotamia. The Mongol Hulaguid dynasty ruled in this region until the mid-14th century. It was succeeded by the Jalairid dynasty (1339–1410). In 1393 and 1401, Baghdad was again destroyed by the troops of Timur (Tamerlane) and was rebuilt twice (in 1394 and 1405) under the Jalairids. Following this, various dynasties replaced the throne, ruling for a short time. The last in this series was the Iranian Safavid dynasty, which captured the territory of Iraq in 1509. Under the Safavids, Shiism became the state religion.
Ottoman Empire. The rulers of the neighboring Turkish state were afraid of the spread of the influence of Shiism on their territory, where Sunnism dominated. In 1534, the area between the Tigris and Euphrates was conquered by the Ottoman Turks, whose hegemony lasted for almost 400 years. Distance from the capital Ottoman Empire contributed to Istanbul's weak supervision of Mesopotamian lands. Real power was often in the hands of governors.
At the end of the 19th century. The Ottoman power, making efforts to restore control over the independent territory, carried out a number of important administrative reforms. At the beginning of the 20th century. "Arab revival" ideas began to penetrate into Iraq from Syria and other centers, and some Iraqis were involved in secret societies in Istanbul that advocated granting federal or autonomous status to the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire. In 1914, when Iraq joined Germany and its allies, Great Britain invaded southern Iraq, and in 1918 British troops already controlled almost the entire territory of the country.
Modern Iraq and British rule. The modern Iraqi state was created by Great Britain in 1920. It included three vilayets of the Ottoman Empire: Basra (from which Kuwait was previously separated), Mosul and Baghdad. In April 1920, the League of Nations at the San Remo Conference issued a mandate to govern Iraq to Great Britain. In 1921, Iraq was proclaimed a kingdom led by Emir Faisal (son of the Sheriff of Mecca Hussein) from the Hashemite dynasty. Government was established in the form of a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament. However, initially all major ministries were under the control of British "advisers", with final decisions made by the British High Commissioner and the Commander of the Royal Air Force. Locally, political power was concentrated in the hands of several urban clans and a newly created elite of large absentee landlords.
In 1932, Iraq gained formal independence, but the real levers of governing the country were concentrated in the British Embassy. In the imperial thinking of the time, Iraq's importance was determined by its important strategic position on the route to India. In addition, Iraq possessed large oil reserves, the concession for the development of which was received in 1925 by the Anglo-French-American consortium Turkish Petroleum (renamed Iraq Petroleum in 1929).
In 1933, King Faisal died and his son Ghazi ascended the throne. The political life of the country in the 1930s was characterized by factional struggle in the army, especially after the military coup of 1936. King Ghazi died suddenly in 1939, and his young son Faisal II ascended the throne, under whom Abdul Illah became regent. After the outbreak of World War II, the position of nationalist officers was strong enough to prevent a declaration of war against Nazi Germany, although the prime minister at that time was the pro-British General Nuri Said. Iraq merely broke off relations with Germany and declared its neutrality. In April 1941, the military overthrew the government, which accelerated the entry of British armed forces, which by the end of May 1941 returned Nuri Said and regent Abdul Illah to leadership of the country. In January 1942, Iraq formally declared war on Germany and Italy. British troops were in Iraq until the autumn of 1947.
In 1946, civilian rule was restored in the country. However, left-wing parties were banned, and the government remained in the hands of conservatives led by Nuri Said. In 1953, Faisal II, who had reached the age of 18, was crowned.
In 1948, Iraq participated in the unsuccessful First Arab-Israeli War, and then in 1949 refused to sign an armistice agreement with Israel.
In 1952, the government legalized increasing Iraq's share of Iraq Petroleum's rapidly growing oil revenues to 50%. A significant portion of the funds received was invested in long-term development projects. In 1955, trying to protect itself from the left-wing “Nasserist” movement spreading throughout the Middle East, Iraq entered into a military treaty with Turkey, which, after the accession of Iran, Pakistan and Great Britain, turned into a US-backed military bloc known as the Baghdad Pact. see also British Empire.
Iraqi Republic. On July 14, 1958, under the leadership of the underground organizations “National Unity Front” and “Free Officers”, a revolution occurred in Iraq, the monarchical regime was overthrown and a republic was proclaimed. King Faisal II, Nuri Said and Abdul Illah were executed. The new government was headed by the leader of the Free Officers organization, Brigadier General Abdel Kerim Qassem. The cabinet included both military and civilians. A law was passed on land reform modeled on the Egyptian one. In 1959, Iraq withdrew from the Baghdad Pact, and in 1961 it expropriated the areas under concession from the Iraq Petroleum Company. On 25 June 1961, six days after Britain recognized Kuwait's independence, Qassem laid out Iraqi claims to the country's territory.
The first issue on which the struggle unfolded already in July 1958 was the accession of Iraq to the United Arab Republic (UAR) that had just been created by Egypt and Syria. Nationalists and Baath Party leaders who believed in Arab unification advocated annexation. The communists spoke out against it. In an effort to distance himself from the communists, Qassem began a crackdown on the left. In February 1963, a military coup took place by supporters of the nationalists and the Baath Party. Qassem was killed, and power was seized by a junta consisting of Baathists and Arab nationalists led by Abdel Salam Aref. Aref formally recognized Kuwait's independence, but not its British borders, and laid claim to the Bubiyan and Warba islands in the Persian Gulf off the coast of Iraq, as well as the southern periphery of the giant Rumailah oil field.
Aref was president of the country for three years and died in a plane crash in April 1966. The post of president was taken over by the brother of the deceased, Abdel Rahman Aref, who was in power for two years. In July 1968, he was overthrown in a military coup organized by the Baath Party. During the reign of the Aref brothers, many key sectors of the economy (with the exception of the oil industry) were nationalized.
The main task of the Ba'ath leaders who came to power in 1968 was to consolidate the country's political system. During the presidency of Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr and his successor Saddam Hussein, who assumed the presidency in 1979 but actually gained power much earlier, the regime brutally persecuted potential opponents and used the entire economic power of the state to support its supporters.
At first, the Baathists tried to put an end to the Kurdish uprising by concluding a peace agreement with their leaders in March 1970, according to which the Kurds were promised autonomy. However, a significant part of the agreements was not implemented, and in 1974 the leader of the Kurdish Democratic Party, Mullah Mustafa Barzani, who enjoyed the support of the Shah of Iran, again raised a full-scale uprising in order to expand the autonomy of the Kurds. As a result, on March 11, 1974, the autonomy of Iraqi Kurdistan was proclaimed.
In 1972, having concluded a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the USSR, the Baathist government nationalized the Iraq Petroleum Company, which forced the Iraqi communists to unite with the Baath Party within the framework of the Progressive National Patriotic Front, which included the Kurdish movement Kurdistan Revolutionary Party. After members of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries raised oil prices, the position of the official government and its economic power were strengthened. Rising oil export revenues allowed the government to finance large-scale development projects.
In 1975, the Baathists, as a result of negotiations in Algeria, concluded an Agreement on Borders and Good Neighborhood Relations with the Shah of Iran, according to which the border between both countries was moved from the eastern bank of the Shatt al-Arab River to the middle of the river. Iran responded by closing its border to Kurdish rebels, making it easier for Baghdad to crush the resistance. In the fall of 1978, Iraq expelled the main opponent of the Iranian Shah, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, who then spent 15 years in exile in Najaf.
At the beginning of 1979, after the victory of the Iranian revolution and the overthrow of the Shah's regime, Kurdish protests in Iraq resumed, and the basis of the Algiers Agreements lost force. In addition, the Shia regime in Iran, led by Khomeini, launched attacks on the Ba'athist regime in Iraq with the help of its Shia opponents. In response, Saddam Hussein resumed the old dispute about the Iraqi-Iranian border along the Shatt al-Arab River and about the status of Iranian Khuzestan (called Arabistan in Iraq). Hussein used the frequent border incidents that occurred after the revolution as a pretext for a military invasion of Iran on September 22, 1980.
At the beginning of the war, Iraq achieved some success, but the enemy army turned out to be more combat-ready than expected. In the spring of 1982, Iranian troops launched an offensive and expelled Iraqi armed units from their territory, and after a long period of positional actions, they captured the city of Fao in 1986 and approached Basra at a distance of 65 km. At the same time, Kurdish rebels under the command of Barzani's son Massoud regrouped their combat units and established control over most of the border mountainous areas in the north and northeast of the country. In 1987, the United States, which had previously sold weapons to Iran, sent its naval forces to the Persian Gulf to prevent Iran from blocking shipping routes leading to Kuwait, which served as a transshipment point for supplies military equipment Iraq and partly for the export of its oil. In the same year, the Iraqi army managed to oust Iranian troops from the territory of their country, and also began conducting military operations in Kurdistan. In August 1988, the Iran-Iraq ceasefire agreement was concluded.
At the end of the war, the United States banned the export of equipment to Iraq that could be used for military purposes, and Israel threatened to attack Iraqi chemical and chemical plants. nuclear weapons. Post-war economic recovery was hampered by a sharp drop in oil prices caused by the economic policies of Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates, which sold more than 270 thousand tons of fuel per day (mainly produced in the Kuwaiti sector of the Al-Rumaila field) in excess of the quota established by the Organization oil exporting countries. After negotiations with Kuwait ended in failure, Hussein decided to respond to the “economic aggression” with his own military action.
In August 1990, the Iraqi army invaded Kuwait. The invasion of Kuwait was condemned by the UN Security Council, which imposed an embargo on trade with Iraq.
The United States and its coalition allies, based on a UN resolution condemning the occupation of Kuwait and demanding the immediate withdrawal of Iraqi troops and the restoration of the legitimate Kuwaiti government, launched a massive attack on Iraq on January 16, 1991 using air and naval forces. The bombing continued for more than 40 days, followed by a massive ground operation by multinational forces in Kuwait and Iraq that lasted 100 hours. At the same time, Kuwait was liberated and part of the territory of Iraq was occupied. The bombing, which continued for a month, destroyed the entire economic infrastructure of Iraq. The US announced that it would not allow UN sanctions to be eased as long as Hussein remained in power. Iraq accepted the condition that tough economic sanctions against it would remain until the complete elimination of all weapons mass destruction, including nuclear, chemical and biological.
In the fall of 1991, Iraq was allowed to sell a strictly fixed volume of oil, provided that all transactions would be carried out under the control of UN representatives. It was proposed to use the proceeds after paying reparations for the emergency purchase of food and medicine. From 1991 to 1998, conflicts took place between Iraq and UN inspectors monitoring the elimination of weapons of mass destruction, which brought Iraq to the brink of war with the United States.
Until November 1998, UN inspectors monitored the destruction of missiles and weapons of mass destruction in Iraq, but since the end of 1998, Hussein stopped allowing UN representatives into the country.
UN sanctions have caused enormous economic damage to the country, where devastation and hunger reign, and there is not enough electricity and drinking water. In many areas, sewage systems have been destroyed (30% of rural residents are deprived of modern sewerage) and water treatment plants (half rural population does not have clean drinking water). Intestinal diseases and cholera are rampant. In 10 years, child mortality has doubled, and a third of children under the age of five suffer from chronic diseases. Medicine has been destroyed - there is no modern medical equipment, not enough medicine.
UN sanctions prohibit the import of products necessary for economic recovery that are considered dual-use goods - paper, printing equipment, paints, chemicals, stainless steel (necessary for the manufacture of surgical instruments), etc. The entry of scientific literature and equipment into the country for educational institutions is closed.
Until 1991 approx. 90% of foreign trade was concentrated in the hands of the state. In recent years, the private sector has been allowed to trade. Since direct trade is prohibited by UN sanctions, it is carried out across the Jordanian, Turkish, Syrian and Iranian borders. In November, the checkpoint on the Saudi-Iraqi border was officially opened. The busiest trade is with Turkey. In exchange for Iraqi oil, food, clothing, household appliances, and equipment are received from there. The volume of Iraqi-Turkish trade reaches 1 billion 200 million dollars a year. According to unofficial data, oil exports amount to 2.7 million barrels per day (before 1991 - 3.5 million barrels).
On March 27, 2000, parliamentary elections were held in Iraq, as a result of which the majority of seats (165 out of 250) were won by representatives of the ruling Arab Socialist Renaissance Party - Baath, 55 - independent deputies and 30 were appointed by the president.
In the summer of 2001, the UN Security Council voted to extend the Oil-for-Food humanitarian program for five months, with the caveat that Iraq would tighten control over its compliance with the ban on the purchase of weapons and dual-use goods. However, Iraq does not agree to any reservations and insists on the final lifting of economic sanctions. Russia supports this demand and views Iraq as a potential economic partner. Currently in Iraq, the Oil-for-Food program operates approximately. 200 Russian companies (the largest are Surgutneftegaz, Tatneft, Rosneft, Bashneft). They account for 40% of Iraqi oil exports.
In September 2002, Iraq agreed to once again allow international inspectors to verify the presence of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq on behalf of the UN and in pursuance of a Security Council resolution. This move was prompted mainly by the threat of military attack from the United States. The activities of Russian diplomacy also contributed to the softening of Iraq's position.
On March 20, 2003, the United States and Great Britain began military operations against Iraq (Operation Shock and Awe). On April 9, Anglo-American troops took the city of Baghdad, and by the end of the month they occupied the entire country. In May 2003, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution No. 1483, according to which the United States and Great Britain were officially recognized as the states occupying Iraq. It also reaffirmed the sovereignty, integrity of the country and the right of the Iraqi people to freely determine its future political development. Since July 13, 2003, Iraq has been governed by the Provisional Governing Council (GGC), which included 25 political figures from the country. In the fall of that year, American soldiers captured former President Saddam Hussein. He was placed in custody at Camp Cropper (the largest US military base in the Persian Gulf). On June 1, 2004, the Supreme Council transferred power to the elected president, Sheikh Ghazi al-Yawar; The interim government was headed by Ayad Alawi. On August 18 of the same year, a temporary parliament consisting of 100 deputies was elected.
On January 30, 2005, parliamentary elections were held in which more than 200 political parties and coalitions took part. According to the new constitution, the parliament (National Assembly) consists of 275 deputies. The majority of seats in parliament (140) were won by the Shiite United Iraqi Alliance party. The Kurdish Alliance received 75 seats, the Iraqi List party of Prime Minister A. Alawi received 40 seats. The National Assembly included representatives of 24 political associations. Voter turnout reached more than 70%. Several thousand observers monitored the election process, incl. 800 foreign.
On April 6, 2005, parliament elected 72-year-old Kurdish Jalal Talabani as president of the country. general secretary"Patriotic Union of Kurdistan" - PUK). In April 2005, one of the leaders of the United Iraqi Alliance, Ibrahim al-Jaafari, was appointed prime minister. In an attempt to stem the tide of violence in the country, the government reinstated the death penalty. Under pressure from the opposition in April 2006, Ibrahim al-Jaafari resigned, and Jawad (Nuri) al-Maliki took over as prime minister.
At the end of December 2006, Saddam Hussein was sentenced by a tribunal to death by hanging for crimes against humanity (accusations of killing 148 Shiites in the village of Ad-Dujail in 1982 after an unsuccessful attempt on his life). On December 30 he was hanged at the headquarters military intelligence Iraq, located in the northern part of Baghdad. On January 15, 2007, two associates of the former Iraqi president, Barzan al-Tikriti ( former head Iraqi intelligence services) and Awwad al-Bandar (former chairman of the Iraqi Revolutionary Tribunal).
During military operation and the occupation of Iraq killed more than 3 thousand US troops. The number of foreign military personnel in Iraq at the end. 2006 amounted to 140 thousand people, incl. American contingent - 132 thousand people. In January 2007, US President George W. Bush proposed increasing it by another 21.5 thousand people.
According to a report released in January 2007 by the UN Human Rights Office in Iraq, in 2006 more than 34 thousand were killed in the country and approx. injured. 36 thousand civilians. The Talabani government focuses on combating terrorism and maintaining dialogue with opposition political groups. The President supports George Bush's new plans to stabilize the political situation in Iraq.
LITERATURE
Gorelikov S.G. . M., 1963
Gerasimov O.G. . M., 1984

Encyclopedia Around the World. 2008 .

REPUBLIC OF IRAQI
State in South-West Asia. In the north it borders with Turkey, in the east with Iran, in the south with Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, and in the west with Jordan and Syria. In the south the country is washed by the Persian Gulf. The area of ​​Iraq is 434924 km2. The northern region of Iraq - Al-Jazra - occupies the Armenian Highlands, the height of which reaches 2135 m in the area of ​​​​the Turkish border. In the northeast, in the Iranian Plateau, is the highest point of Iran, Mount Haji Ibrahim (3600 m). Further south lies the vast plain of the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys. In the far south of Iraq there is a swampy plain, and to the west of the Euphrates the valley opens into the Syrian Desert. In addition to the country's two main rivers - the Tigris and the Euphrates, there are quite large tributaries of the Tigris: the Greater Zab, the Lesser Zab and the Diyala.
The country's population (estimated for 1998) is about 21,722,300 people, with an average population density of about 50 people per km2. Ethnic groups: Arabs - 75%, Kurds - 15%, Turks, Jews. Language: Arabic (state), Kurdish. Religion: Muslims - 95% (Shiites - 60%, Sunnis - 35%), Christians - 3%, Jews. The capital is Baghdad. Largest cities: Baghdad (4,478,000 people), Mosul (748,000 people). The government system is a republic. The head of state is President Saddam Hussein Al-Takriti (in power since July 16, 1979, re-elected in 1995). The currency is the Iraqi dinar. Average life expectancy (as of 1998): 65 years - men, 68 years - women. The birth rate (per 1000 people) is 38.6. The mortality rate (per 1000 people) is 6.6.
Iraq has a very rich history. The most famous states of antiquity flourished on the territory of modern Iraq: the Sumerian kingdom, which arose around the 4th millennium BC; from the 3rd millennium to the middle of the 1st millennium BC. the territory was under the rule of the Babylonian and Assyrian kingdoms. From 539 to 331 BC Iraq was part of the Persian kingdom, and then for 200 years it was part of the empire of Alexander the Great. For a long time, Persian dynasties ruled the country, and in the 7th century AD. Arabs came to the country. From 750 to 1258, Baghdad was the capital of the Abassid caliphs. In 1258 the country was devastated by the Mongol invaders, and for a long time Turkish and Iranian rulers fought over its possession. Only in the 17th century did Iraq finally become part of Ottoman Empire. At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, a movement for liberation from Turkish rule emerged in Iraq. Great Britain, which had its own interests in this region, actively helped Iraq. In August 1921, Iraq gained independence, and King Fezal I was elected at the same time. Until 1932, Great Britain had a mandate to govern Iraq through its commissioner. In February 1958, the Arab Union of Iraq and Jordan was formed, but on July 14, 1958, as a result of a bloody military coup, the monarchy was overthrown, the king was killed, and the Arab Union collapsed. On July 15, a republic was proclaimed in Iraq. Since then, the country has experienced several more military coups. As a result of the latter, the current President of Iraq, Saddam Hussein, came to power. One of the last international crises caused by Iraq's policies in the region was the occupation of Kuwait: on August 28, 1990, Iraq declared Kuwait its 19th province and sent its troops there. The international community, led by the United States, organized an operation to liberate Kuwait, and at the end of February 1991, Iraqi troops were driven out of the country. Iraq is a member of the UN, IMF, ILO, Arab League, OPEC.
Most of Iraq's territory is in the zone continental climate. In the north, in the mountainous region, snow often falls in winter. In central Iraq, summers are long and hot, winters are short and cool. The average January temperature in Baghdad is about 9.5 ° C, the average July temperature is about 33 ° C. In the southernmost region of the country, the climate is very humid and the temperature often exceeds 50 ° C. The greatest amount of precipitation occurs in the northern regions of Iraq, in the central valley the average annual the precipitation rate does not exceed 152 mm. The country's vegetation is sparse: deserts are located in the south and southwest; date palm and poplar stand out among the rare trees of the central part. The fauna is quite rich: cheetah, gazelle, antelope, lion, hyena, wolf, jackal, hare, bat, jerboa. Among the numerous birds of prey, it is necessary to note the vulture, raven, owl, several species of hawk, and buzzard. A large number of lizards
Among the country's main museums, the Iraq Museum with a rich collection of exhibits from the period of ancient Mesopotamia, the Iraqi Museum of Natural History, and the Iraqi War Museum are distinguished - all in Baghdad. The Museum of Babylon exhibits exhibits from the period of the Babylonian Kingdom. The Mosul City Museum has a large collection of artifacts from the period of the Assyrian Kingdom. Other attractions include the ruins of the last gate of Baghdad; the Abbasid palace (1179), the former university of al-Mustansiriya (1232), the Mirja mosque (1358) - all in Baghdad. Not far from Baghdad is the city of Qedimein, famous for its mosque with a golden dome. In the city of Najef is the tomb of Ali, the cousin of the Prophet Muhammad, one of the main shrines of the Shiites. In the city of Karbala, one of the holy cities of Shia Muslims, is the tomb of Hussein ibn Ali, a Muslim martyr. In Mosul - Chandani Church and Great Mosque; on the other bank of the Tigris are the ruins of Nineveh, the capital of the ancient Assyrian kingdom. Iraq is one of the earliest centers of cultural development of mankind. Sites of the Old Stone (Shanidar Cave in Iraqi Kurdistan) and New Stone (settlements of Jarmo, Hassuna) centuries were discovered here. Already in ancient times, the Mesopotamian lowland was considered the breadbasket of a vast region of Asia. On the territory of Iraq there were such powerful ancient states as Akkad, Babylon, and Assyria.
Approximately 80% of Iraq's population is Arab, 18% Kurdish. Some Arabs and Kurds retain tribal divisions. There are more than a hundred nomadic, semi-nomadic and sedentary tribes in the country. The vast majority of the population of Iraq (96%) are Shiite and Sunni Muslims, 3% are Christians, 1% are Yezidis, Mandaeans, and Jews. There are two holy Shiite cities in Iraq - Najaf and Karbala, where the tombs of Shiite imams are preserved and where Shiites around the world make pilgrimages. The basis of the country's economy is the oil industry. About 60% of the population lives in cities. The largest city is the capital of Iraq - Baghdad. Other large industrial cities are Basra, Mosul, Erbil, Kirkuk.
In ancient times, the states of Akkad, Babylonia, Assyria, and others existed on the territory of Iraq (Mesopotamia, or Mesopotamia). With the arrival of Arabs in Iraq in the 7th century, the Arabic language and Islam became widespread. From the 1630s until the end of World War I as part of the Ottoman Empire; By the end of the war, Mesopotamia was occupied by British troops. In 1921, the Kingdom of Iraq was created as a British dependent kingdom. From 1922 (actually from 1920) to 1932, Iraq was a British mandate. In 1958 it was proclaimed a republic. At the end of 1979, relations with Iran worsened, which in 1980-1988 took the form of an armed conflict. In August 1990, Iraq carried out an armed takeover of Kuwait; In February 1991, it was defeated by a multinational military force led by the United States and withdrew its troops from Kuwait.
After Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, the world community imposed trade and economic sanctions and established a sea, land and air blockade of Iraq. The war and its consequences caused serious damage to Iraq. In March 2003, the United States began military action against Iraq and within three weeks occupied Baghdad and the entire country. After the overthrow of Hussein, contradictions between the main groups of the population - Shiites, Sunnis and Kurds - intensified.

Under the authoritarian rule of the Baath Party, Iraq strives to play the role of a regional power. Iraq, which has rich natural resources, relies primarily on its armed forces in its foreign policy; allied to Iraq... ... Terrorism and terrorists. Historical reference book

- a state in South-West Asia. In the north it borders with Turkey, in the east with Iran, in the south with Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, and in the west with Jordan and Syria. In the south the state is washed by the Persian Gulf.

The name of the country comes from the Arabic “Iraq” - “coast” or “lowland”.

Official name: Republic of Iraq

Capital:

The area of ​​the land: 432.1 thousand sq. km

Total Population: 31.2 million people

Administrative division: 16 governorates (provinces).

Form of government: Parliamentary republic.

Head of State: The president.

Population composition : 75% are Arabs, 15% are Kurds, Turks and Jews also live.

Official language: Arabic and Kurdish. At the everyday level, the languages ​​of ethnic groups are widely used, including Armenian and Assyrian. Many Iraqis speak English and French quite well, and some speak Russian.

Religion: 60% profess Shiite Islam, 37% Sunni Islam, 3% are Christians.

Internet domain: .iq

Mains voltage: ~230 V, 50 Hz

Country dialing code: +964

Country barcode: 626

Climate

Iraq's climate is subtropical Mediterranean with hot, dry summers and warm, rainy winters. Two seasons are most pronounced: a long, hot summer (May - October) and a shorter, cool and sometimes cold winter (December - March). In summer the weather is usually cloudless and dry. There is no precipitation at all for four months, and in the remaining months of the warm season it is less than 15 mm.

The northern mountainous regions are characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, warm winters with rare frosts and frequent snowfalls. El Jazeera has dry, hot summers and mild, rainy winters. Lower Mesopotamia is characterized by hot summers and warm winters with rain and relatively high relative humidity. The southwestern region is characterized by dry, hot summers and cool winters with rare rains. Significant seasonal and diurnal temperature changes (sometimes reaching 30°C) have been recorded in many areas of Iraq.

Average July temperatures are 32–35° C, maximum – 40–43°, minimum – 25–28°, absolute maximum – 57° C. Average January temperatures +10–13° C, average January maximum 16–18° C, minimum – 4–7° C, the absolute minimum in the north of the country reached –18° C.

Precipitation falls mainly in winter (December - January), and there is little of it in the central and southern regions of the country: the average annual precipitation in Baghdad is 180 mm, in the southwest approx. 100 mm, in Basra 160 mm. As you move north, their number increases and amounts to approx. 300 mm on the plains and up to 500–800 mm in the mountains.

In the summer (May–June), northwestern winds blow continuously, carrying masses of sand (so-called dust storms), and in winter northeastern winds predominate, especially strong in February.

Geography

Iraq is a state in the Middle East, in the Mesopotamian lowland, in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. It borders on the southeast with Kuwait, on the south with Saudi Arabia, on the west with Jordan and Syria, on the north with Turkey, and Iran on the east. The territory of Iraq is washed by the waters of the Persian Gulf in the southeast of the country.

The northern region of Iraq - El Jazeera - occupies the Armenian Highlands, the height of which reaches 2135 m in the area of ​​​​the Turkish border. Further south lies the vast plain of the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys. In the far south of Iraq there is a swampy plain, and to the west of the Euphrates the valley opens into the Syrian Desert.

Flora and fauna

Vegetable world

The most widespread in Iraq is subtropical steppe and semi-desert vegetation, confined to the western, southwestern and southern regions (west and south of the Euphrates Valley) and represented mainly by wormwood, saltwort, camel thorn, juzgun, and astragalus. In El Jazeera and the northeast of the country, steppe xerophytic and ephemeral-forb vegetation predominates.

Above 2500 m, summer pastures are common. In the mountains in the north and northeast of the country, tracts of mountain oak forests have been preserved, in which oaks predominate and there are comb (tamarix), pine, wild pear, pistachio, juniper, etc. At the foot of the mountain ranges, thorny bushes are common. The floodplain of the Euphrates, Tigris and its tributaries is confined to tugai forest vegetation with shrubby undergrowth, including poplars, willows, and comb grass.

In the southeast of the country, large swampy areas are occupied by reed-reed thickets and salt marsh vegetation. Currently, in the river valleys of central and southern Iraq, right up to the coast of the Persian Gulf, significant areas are devoted to date palm plantations.

Animal world

The fauna of Iraq is not rich. Gazelle, jackal, and striped hyena are found in the steppes and semi-deserts. Rodents and reptiles are widespread, including monitor lizards and the poisonous cobra snake. Many waterfowl (flamingos, pelicans, ducks, geese, swans, herons, etc.) live along the river banks. Rivers and lakes abound with fish. Carp, carp, catfish, etc. are of commercial importance. Horse mackerel, mackerel, barracuda, and shrimp are caught in the Persian Gulf. The real scourge of Iraq is insects, especially mosquitoes and midges, carriers of malaria and other diseases.

Attractions

The territory of modern Iraq is one of the centers of civilization. This land has been inhabited since time immemorial and is literally saturated with legends and myths. It is here that the Tigris and Euphrates flow, whose sources, according to legend, were in the Garden of Eden, the legendary cultures of Mesopotamia and Parthia, Assyria and Sumer, Akkad and Persia were born here, Babylon roared here with its famous Hanging Gardens and the Tower of Babel, and the birthplace of Abraham was located - Ur of the Chaldeans, one of the oldest cities on the planet - Baghdad - still stands here, as well as the holy cities of Najaf and Karbala.

The rich history of the country, the unique historical, cultural, archaeological and religious monuments of Iraq have earned it the reputation of one of the most interesting places in Asia, which even the tragic events of the late 20th century could not prevent.

Banks and currency

New Iraqi dinar (NID, IQD), nominally equal to 20 dirhams and 1000 fils (in reality, these units are practically not used). There are banknotes in circulation in denominations of 25,000, 10,000, 5000, 1000, 500, 250 and 50 dirhams, as well as coins of 100 and 25 dirhams. The dirham exchange rate is quite unstable.

Banks are usually open from Saturday to Wednesday - from 08.00 to 12.30, on Thursdays - from 08.00 to 11.00. During Ramadan, banks close by 10:00.

Iraq's banking and financial infrastructure was virtually destroyed during the overthrow of the Hussein regime and currently is in the process of restoration. You can exchange currency for dinars and back only in markets or in specialized exchange shops.

Credit and debit cards are not accepted for payment. There are no ATMs. Cashing travel checks is also almost impossible (only 2 banks in Baghdad work with them, and the procedure itself is full of formalities and takes a lot of time).

Officially, foreign currency can be used in specialized duty-free shops in Baghdad, while a passport must be presented, and the amount of a one-time purchase should not exceed $200. However, in practice, US dollars, euros and the currencies of neighboring countries have almost unlimited circulation in Iraq (hotels, for example, usually require payment only in foreign currency).

Useful information for tourists

Due to the tense situation, the state is practically not visited by foreign tourists.

Have you decided to organize a holiday in Iraq? Search best hotels Iraq, last minute tours, resorts and last minute tours? Are you interested in the weather in Iraq, prices, cost of travel, do you need a visa to Iraq and would a detailed map be useful? Would you like to see what Iraq looks like in photos and videos? What excursions and attractions are there in Iraq? What are the stars and reviews of hotels in Iraq?

Iraq- a state in the Middle East, in the Mesopotamian lowland, in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. It borders on the southeast with Kuwait, on the south with Saudi Arabia, on the west with Jordan and Syria, on the north with Turkey, and Iran on the east. The territory of Iraq is washed by the waters of the Persian Gulf in the southeast of the country.

The northern region of Iraq - El Jazeera - occupies the Armenian Highlands, the height of which reaches 2135 m in the area of ​​​​the Turkish border. Further south lies the vast plain of the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys. In the far south of Iraq there is a swampy plain, and to the west of the Euphrates the valley opens into the Syrian Desert.

Airports of Serbia

Baghdad International Airport

Basra International Airport

Iraq hotels 1 - 5 stars

Iraq weather

The climate of Iraq is subtropical Mediterranean. The northern mountainous regions are characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, warm winters with rare frosts and frequent snowfalls. El Jazeera has dry, hot summers and mild, rainy winters. Lower Mesopotamia is characterized by hot summers and warm winters with rain and relatively high relative humidity. The southwestern region is characterized by dry, hot summers and cool winters with rare rains. Significant seasonal and diurnal temperature changes (sometimes reaching 30°C) have been recorded in many areas of Iraq. Average temperatures in July are 32-35° C, average temperatures in January are +10-13° C.

Precipitation falls mainly in winter (December - January), and there is little of it in the central and southern regions of the country: the average annual precipitation in Baghdad is 180 mm. As you move north, their number increases and amounts to about 300 mm on the plains and up to 500–800 mm in the mountains.

In the summer (May–June), northwesterly winds blow continuously, carrying masses of sand (dust storms), and in winter northeasterly winds predominate, especially strong in February.

Language of Iraq

Official language: Arabic and Kurdish

The most common language is Arabic, used in government and educational institutions. Kurdish, spoken in the north of the country, also has official status.

Currency of Iraq

International name: IQD

The Iraqi dinar is equal to 20 dirhams or 1000 fils (in reality, these units are practically not used). There are banknotes in circulation in denominations of 25,000, 10,000, 5000, 1000, 500, 250 and 50 dirhams, as well as coins of 100 and 25 dirhams.

Officially, foreign currency can be used in specialized duty-free shops in Baghdad, while a passport must be presented, and the amount of a one-time purchase should not exceed $200. However, in practice, US dollars, euros and the currencies of neighboring countries have almost unlimited circulation in Iraq (hotels, for example, usually require payment only in foreign currency).

You can exchange currency for dinars and back only in markets or in specialized exchange shops. Credit and debit cards are not accepted for payment. There are no ATMs. Cashing travel checks is also almost impossible.

Customs restrictions

The import and export of currency is limited and regulations change frequently, so it is recommended to check with your embassy before traveling. You are allowed to take your personal belongings, handicrafts and goods purchased in the country with you from the country. The export of any antiques (including gems, coins, manuscripts and other works of art) is prohibited. The transit of narcotic substances is prohibited and severely punished.

Import of animals

When importing pets, you must present an international veterinary certificate.

Mains voltage

Tips

Tips for service staff are 10% and are automatically added to the bill. In restaurants major cities tips are 10-15%; in provincial establishments additional payments are not required, but it is recommended to round the amount up.

When traveling by taxi, you should agree on the amount in advance, before getting into the car.

Kitchen

The main national dishes of Iraqi cuisine are pilaf made from lamb and rice, with raisins, figs and almonds, yakhni, wheat flatbread with sour milk. The most popular sweets are halva and candied fruits. The most common drinks are tea and coffee. Coffee is most often drunk without sugar, but saffron and nutmeg are added to it. They also drink sour milk diluted with water.

Purchases

You can bargain both in markets and in private stores and shops.

Office hours

Banks are usually open from Saturday to Wednesday - from 08.00 to 12.30, on Thursdays - from 08.00 to 11.00. During Ramadan, banks close by 10:00.

Shops are usually open from Saturday to Thursday from 08.30 to 13.00 and from 17.00 to 19.00, most markets are open only early in the morning and late in the evening.

Photo and video shooting

Photographing military installations and law enforcement officials is prohibited. Also, you should not take out a camera or video camera in mosques, in areas of large strategic sites (airports, bridges, etc.) or try to photograph local women. Men, if you ask their permission, take pictures with obvious pleasure.

Safety

The main danger in the country is mines, unexploded ordnance and explosive devices deliberately placed by terrorist groups along the routes of transport convoys and in the areas of markets, mosques and government buildings.

All water should be assessed as potentially contaminated and unfit for drinking.

Code of the country: +964

Geographic first level domain name:.iq

Medicine

Vaccination against diphtheria, hepatitis B, tuberculosis, tetanus, typhoid, malaria and rabies is recommended. A separate danger is posed by the pathogens of bilharzia (schistosomiasis), which are present in almost all fresh water bodies of the country - swimming in them is not recommended. Persons entering the country for a period of more than 14 days, with the exception of diplomats and pilgrims, are required to undergo a medical examination for AIDS within 5 days (free of charge).

Emergency numbers

Each locality uses its own phone numbers rescue services.

Iraq, the official name is the Republic of Iraq, is a state in the Middle East, in the Mesopotamian lowland, in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

Capital: Baghdad
Currency: Iraqi Dinar
Official languages: Arabic language, Kurdish languages.

Form of government:
Federal Republic, Parliamentary Republic, Republic, Parliamentary Republic

Official languages:
Arabic language, Kurdish languages

This state is officially called the Republic of Iraq (Iraq). It is located in the Middle East, in the valley of two large rivers, known to everyone from school - the Tigris and Euphrates. The capital of Iraq is the city of Baghdad.

Currency :
The currency of Iraq is the Iraqi dinar. Today its exchange rate to the dollar is very low.

Official language :
Iraq: communication and official languages ​​are Arabic and Kurdish.

Flag :
The flag of Iraq is a rectangular panel consisting of three horizontal stripes. The top one is red, the middle one is white and the bottom one is black. On the white stripe is the inscription “Allah Akbar” (God is Great) in green.

Republic of Iraq is very ancient place. The first ancient state on the territory of Iraq arose around the 4th millennium BC. and was called the Sumerian kingdom. In the 3rd - mid-1st millennium BC, this territory was under the rule of Babylon and the Assyrian kingdom.

Modern Iraq is a Muslim state where the extractive sector of the economy is mainly well developed. Its coastal cities are also centers of international trade. Iraq is a state that has repeatedly experienced hard times turmoil and economic decline.

Iraq today is trying to follow a non-Muslim model of governance. Naturally, this causes the outbreak of many conflicts. Iraq is a country with strong vestiges of a patriarchal community, divided by religious intolerance between Shiites and Sunnis.

Main museums countries stand out for their rich collections of exhibits. relating to the history of ancient Mesopotamia.
The main museum city in Iraq is Baghdad. The Swords of Qadisiyah are worth a look here. The city of Mosul has a museum that contains many exhibits from the Assyrian period of history. Also worth seeing are the ruins of the last fortress gates of Baghdad, the former university of al-Mustansiriya, founded in 1232, the Abbasid palace, and the Mirdija mosque.

In the city of Najef there is the tomb of the cousin of the Prophet Muhammad himself. This is one of the shrines of the Shiites. The city of Babylon (Iraq) has preserved some of its medieval buildings.

Before the arrival of the Americans, tours to Iraq were quite accessible to Russians.

National cuisine of the country Iraq:
Traditional Iraqi cuisine is dominated by wheat and barley flatbreads, dates, rice, vegetables, and sour milk.
Sometimes fish dishes are prepared here. However, fish is much more expensive than meat, and meat is cooked on holidays.
Iraqi cooking has absorbed not only the art of the ancient inhabitants of this area, but also the traditions of many nomadic tribes. At the beginning of the meal, kebabs, egg dishes, flatbreads and fermented milk products are usually served.

This is followed by soup and a main course, most often using meat and rice, then dessert. They eat any meat except pork for religious reasons. In Iraq they drink tea, coffee, and as an alcoholic drink, arak aniseed vodka.

Weather conditions in Iraq:
The weather in Iraq is typical of a continental climate. In the north, snow falls in the mountains in winter. In the central part, summers are hot and long.

Temperatures in Baghdad in January average 9 °C, and in July - about 33 °C. The hottest and humid climate- on South. The most precipitation is in the northern regions of Iraq.

Administrative divisions of the country Iraq:
Iraq is divided into 18 provinces: Baghdad, Salah al-Din, Diyala, Wasit, Maysan, Basra, Dhi Qar, Muthanna, Qadisiyah, Babil, Karbala, Najaf, Anbar, Ninewa, Dahuk, Erbil, Tamim, Sulaymaniyah.

Resorts and tourist places in Iraq:
Holidays in Iraq, as we have already mentioned, are not the safest and most comfortable option for spending time. Nevertheless, a certain percentage people regularly visit Iraq for one purpose or another - mainly on the basis of religious tourism or pilgrimage. Many hotels in Iraq were destroyed or ceased to function during the war, and are currently being restored.

Sights of Iraq:
Due to the almost complete lack of tourist infrastructure, excursions in Iraq are quite difficult to find, but they are still possible. The territory of present-day Iraq is one of the cradles of modern civilization. Baghdad, the capital of Iraq, was once one of the richest cities on the planet.

Today, much of its former splendor lies in ruins. However, even the tragic events of recent years did not prevent Iraq from becoming one of the most interesting places in Asia and throughout the world from an archaeological and cultural point of view.

A tour to Iraq is the choice of those people who are ready, despite the inconvenience and risk, to go on a journey to the ancient culture and ruins of ancient cities.

Tips for tourists in Iraq:
If you do manage to get a visa, be extremely careful during your trip, since the situation in Iraq at the moment is not the most favorable. When you rent a car, be prepared to stand in long traffic jams due to frequent checks and searches of cars.

Plastic cards are not accepted almost anywhere in Iraq - the banking system is just being restored after the last war.

VISA

A visa to Iraq is required since there is a visa regime for citizens of Ukraine.

Required documents:

• Questionnaire.
• 2 photographs (for women under 30 years old, a headscarf is required).
• A valid passport (must be valid for at least 6 months from the date of departure from Iraq).
• Invitation from the host party.

Registration deadline – about 7 working days.

Registration cost – about 50 US dollars - tourist visa; about 60 US dollars - single-entry visa; about 150 US dollars - multiple entry visa.

Features of the Iraq visa:
Before starting the trip, citizens of Ukraine must submit a request to the Iraqi Ministry of Internal Affairs to obtain permission to enter the country.

If you have an Israeli mark in your passport, then entry into the country is prohibited.

Iraqi Kurdistan is a de facto independent state with a Kurdish majority, located in northern Iraq, bordering Turkey and Iran. When entering the territory of Kurdistan, an Iraqi visa is not officially required. A temporary visa, giving the right to stay in Kurdistan for 2 months, can be obtained directly at Erbil airport, or at the border crossing from Turkey. To do this, you must have a valid passport and pay a visa fee of $20 - $50 (the fee amount changes frequently). With this temporary visa you can enter the territory of Iraq itself, but there may be some difficulties with representatives central authorities countries that periodically restrict entry (they do not have the legal right to do this). If you are in the country on a temporary visa for more than 10 days, you must register with the local police department.