Fyodor Alexandrovich Bredikhin (1831-1904)
Fedor Aleksandrovich Bredikhin is widely known throughout the world as one of major astronomers XIX century, primarily as the creator of the theory of cometary forms and the theory of origin meteor showers from comets. However, the honorable place occupied by F. A. Bredikhin in the history of Russian science is associated not only with the remarkable fruits of his scientific activity, but also with that outstanding role, which he played in the development of all Russian astronomy, reorganizing the Pulkovo Observatory.
Fedor Aleksandrovich Bredikhin was born on December 8, 1831 in Nikolaev. His father, Alexander Fedorovich, was a sailor Black Sea Flotilla and participated in the Turkish campaign of 1827-1829. A year before the birth of his son, he retired with the rank of lieutenant commander. Fyodor Alexandrovich's mother, Antonida Ivanovna, was the sister of Admiral Rogul, the second commandant of Sevastopol during his heroic defense.
F. A. Bredikhin spent his childhood on his parents’ estate in the Kherson province. Here his teacher was Z. S. Sokolovsky, a retired director of the Kherson gymnasium, a mathematician, an excellent teacher who instilled in his student respect and love for science. In 1845, fourteen-year-old F. A. Bredikhin was placed in a boarding school at the Richelieu Lyceum in Odessa, and in 1849 he became a student at the lyceum. But the lyceum did not satisfy him, and in 1851, he transferred to Moscow University to the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics, from which he graduated in 1855. At the university, at first he was interested mainly in physics and intended to subsequently enter the navy or artillery. But on last year he took part in the work of the astronomical observatory, and then his vocation was determined.
Two years after graduating from the university, F.A. Bredikhin, without interrupting his work at the observatory, passed his master's exams and was appointed acting adjunct in the department of astronomy. His first scientific work, published in 1861, was titled: “A few words about comet tails.” This work was the harbinger of the main direction of his scientific activity.
In 1862, F. A. Bredikhin defended his master's thesis “On the tails of comets” and soon began to serve as an extraordinary professor. Three years later, he received his doctorate for his dissertation “Perturbations of comets independent of planetary attractions” and became an ordinary professor.
During the 60s and 70s, teaching astronomy at Moscow University was conducted mainly by F.A. Bredikhin. He had an exceptionally bright lecturing talent, which manifested itself both in his university lectures, which attracted large audiences of students different faculties, and in popular lectures that enjoyed great success. One of his listeners (B.A. Shchetinin) writes in his memoirs: “I remember Bredikhin’s lecture made a very strong impression on me. short stature a man, extremely active and nervous, with a sharp, piercing gaze of greenish-gray eyes, somehow immediately electrified the listener and attracted all attention to himself. His enchanting lecturing talent was in full swing, now scattering with sparkles of sparkling wit, now captivating with tender lyricism, now captivating with the beauty of poetic metaphors and comparisons, now striking with powerful logic and bottomless depth of scientific erudition.”
Public lectures in the auditorium of the Polytechnic Museum, speeches at annual acts of the university, popular articles published in various magazines brought F. A. Bredikhin wide fame even before he became famous for his scientific research.
However, later, by the end of the 80s, F. A. Bredikhin greatly lost interest in both university and public lectures. In an effort to quickly return to the observatory for scientific work, he shortened his reading time and even skipped lectures altogether, especially during periods of greatest enthusiasm for any research.
In 1867, F.A. Bredikhin received a business trip abroad and went to Italy for a year. There he became acquainted with the then new field of application of spectroscopy to the study of celestial bodies and, in addition, with enthusiasm, as he did everything, he began to study Italian literature, even translating into verse the works of some authors. He translated the tragedies "Virginia" by Alfieri (published in the "Bulletin of Europe" in 1871), "The Duke of Milan" (published in the magazine "Krugozor") and "Francesca da Rimini" by Silvio Pellico.
In the summer of 1869, F.A. Bredikhin was transferred as a professor of astronomy to Kyiv University. But after two months he asked to be transferred back to Moscow: “The consciousness that the connection with Moscow and Moscow University, which I served 12 best years my life, torn apart for me, is so unbearably hard that, staying here, I will hardly be capable of further professorial activity... I am only consoled by the thought that perhaps the opportunity to return to the environment of my recent comrades has not yet been lost..." The request was granted, and in the same year F. A. Bredikhin returned to Moscow. He again took an active part in the life of the university and, in particular, in the revision of its charter. three years(1873-1876) he. was the dean of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics.
In 1873, the director of the Moscow Observatory B. Ya. Schweitzer died and F. A. Bredikhin was appointed in his place. Under the leadership of F.A. Bredikhin, the activities of the Moscow Observatory are completely transformed. The astrometric direction of the observatory's work is being replaced - for the first time in Russia - by a clearly defined astrophysical direction. Spectroscopic and photographic equipment is replenished and regular spectral observations of the Sun begin, and then its photography; spectra of comets and nebulae are studied and measured with a micrometer star clusters, the surfaces of Mars and Jupiter are sketched, a technique for photometric observations of stars is developed, solar and lunar eclipses. Many of these observations are carried out personally by the energetic new director himself.
The famous Russian astronomer A. A. Belopolsky in a speech, dedicated to memory F. A. Bredikhina, at a meeting of the Academy of Sciences (1904) in the following words characterized this side of F.A. Bredikhin’s activity: “When he was director of the Moscow University Astronomical Observatory, he zealously engaged in observations (1873-1890). He made a lot of observations using various instruments. Observations of prominences should be considered especially valuable and remarkable at that time on the Sun using a spectroscope. At that time, only very few scientists did this, and Fyodor Aleksandrovich carried out his observations with remarkable persistence during the entire eleven-year period of sunspot activity on the Sun. There, in Moscow, he made the most difficult spectroscopic observations at that time. its measurements spectral lines comets and gaseous nebulae exceeded all then known measurements in accuracy."
Having assumed the post of director, F. A. Bredikhin immediately began publishing the “Annals of the Moscow Observatory” and over 17 years he published 12 volumes, almost 40 printed sheets every. The “Annals” were compiled with the participation of only two or three assistants and two-thirds were filled with F. A. Bredikhin’s own research.
During this Moscow period of F.A. Bredikhin’s activity - the most productive period of his life - the characteristic features of his nature were fully revealed: the need for vigorous activity, a great passion for work - a passion with which he infected his students and employees, a love of communicating with young people . Academician A. A. Belopolsky said in his speech: “He directly charmed his students with his personality, his wit, cheerful and lively conversation, subtle observation and extraordinary simplicity of address: in a conversation with him, his high scientific and social position was forgotten. I still I have been remembering my time at the observatory in Moscow in his company, in his family, as the most joyful time in my life. There, for the first time after university, I understood what it means to work inspired by an idea, persistent, systematic work. , what's happened scientific interest. Fyodor Alexandrovich infected with his scientific activity, with his example, and this was a true school, a true university for a beginner."
Along with versatile astrophysical observations, management of the observatory's activities and university lectures, F. A. Bredikhin continued and deepened his research on comets. The idea expressed by Kepler that the formation of a comet's tail is due to the repulsive effect of the Sun on the matter forming the tail was put into practice by Bessel in 1835. mathematical form. At the beginning of his research, in the 60s, F.A. Bredikhin used (in a corrected form) approximate Bessel formulas.
With their help, he studies the initial speeds with which matter pours out of the nucleus when the comet approaches the Sun, and determines the repulsive force of the Sun, which causes this matter, having first escaped towards the Sun, to bend and then rush away from it. Dozens of comets are being studied one after another - all for which suitable observations can be found in various scientific journals and the works of observatories.
Considering the gradually accumulating material, F.A. Bredikhin in 1876 suggested that between initial speed the emission of particles and the magnitude of the repulsive force of the Sun there is some relationship and that all comets are divided into three groups according to the magnitude of the repulsive force of the Sun acting on the matter in their tails. By 1878, this assumption turned into certainty, and from then on a new stage of research began. Approximate Bessel formulas, the insufficiency of which had already been revealed earlier, were replaced strict formulas hyperbolic motion and carried out more accurate quantitative research comet tails. These studies revealed the following picture.
Some comets - for example, the bright comets of 1811, 1843, 1874 - had straight tails pointing almost directly from the Sun, only slightly deviating to the side, reverse movement comets. F.L. Bredikhin calculated that the particles forming these tails, which he called type I tails, are acted upon by the repulsive force of the Sun, which is 12 times greater than the Newtonian attraction. Later, he increased this figure to 18 and, in addition, he encountered cloud formations that moved in similar tails under the influence of forces several tens of times greater than gravity. (Cases of repulsive forces that are thousands of times greater than attraction are now known.)
Other comets, such as Comet Donati of 1858, had wide tails curved into a horn. In these tails, called type II tails by F.A. Bredikhin, the repulsive force varies from 2.2 at one edge to 0.5 at the other.
Finally, there are tails of another type - usually short, weak and very strongly deflected back from the straight line connecting the comet with the Sun. F.A. Bredikhin called them tails III type, the particles of these tails are affected by repulsive forces not exceeding 0.3 of the Newtonian force of attraction.
Thus, in type III tails and at one edge of type II tails, particles move under the influence of weakened attraction, and their paths relative to the Sun are hyperbolas, concavity facing it. But in type I tails and at the other edge of type II tails, repulsion prevails over attraction, and therefore the particles move along hyperbolic paths, convex to the Sun.
Among bright comets, which were mainly studied by F.A. Bredikhin, tails of types I and II are found approximately equally often, and tails of type III are 1 1/2 times less common. Moreover, many of the bright comets simultaneously had tails different types. This was consistent with physical explanation division of tails into three types, put forward by F.A. Bredikhin back in 1879.
Considering all tails to be gas and accepting electrical origin repulsive forces, he suggested that these forces should be inversely proportional to molecular weight, and, therefore, tails of different types should differ from each other in chemical composition. Assuming that type I tailings contain the lightest element, hydrogen, it could be concluded that type II tailings consist of hydrocarbons, metalloids and light metals, and type III tailings consist of heavy metals. At that time, these predictions were extremely bold, since then in the spectrum of comets, in addition to the continuous spectrum of the Sun, only three bands of the Swan spectrum were observed, which were attributed to hydrocarbons (as is now known, it actually belongs to the carbon molecule C 2). But three years later, F.A. Bredikhin himself and other astronomers noticed a yellow sodium line in the spectrum of the first comet of 1882, and a little later in the spectrum of the second comet of 1882, at the moment of its closest approximation towards the Sun, iron lines have been recorded.
F.A. Bredikhin's assumption about the hydrogen composition of type I tails was not confirmed - they turned out to consist of ionized molecules of carbon monoxide (CO+) and nitrogen (N2+). It turned out that along with gas tails, there are also dust tails (type III tails). But, nevertheless, the division of cometary tails into three types, given by F.A. Bredikhin, has passed all the tests of time, and, supplemented and refined, it still remains the basis for the classification of cometary forms. A study of many comets, not only bright, but also faint, has shown that type I tails are most common, and type III tails, on the contrary, are a very rare phenomenon.
New formulas introduced by F.A. Bredikhin to study the movement of particles ejected from the comet's nucleus made it possible not only to clarify the data related to cometary tails, but also to explain complex and incomprehensible phenomena observed in some comets. The simple mechanical assumptions underlying these formulas made it possible to easily and clearly explain the wavy outlines of the tail, the transverse stripes in the tail, and the movement of cloud masses in the tail.
F.A. Bredikhin's research created a mechanical theory of cometary forms, which has retained all its significance to this day, gradually enriching itself with physical content as our knowledge about the nature of the phenomena occurring in comets grows.
In 1889, F.A. Bredikhin put forward a hypothesis about the formation of periodic comets by separating parts from the parent comet moving in an almost parabolic orbit. This hypothesis explained the existence of so-called comet families - groups of comets with remarkably similar orbital elements.
Studying all the details of the structure of comets, F.A. Bredikhin drew attention to the so-called anomalous tails - small appendages at the head, directed towards the Sun, found in some comets. He realized that they consist of larger particles that are practically not repelled by the Sun and therefore move relative to the Sun in almost the same way as the nucleus of a comet moves. The difference is due only to the small additional speed with which the particles of the anomalous tail left the comet's nucleus.
These considerations allowed F.A. Bredikhin to develop his famous theory origin of falling stars (meteors), which some astronomers even put to him great credit than the mechanical theory of cometary forms. The Italian astronomer Schiaparelli, who twenty years earlier had established, based on observations, the close relationship of comets and meteor showers, explained the formation of a meteor shower by the gradual disintegration of a periodic comet. F.A. Bredikhin showed that comets moving in orbits close to parabolic can form meteor showers. Among the large particles released from the core and forming an anomalous tail, there are those that have a speed relative to the Sun slightly greater than the speed of the core, therefore, greater than the parabolic speed. These particles will leave the solar system forever, moving in hyperbolic orbits. But there are also particles (there are especially many of them after the comet passes through the perihelion - the point of the orbit closest to the Sun) whose speed is less than parabolic; these particles will begin to orbit the Sun in elliptical orbits. If the orbits of a swarm of particles formed In a similar way, cross the Earth’s orbit, then every year, when the Earth passes through the meeting point, swarm particles will crash into its atmosphere at enormous speeds, giving an instant flash of “shooting stars” - meteors.
The theory of the formation of periodic comets and the theory of the origin of meteors complete the Moscow period of F. A. Bredikhin’s activity. Works of this period, published both in the Annals of the Moscow Observatory and in other Russian and foreign scientific publications, brought to F.A. Bredikhin world fame and recognition. In 1877 he was elected corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences. This was followed by his election as an honorary member of almost all Russian scientific societies related to astronomy or mathematics. He was especially closely associated with the Moscow Society of Natural Scientists, of which he was a member from 1862 and its president from 1886 to 1890. He was one of the founding members of the Moscow Mathematical Society (it was organized in 1864). After moving to St. Petersburg in 1890, he became the first president of the then organized Russian Astronomical Society.
In 1883 he was elected a member of the Leopoldino-Carolinian Academy in Germany; in 1884 - an honorary member of the Royal Astronomical Society in London and the Liverpool Astronomical Society; in 1889 - corresponding member of the Italian Society of Spectroscopists, as well as the Mathematical and Natural Science Society in Cherbourg. In 1892, the University of Padua awarded F. A. Bredikhin an honorary doctorate, and in 1894 he was elected a corresponding member of the Bureau of Longitudes in Paris.
It should be noted that F.A. Bredikhin almost never traveled abroad and therefore had almost no personal acquaintances there; he was known for his scientific works.
In 1890, F.A. Bredikhin was elected a member of our Academy of Sciences and appointed director of the Pulkovo Observatory. Despite the flattery of this appointment, F. A. Bredikhin reluctantly left the Moscow Observatory, with which he became so close. But, having moved to Pulkovo, he immediately acted as an energetic reformer; this time these transformations concerned not only the scientific activities of the observatory, but also its public face. At that time, the Pulkovo Observatory, which had long since gained world fame for its scientific works, had weak connection with Russian universities and Russian science. The staff of the observatory consisted mainly of foreigners, and there was an unhealthy isolation and reluctance to replenish its staff with Russian young forces.
The goals that F.A. Bredikhin set for himself in the fight against these traditions are reflected in his very first report (1891): “When I first took over the management of the observatory, it was an immutable truth for me that the theoretically educated students of all Russian universities, feeling and those who have declared their calling to astronomy should be given, to the extent possible, free access to every practical improvement in this science, and then to occupying all scientific positions at the observatory. Only in this way can the Pulkovo Observatory form a sufficient contingent of its own to replace retiring figures. on the other hand, and only in this way can Russian universities always have candidates so knowledgeable and experienced in practical astronomy that, upon achieving academic degrees, with full hope of success, they can be entrusted with both the teaching of astronomy and the management of university observatories."
According to the charter of the Pulkovo Observatory, its director was required to support live connection with Russian and foreign observatories. Therefore, in 1892, F.A. Bredikhin went abroad and visited observatories in Berlin, Potsdam, Paris, Meudon and Grinich. But the major innovation, which was of great importance in the development of Russian astronomy, was that before that he toured almost all Russian observatories, visiting Moscow, Kharkov, Nikolaev, Odessa, Kyiv and Warsaw. Familiarization with the needs of these observatories allowed F.A. Bredikhin to further assist in replenishing their equipment. But much more important was the uplift in spirit that the venerable scientist’s visit to these observatories caused among the astronomers, and the trips to Pulkovo that followed. These were not short return visits, but long stays with purely scientific purposes; For some of the guests, these visits to Pulkova ended with them moving there to permanent work. At the same time, F.A. Bredikhin, in violation of traditions, began to allow supernumerary astronomers not only to computationally process other people’s observations, but also to independent work on all observatory instruments.
S.K. Kostinsky, a student and long-term employee of F.A. Bredikhin, wrote (1904): “Having a wide scientific view, he was clearly aware that all our theories based on observations must be constantly verified by similar observations, that when engaged in theoretical calculations in astronomy, we must tirelessly direct our gaze to the sky (both figuratively and literally!) and that only a harmonious combination of practice and theory can lead us along the right way the evolution of our science, as its entire history clearly shows. Fyodor Aleksandrovich often said that “it is impossible to reduce all astronomy to just calculations or to turning old formulas in a new way” and that “he is not an astronomer who does not know how to observe for himself!”, because such a person could not even be critical of that the material that he uses as the basis for his calculations and theoretical considerations. And where there is no strict and impartial criticism, there is no science!”
The attraction of new Russian astronomers to Pulkovo, the systematic development of astrophysical research, concern for the financial situation of employees, a sincere desire to develop public spirit and unanimity - all this led to a complete change in the scientific and public face of the Pulkovo Observatory.
An excellent assessment of the activities of F. A. Bredikhin in Pulkovo was given by A. A. Belopolsky: “As a truly Russian person, with remarkable energy for his time, one might say against the grain, he defended scientific national identity; he tried in every possible way to instill it in his closest students; As much as he was modest and demanded reasonable scientific modesty from his students, he was just as much an enemy of unfair humiliation before the West among the Russian people.
This trait was especially noticeable during short-term management Pulkovo Observatory: we must admit that the uplift in spirit of all his employees at that time was absolutely extraordinary, and if you look from the point of view of the history of the development of science in Russia, then you should credit F. A. Bredikhin with deep gratitude for what was said as one of his major services to the fatherland." .
F.A. Bredikhin no longer observed in Pulkovo, but continued theoretical studies of comets and meteor showers. However, extensive administrative activity not only interfered with scientific research, but also affected the health of the scientist, who was already in his seventh decade. Confident that his ideas and reforms were already firmly established at the Pulkovo Observatory, F. A. Bredikhin resigned as its director at the beginning of 1895 and moved to St. Petersburg.
Photographic observations of comets that began in late XIX v., delivered to him new material, which confirmed his theory of cometary forms. He continues his research on meteors. From under his pen come one after another science articles, which are published mainly in publications of the Academy of Sciences - an institution in which he was one of the most active members ( total number scientific articles published by F. A. Bredikhin exceed 150).
The love of communicating with people does not fade in the heart of the elderly scientist, and long scientific conversations and lively debates continue to take place at his table. Students and employees turn to him for advice on scientific and personal matters and always receive a friendly response and assistance.
In 1902, F.A. Bredikhin established a prize at the Moscow Observatory for an essay that “should present in proper system and completeness the results obtained by Academician Bredikhin in his mechanical studies of cometary forms.” This work was written under the supervision of Bredikhin himself by the young Moscow astronomer R. Yegerman, and in 1903 the voluminous volume "Prof. Dr. Th. Bredichin"s mechanische Untersuchungen über Cometenformen was published. In systematischer Darstellung von R. Jaegermann.
In the same year, all articles on meteors were revised by the authors and, with minor amendments, reprinted together under the title "Etudes sur l" origine des meteores cosmiques et la formation de leurs courants ".
In early May 1904, F.A. Bredikhin caught a cold at a meeting of the Academy of Sciences and on May 14, 1904, died quietly from cardiac paralysis. He was then 73 years old. The day before his death, he continued to be interested in the movement of the telescopic comet that had appeared at that time.
On May 16, members of the Academy of Sciences and Pulkovo astronomers honorably escorted the ashes of F.A. Bredikhin to the Moscow station, and on May 20 he was buried in the family crypt in the Pogost estate near Kineshma.
The works of F. A. Bredikhin are a precious treasure of astronomical science.
As Prof. said in his funeral speech. V.K. Tserasky, his successor as director of the Moscow Observatory, “every time a celestial wanderer descends to us from the bottomless depths of the starry vault, a huge circle of people will repeat the name of Bredikhin.”
The most important works of F. A. Bredikhin: On the tails of comets (master's thesis, 1862), M.-L., 1934; Recherches sur les queues des cometes, "Annals of the Moscow Observatory", 1879-80, vol. V, VI, VII; Sur l "origine des cometes periodiques, in the same place, 1890, 2nd series, vol. I; Sur I" origine des etoiles filantes, in the same place; Prof. Th. Bredichin"s mechanische Untersuchungen übeg Cometenformen. In systematischer Darstellung von R. Jaegermann, St. Petersburg, 1903; Etudes sur l"origine des meteores cosmiques et la formation de leurs courants, 1903.
About F. A. Bredikhin:Kostinsky S.K., F. A. Bredikhin (Essay on life and work), "Russian astronomical calendar for 1905"; Pokrovsky K. D., F. A. Bredikhin. Biographical sketch(in the book by F.A. Bredikhin “On the tails of comets”, M. - L., 1934); Orlov S. V., To the centenary of the birth of F. A. Bredikhin, "World Studies", 1931, No. 3-4.
“Starry Sky” - The age of the Earth is approximately 4.5 billion years. Light from the Sun reaches the Earth in 8.5 minutes. Assignment for young astronomers. The earth is the habitat of man. Ancient Greek legend. Earth is the third planet from the Sun solar system. Planets. The stars in the sky are grouped. Shells of the Earth. Stars on the sky. A legend has come down to us from the ancient Greeks.
“The first cosmonauts” - Yu. Gagarin and his parents. March 9, 1934 in the village of Klushino ( Smolensk region) Yu.A. Gagarin was born. Gagarin is a cadet of the Saratov flying club. Yuri Gagarin's landing site. Gagarin Yuri Alekseevich (1934–1968) - Soviet pilot-cosmonaut. Yu. Gagarin and V. Tereshkova. Yu. Gagarin and S.P. Korolev. April 12, 1961 Yu.A. Gagarin on spaceship Vostok made the first space flight.
“Yuri Gagarin” - Graduated from school in 1951 working youth. Gagarin did a lot of social and political work. In February 1968 he graduated with honors from the Air Force Academy. N.E. Zhukovsky in Moscow. Gagarin took his first steps in aviation as a technical school student. Yuri studied at the Saratov flying club. Since 1966 - honorary member International Academy in Astronautics and Space Research.
“Minor Planets” - Temperature and surface topography of Mercury. Earth. On Phobos largest crater Stickney has a diameter of 10 km. Surface of the Moon. The distance of Mercury from the Earth is from 82 to 217 million km. Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars. Surface of Venus. Mercury. Atmosphere and water on Mars. Venus. Figure of Venus. Above the surface of the Earth.
“Cosmonauts” - Monument to Yu.A. Gagarin. Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin. 1988 - Manarov, A. Solovyov. Total starts - 210. 1980 - Kizim, Malyshev, Popov, Strekalov. Significant dates. A set of products for astronauts. Pilots - cosmonauts of the USSR. 1991 - Artsebarsky, Aubakirov, Afanasyev, Manakov. Soyuz launch vehicle with a transport ship.
> Fedor Bredikhin
Biography of Fyodor Bredikhin (1831-1904)
Short biography:
Education: University of Moscow
Place of Birth: Nikolaev city, Kherson province, Russian empire
A place of death: St. Petersburg, Russian Empire
– Russian astronomer: biography with photos, discoveries and contributions to astronomy, founder of Russian astrophysics, solar prominences, comets and Jupiter’s spot.
Fedor Alexandrovich Bredikhin(1831 - 1904) can be called, without exaggeration, the founder of Russian astrophysics. This is a branch of astronomy that studies physical properties and the composition of celestial bodies. Despite the fact that since Peter I came to rule the state in Russia, some observations of celestial bodies have been carried out, but astrophysics has not yet existed as a full-fledged science.
The first years of his activity he worked at the Moscow Observatory. It is to this institution that Russian astrophysics owes its existence.
The foundation of the Moscow Observatory dates back to 1831. It was built in the “three mountains” area near the Presnenskaya outpost, which at that time was the outskirts of the city and a sparsely populated area. The observatory had the most modern astronomical instruments at that time, for example, a four-inch telescope equipped with all the necessary devices. In 1859 it was replaced by a ten-inch refractor.
Eleven years later, having started work in 1859, Bredikhin very persistently and diligently every day with clear weather conditions conducted observations of the Sun, making sketches of huge emissions of hot gas (prominences) above its surface. Great value had observations carried out by him over the surfaces of Mars and Jupiter. The scientist devoted a lot of time to studying the well-known “red spot” in the atmospheric layers of Jupiter, the nature of which is still unknown.
Bredikhin's scientific works, based on many years of study of comets, were recognized by his colleagues all over the world. In those days, comets were carefully studied. They were considered "tailed stars" moving in a certain orbit around the Sun. Due to the fact that their orbits are very elongated ellipses of enormous extent, the period of their revolution around the star can be thousands and even tens of thousands of years.
The comet has a significantly rarefied head, tail and solid core, which, as it approaches the Sun, begins to release particles of matter from which the tail is formed. At that time, it was also known that these particles were affected by two forces: attraction to the enormous mass of the Sun and repulsion, the nature of which had not yet been studied. Although by that time scientists had accumulated a lot of materials on observations of the nature of comets, they needed processing and generalization. There was no theory that would explain the origin of comets and the essence of the phenomena observed in them.
During his years at the Moscow Observatory, Bredikhin carried out careful observations of 50 comets. While calculating and comparing the speed of movement of particles in the tails of comets and the magnitude of the repulsive force that comets experience when approaching the Sun, he noticed that despite the fairly large variety of tails of these celestial bodies, three types can be distinguished. In the first type of tails, the repulsive force produced by the Sun is many times (several tens) greater than the attractive force. These tails look like an almost straight line, directed in the opposite direction to the star in a straight line, which connects the Sun and the comet's nucleus.
The second type of tail corresponds to repulsion, which is 0.5 - 2.2 times more powerful than the force of solar attraction. They are characterized by the appearance of braids that have curvatures, facing in the direction opposite to the Sun and turned in the opposite direction relative to the movement of the comet.
The third type of comet, identified by Bredikhin, has short straight tails, significantly deviated from the straight line that connects the Sun and the comet nucleus. The repulsive force acting on such a tail is not much greater than the force of attraction.
Although at that time there was no precise information about the composition of a comet's tail, the scientist correctly assumed that the existence of different types of comet tails could be explained by differences in their composition.
In addition to the classification of comet tails, Bredikhin created and developed in detail a mechanical theory of the processes that occur in comets. It still forms the basis of cometary astronomy thanks to its precise explanation of the shapes of comets.
The nature of the repulsive forces affecting cometary tails became known when the outstanding Russian physicist P.N. Lebedev proved the implementation of pressure by rays of any light on the body illuminated by them. Thus, the repulsive force exerted on a comet's tail results from the pressure exerted by the sun's rays.
Bredikhin's scientific works, in which he studied the origin of meteors, also received recognition. These celestial bodies, which are called "shooting stars", are small solid particles falling from space into the atmosphere of our planet. When they come into contact with air, they become heated, emitting bright light, which causes their destruction. When small in size, they turn into dust without reaching the Earth's surface.
According to Bredikhin, meteors appear as a result of the disintegration of comets. While observing comets, he discovered that some of them had modified tails with cone-shaped protrusions located in the direction from the comet's nucleus towards the Sun. Investigating this phenomenon, the scientist suggested that they consist of a large amount of small solid formed by the disintegration of a comet's nucleus.
This assumption turned out to be correct - as it has been proven, when colliding with meteorites consisting of stones moving in space, the nuclei of comets disintegrate with the formation of a mass of small meteorites that accompany the comet as it moves in orbit.
The scientist’s works were recognized by scientists all over the world, and in 1877 he was elected a corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Then he was elected an honorary member of a number of foreign learned societies. After his election in 1890 full member Academy of Sciences of Russia F. A. Bredikhin received the post of director of the Pulkovo Observatory.
Having taken a high position, Bredikhin began to fight the predominance of foreigners in the country's scientific circles. Many responsible positions were occupied by foreigners, mainly Germans. F.A. reported on this. Bredikhin in a report for 1891 on the work of the Pulkovo Observatory headed by him. He argued that it was necessary to provide access to scientific studies at the observatory and the occupation of positions in it by graduates of Russian universities.
This idea was implemented by him at the beginning of his management of the observatory. For changing foreign representatives young talented domestic astronomers came. The most famous of them is Aristarkh Apollonovich Belopolsky.
Bredikhin launched extensive research in the field of astrophysics. The greatest attention was paid to the systematic observation of prominences and sunspots. New types of astrophysical equipment appeared at the observatory, for example, a stellar spectrograph, which allows one to study the composition of stars, and an astrograph, a telescope equipped with a camera, used to take photographs of celestial bodies.
During the short period of time leading the Pulkovo Observatory - five years, Bredikhin founded a fruitfully working astrophysical department at the institution, which is still active in our time. Over the last nine years of his life, the scientist was engaged in theoretical research, greatest attention focusing on cometary astronomy.
F. Bredikhin was always on cutting edge Russian science, promoting its development and prosperity and insisting on nurturing our own scientific personnel. He did not support various idealistic scientific movements, opposing them together with the outstanding Russian biologist Timiryazev, the world-famous physicist Stoletov, as well as many other Russian scientists.
Throughout his scientific career, Bredikhin created and published more than 150 scientific works, which are still of particular value for astronomy. Professor Tserasky, who held the position of director of the Moscow Observatory, spoke about this at the scientist’s funeral in 1904, arguing that every time a comet, a celestial wanderer, appears in the sky and watching it around the globe, people will remember the glorious name of the scientist.
Since ancient times, people have observed with the naked eye not only the Sun, planets and most bright stars, but also comets.
The unexpected appearance of comets with their bizarrely shaped tails violated the usual ideas about the “unchangeable” state of the sky and instilled fear in superstitious people who saw comets as harbingers of future disasters.
Even in ancient times, advanced scientists tried to explain the appearance of comets and unravel their nature. But a truly scientific revelation of the nature of comets, an explanation of the origin of comet tails and the bizarre diversity of their forms was achieved only in the second half of the 19th century. thanks to the works of the outstanding Russian astronomer F. A. Bredikhin (1831 - 1904). Fedor Aleksandrovich was the founder of astrophysics in our country. He was not only a wonderful scientist, but also a teacher of many Russian astronomers.
Bredikhin was born in Nikolaev. He came from a family that gave our country many brave sailors, and in his youth he himself intended to devote himself to service in the navy. But later, as a student at Moscow University, Fyodor Alexandrovich became seriously interested in astronomy. This interest especially intensified when he began to visit the Moscow Observatory.
After graduating from the university in 1855, Bredikhin devoted himself entirely to astronomy. In 1857 he was already a teacher, and from 1863 a professor of astronomy at Moscow University. He placed the teaching of astronomy at the oldest Russian university at a very high level. scientific level. Fyodor Alexandrovich was one of those advanced Russian scientists who not only developed science, but also took every possible care to disseminate scientific knowledge among the people. Being a brilliant lecturer, Bredikhin read public lectures about the achievements of astronomy. These lectures were a great success. In addition, Fyodor Alexandrovich wrote popular articles on astronomy in magazines.
In the 60s, Bredikhin began his remarkable studies of comets and continued them until last days life.
And it was previously noticed that the tails of comets are usually directed in the direction opposite to the Sun. From this, some scientists concluded that the tail material is “repelled” from the Sun under the influence of some force opposite to the force of gravity. This force began to be called repulsive, but its nature remained mysterious to scientists.
Fedor Aleksandrovich, through precise calculations, showed that in the formation of comet tails the repulsive force emanating from the Sun has crucial. According to the theory he developed, the tail of a comet is formed as it approaches the Sun. Under influence sun rays central part comets - the nucleus - heats up. Particles of matter ejected from the comet's nucleus are subject to repulsive force. If solar gravity attracts a particle of matter towards the Sun, then the pressure of the sun's rays incident on this particle pushes it away from the Sun. Moreover, for very small particles the force of light pressure exceeds the force of solar gravity. The ejected particles are “driven” away from the Sun, forming a comet’s tail, which often extends for millions, and sometimes for tens and hundreds of millions of kilometers.
In the first years of the 20th century. The great Russian physicist Pyotr Nikolaevich Lebedev, through brilliant experiments carried out in the laboratory, proved that in the world space, in addition to the force of gravity, the force of light pressure also acts. After the existence of light pressure on the solids and gases, light pressure was finally recognized as the force that plays decisive role in the formation of comet tails.
The shapes of comet tails are different: in some comets they are almost straight, in others they are strongly curved. Bredikhin's research has shown that the shape of the tail depends on the magnitude of the repulsive force. Fedor Aleksandrovich came to the conclusion that comets form tails of three types.
He classified the first type as tails formed under the influence of a repulsive force many times greater than the force of gravity - these tails are usually almost straight. Strongly curved tails are formed with a repulsive force approximately equal to the force of gravity or exceeding it by no more than 2-2.5 times. These are the second type of tails. And finally, tails of the third type are formed under the influence of a repulsive force, much less than the force of gravity. Therefore, they do not “run” from the Sun, but only deviate towards the Sun.
In his theory, Bredikhin associated the difference in the shapes of cometary tails with differences in their chemical composition. Fedor Aleksandrovich assumed that the lighter the particles of substances forming the tail, the greater the impact of the repulsive force on them. Therefore, he believed that tailings of the first type consist of the lightest gases, of the second type - of hydrocarbons and vapors of light metals and, perhaps, dust, and in the tailings of the third type there are heavy metals(in gaseous state) and possibly also dust. Later research spectra of comets generally confirmed these assumptions of Fedor Aleksandrovich.
Tirelessly engaged in the study of comets, Fedor Aleksandrovich Bredikhin continued his professorship at the university. From 1873 to 1890, as director of the Moscow Observatory, he directed the activities of the observatory along the then new path of astrophysical research. Thanks to the works of Bredikhin and his closest students and collaborators - who became major scientists - the Moscow Observatory has gained worldwide fame over the years.
Among the main scientific achievements Bredikhin also included his theory of the formation of meteor showers. He considered these streams as the result of the disintegration of comets.
Fyodor Aleksandrovich also put forward a hypothesis of the origin periodic comets. He believed that they were formed by separating parts from the parent comet. This hypothesis made it possible to explain the existence of so-called “families of comets,” that is, groups of comets with very similar orbits.
Bredikhin worked fruitfully in other areas of astronomy. He organized and conducted spectral observations of the Sun - then this was a completely new thing.
For many years he was engaged in observations of the giant planet Jupiter and the mysterious red spot on its surface.
In 1890, Fyodor Alexandrovich was elected academician and appointed director of the Pulkovo Observatory. Bredikhin expanded the range of astrophysical research and strengthened the staff of the observatory by attracting talented young scientists from various Russian universities. Love for youth and faith in their creative powers have always been characteristic features Bredikhina. He willingly entrusted young scientists with the development of responsible scientific topics, giving them the opportunity to embark on an independent path of exploration. He provided all kinds of assistance to other domestic observatories and individual scientists.
In 1895, Fyodor Alexandrovich left the leadership of the Pulkovo Observatory. But also in last years throughout his life he continued to study science. He worked on the theory of cometary forms until the end of his life. Further development Bredikhin's theory has received over the past decades in the works of Soviet scientists, especially S.V. Orlov.
These studies shed light on many questions about the nature of comets. S.V. Orlov was able to establish that the sizes and masses of comet nuclei are very insignificant (diameters hard kernels comets are hundreds of meters or several kilometers long, and their masses are billions and trillions of times less than the mass of the Earth).
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Russian astronomer, academician. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1890). R. in Nikolaev. He graduated from Moscow University in 1855 and was retained there to prepare for a professorship. In 1857 he began working at Moscow University. In 1868-1869 he was on a scientific trip to Italy, where he became acquainted with the work of the Italian Society of Spectroscopists. In 1873-1890 - director of the Moscow University Observatory, in 1890-1895 - director of the Pulkovo Observatory.
Scientific research Bredikhin cover many branches of astronomy. He carried out a number of observations on the meridian circle, made micrometric measurements of the positions of minor planets, investigated the errors of the micrometer screw and the so-called personal errors observer. Bredikhin is the founder of the Moscow astrophysical school. With his direct participation, the systematic observations the chromosphere of the Sun with a prominence spectroscope, photographing sunspots and faculae, studying the surface of the Moon, Mars and Jupiter. In 1875, following W. Hoggins, he began studying the chemical composition of emitting gas nebulae. He also made significant contributions to instrumental optics and gravimetry. However, the main direction of his research was the study of comets (begun in 1861). He developed and improved Bessel's theory of cometary forms, created a mechanical theory of cometary forms, which made it possible to describe the movement of matter not only near the head, but also in the tail of the comet. This theory was based on the position that comet tails consist of particles that fly out from the comet's nucleus in the direction of the Sun and then begin to move away from the Sun under the influence of its repulsive forces. Having determined the accelerations of several dozen cometary tails, Bredikhin in 1877 created a classification of tail shapes, according to which they are divided into three main types. In 1884 he identified the fourth type (anomalous). Bredikhin's classification of cometary tails is still accepted today. Based on his theory of cometary forms, Bredikhin made a number of conclusions about the chemical composition of the tails of various comets, but they were not confirmed. He was one of the first to study the spectra of comet heads. Developed and expanded the advanced J.V. Schiaparelli the theory of the formation of meteor showers as a result of the disintegration of comet nuclei. He summarized his research in the works “Studies on the origin of cosmic meteors and the formation of their streams” (1903), “On the tails of comets” (2nd ed. 1934). Great importance Bredikhin's activities as director of the Pulkovo Observatory contributed to the development of domestic astronomy. He opened the doors of the observatory wide for Russian astronomers. He did a lot of social work.
President of the Society of Natural Scientists (1886-1890), member of the German Academy of Naturalists "Leopoldina" (1883), Italian Society of Spectroscopists (1889), member of the Bureau of Longitudes in Paris (1894) and other scientific societies.