The functional-semantic type of speech is considered as a universal typological unit of text, distinguished on the basis various signs(communicative-pragmatic, logical-semantic, structural-semantic). IN scientific literature such semantic types are distinguished as description, narration, definition of a concept, reasoning, proof, message (E. I. Motina); description, narration, reasoning, explanation (A. A. Weise);
description, narration, reasoning, proof and generalization - formulation (M. N. Kozhina); description, narration, reasoning (O. A. Nechaeva). In addition, in other works one can find a refutation, conclusion, comparison, explanation (see, for example, T. P. Malchevskaya, E. S. Troyanskaya). This variety of types is explained primarily by the fact that when identifying them, the authors operate with material that is different in stylistic and genre terms and use different reasons for classification: communicative intention, nature of denotation, nature of logical relations between sentences or larger parts of text, types of predication. According to the fair remark of R. S. Alikaev, the issue of universal text units should be resolved “depending on the functional style, typological text paradigm a certain style; from the hierarchy of speech types in various stylistic systems."
R. S. Alikaev, following V. V. Odintsov, proposes a multidimensional classification. At the first level, texts are divided into descriptive and argumentative depending on the communicative purpose, intention (or type of basic intention). Descriptive texts of the type of basic intention are informative, they contain information about the object, its properties, characteristics, character, structure and differ in existential modality. Argumentative texts are, first of all, texts that convince, prove, and explain. They are characterized by different types of objective modality. At the next level, descriptive and argumentative texts are divided according to functional and structural characteristics.
Particular types of descriptive texts are definition, description-definition, actual description, explanation. Most frequent in scientific style is definition, the purpose of which is to characterize scientific concept by indicating its most essential features and properties. The syntax of definitions is characterized by constructions with a general syntactic meaning “subject (bearer of a characteristic, property) - property (sign).” This structure is often complicated by participles, participial phrases and phrases with a verbal noun. In communicative semantically the definition text is a theme-rhematic structure of the “cluster” type, when the theme (the main subject) is maintained throughout the entire segment of the text and is characterized by various rhemas. For example:
The basic principles of modern international law are fundamental, imperative, universal norms of international law that meet the laws of development of international relations, ensuring the main interests of humanity, states, and other subjects of international law and, therefore, protected by the most stringent coercive measures. The basic principles are mandatory for all states without exception. They enjoy primacy relative to all other norms of the system of international law. The principles are retroactive.
Closest to definition definition. Its difference from the definition is that the definition lists only differential features object, distinguishing it through identification with another generic concept. The definition in the simplest case “can be reduced to a logical formula: A is B (which is characterized by characteristics X and Y).” Definitions, as a rule, do not have a full-valued predicate; they establish identity relations. Typical for syntax are constructions that form the meaning “name of a specific concept - sign of a relationship - name of a generic concept.” For example:
Civil law is one of the main branches of law in the Russian Federation; it is a system of norms regulating, on the basis of equality of participants in relations, inviolability of property, freedom of concluding contracts, a set of property, as well as personal non-property relations associated with them.
Actually description in communicative and semantic terms it coincides with definition and definition, differing at the structural-semantic level. If definitions are based on fairly rigid construction schemes, then the description itself is constructed according to free rules, while maintaining the main communicative goal - to characterize an object, concept, phenomenon with varying degrees of accuracy and detail. Definition and definition may be included in the description as its components. The communicative and semantic structure of the description itself, as a rule, is represented by a theme-rhematic progression with a hypertheme or a linear progression with elements of the “bush” type.
The subject of civil law, like any other branch, is public relations, i.e. connections between members of society. The specificity of civil law is that it regulates relations related to any property.
Civil law regulates all the most important aspects and types of property relations, including: 1) legal status participants in these relations; 2) the grounds for the emergence and procedure for exercising property rights and other real rights; 3) contractual and other obligations related to the alienation of property by the owner and its transfer to another person: a citizen or legal entity.
A special type of civil law relations are those arising from the inheritance of the property of the deceased.
Explanation how a type of descriptive text is distinguished by functional sign. Its purpose is to supplement the characteristics of the object, to introduce secondary details that clarify and illustrate information about the properties and characteristics of the object. The time plan of all the listed types of texts is the plan of the present irrelevant, the present constant. For example:
Civil law regulates all the most important aspects and types of property relations, including:
1) the legal status of the participants in these relations.(Explanation) It reveals the concept of the legal capacity of citizens, the conditions for the emergence of legal capacity, and establishes the procedure for recognizing citizens as incompetent and establishing guardianship and trusteeship over them. Civil law gives the concept of a legal entity, various types economic organizations: partnerships and societies, entrepreneurial and consumer cooperatives, state and municipal enterprises, non-profit organizations;
Descriptive texts also include message, which is considered by a number of authors as a transformed narrative. This is explained by the fact that for a scientific text it is absolutely irrelevant to simply state a subject or object at certain periods of time without indicating its characteristics, the reasons for its occurrence and the consequences of its transition to another state. The purpose of the message is to inform about any objects, events, stages of their change and signs accompanying them. At the same time, “the goal is not to create a detailed detailed idea of a material object through its many distinctive features... as is done in the description; the message does not convey the sequential movement (course) of the individual phases of the process... which is typical for storytelling.” The message type is most often used when describing specific phenomena, when it is necessary to convey information about any circumstantial characteristics of events, processes, objects (for example, spatial or temporal). Message-type texts are not characterized by rigid construction schemes; their syntax is also more diverse, although they are based on characterizing type constructions. For example:
The end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries was marked by significant achievements in the field of international legal regulation. Important milestones in this direction were the Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907, convened at the initiative of Russia. The documents adopted at them codified the rules of warfare and peaceful resolution of disputes and were a significant milestone in the formation of international humanitarian law. This period ends with the end of the First World War and the creation of the League of Nations.
Argumentative type texts include reasoning, proof, explanation, sometimes how individual types consider inference, refutation, confirmation, justification and some others. All texts of this type are united by a single goal - transmission, demonstration of thinking processes, presentation of the process logical inference, belief in the truth of certain provisions of the theory, substantiation of a scientific point of view.
The communicative and semantic structure of the text is subordinated to the logical one - between the sentences of the text there are various types of cause-and-effect, concessional, conditional-comparative connections. Accordingly, the syntax of argumentative texts is characterized by complex subordinate clauses expressing various logical relations. At the same time, it should be noted that cause-and-effect relationships or another type of logical connection are not always indicated explicitly in the text. This is due to the fact that, on the one hand, there are given, rigid schemes for the design of the text, for example, proofs in mathematics, when verbal expression turns out to be superfluous, or, on the other hand, the initial and subject to verification provisions are formulated so clearly and clearly that an unambiguous awareness the nature of the connection does not cause difficulties.
Internal differentiation of argumentative texts is carried out on the basis of private communicative goal setting, analysis of the text structure and character logical connections between statements of the text. As already noted, argumentative texts are divided into at least two parts, between which the relations of cause, effect, concession, condition, logical conclusion, generalization are established, which in some cases have different semantic shades. Basic structure proof as a separate functional-semantic type, the thesis and arguments form. The thesis contains the main proposition, the truth of which must be proven. Arguments contain information that proves and verifies the provisions of the thesis. Since there is no single method of evidence for all cases, the structure of evidence texts can differ significantly from each other. Accordingly, the syntactic structures used for these purposes will also be different. The most rigid structure of evidence is found in natural and scientific-technical texts. Considering the structures of evidence in the texts of these sciences, E. I. Motina notes, in addition to the thesis and arguments, the presence of two more mandatory components: the method of proof and conclusion.
In humanitarian texts, the method of proof, as a rule, is manifested in the selection and sequence of arguments and is not formalized separately; the inferential, final judgment is also optional.
Reasoning differs from proof in that, firstly, “through reasoning, the process of obtaining new knowledge about an object is conveyed through the operations of logical inference,” and the truth is not proven. Secondly, the basic structure includes premises (particular and/or general) and a conclusion. Parts of reasoning are connected, as a rule, by cause-and-effect relationships and conditional relations, and in form the reasoning represents one or more conclusions, united formally and meaningfully. And thirdly, the conclusion to which the author draws is not always strictly verifiable, since it depends on the initial premises, which can be either true or false. You can compare two fragments of the text of reasoning and proof.
Reasoning:
- (package) Values distort the perception of nature, society and man, and in order for a person not to be deceived in his perception, he must constantly be aware of the presence of values, must understand the impact they have on his perception, and, armed with this understanding, make the necessary adjustments . ( explanation of the parcel)(Speaking of “distortion,” I mean the imposition of the personal aspect of perception on the actually existing aspects of the reality cognizable by man.)
- (consequence, conclusion) The study of values, needs, desires, prejudices, fears, interests and neuroses must precede any scientific research.
Proof:
(thesis) Normativity, being a consequence of the natural-historical development of society, is not specific property rights, (argument 1) Religion, morality, aesthetics, and even literature have it, (argument 2) Some social norms simultaneously belong to several regulatory systems, (illustration of argument 2) For example, the gospel prohibitions “thou shalt not kill,” “thou shalt not steal,” are both moral and legal rules. (conclusion) Therefore, in order to distinguish law from other social phenomena, some other signs are needed. One of them is universal obligatory. This is the second property of law after normativity.
In the text-reasoning, from the premise “values distort the phenomena under study,” the conclusion is made that “to obtain true knowledge, it is necessary to first study values.” The initial premise of distortion must be taken on faith by the reader. The proof text is structured differently. The thesis that normativity is not a specific property of law is confirmed (proven) by indicating that normativity is a property of other spheres of human life. Based on this, a conclusion is drawn about the validity of the thesis.
Sometimes considered as a separate independent type explanation. An explanation in its logical structure resembles a proof, however, the arguments do not perform the function of a strict and logically consistent proof, but present specific examples, empirical facts, Additional information, which allow us to understand and accept the thesis put forward.
Argumentative texts, like descriptive ones, are distinguished by great diversity, which is manifested in the number of arguments, the nature of their logical and semantic connection, in the type of relationship between the main parts. The structural features are most clearly manifested in the evidence texts presented in technical sciences and theoretical works. Great variability and vagueness are characteristic of texts in the humanities.
Thus, the functional-semantic type is a typological unit of the text, and its structure is determined in small segments. Depending on the communicative purpose, descriptive and argumentative types of texts are distinguished, which, in turn, are divided into description, definition, definition, explanation, message (descriptive types) and reasoning, evidence, explanation (argumentative types). In texts of a large volume of different genres, functional-semantic types are in various relationships, which determines the general communicative dominant of the text - argumentative or descriptive (see, for example, texts 2, 7, 9 of the Appendix, which are argumentative in nature, and other texts in which description, information, definition dominate over reasoning, justification, evidence) . In this case, connections are established not only between individual sentences, but also larger fragments of text (paragraphs, super-phrase units, etc.), which, accordingly, perform the functions of theses, arguments, premises, conclusions, etc.
Nechaeva O. A. Functional and semantic types of speech. Ulan-Ude, 1974. Based on the book: Syrykh V. M. Fundamentals of Jurisprudence. M., 1996. P. 110.
In appearance speech, in its structure very much depends on the task that the speaker sets for himself, on the purpose of the speech. Indeed, it is one thing to describe something, for example, autumn, a forest, mountains, a river, another thing is to talk about an event, an adventure, and a third thing is to explain, interpret the causes of any phenomena - natural or social. Of course, in each of these cases the structure of speech will change significantly. Centuries (if not millennia) of development of language, thinking, speech have developed the most expressive, economical and exact ways, diagrams, word structures for the corresponding literary tasks. Therefore, such important, essential components of speech as description, narration, and reasoning have long been identified, which in linguistics are usually called functional-semantic types of speech, which emphasizes their dependence on the purpose of speech and its meaning.
This division goes back to the rhetoricians of the 19th century, who considered these components in the section of private rhetoric as separate types of prose or elements of a prose composition.
The identification of only three types is explained by the fact that the study of texts did not go beyond the scope of literary and artistic speech. If we keep in mind the whole variety of texts, then the list of functional and semantic types of speech can be expanded. This is what V.V. does, for example. Odintsov, adding to the description, narration, reasoning a definition (explanation), a characteristic as a type of description and a message as a version of the narration.
Let's consider each of the functional-semantic types of speech separately, and then use them together.
Description
Description- one of the most common components of monologue author's speech. Logically, to describe an object or phenomenon means to list its characteristics.
“Description,” we read in “The Theory of Literature” by P.S. Kogan (1915), “consists in depicting a whole series of signs, phenomena, objects or events that must be imagined all at the same time.”
Highlight static description, which interrupts the development of the action, and dynamic description- usually small in scope, which does not suspend action when included in an event. For example, the landscape is given through the perception of the character as he moves ("The Steppe" by A.P. Chekhov). Description as a type of speech depends on the point of view of the author or narrator, on the genre, style, and the author’s belonging to a particular literary movement.
IN fiction, in journalism, description is the most important element of speech, allowing you to vividly, vividly, visually, figuratively present an object, person, event, phenomenon. Here typical example from the memoirs of K.I. Chukovsky about Repin:
Meanwhile, winter has come. And winter Kuokkala was completely different from summer. Summer Kuokkala, noisy, elegant, colorful, teeming with fashionable dandies, multi-colored ladies' umbrellas, ice cream vendors, carriages, flowers, children, all disappeared with the onset of the first frost and immediately turned into deserted, gloomy, abandoned by everyone. In winter, you could walk the entire length of it, from the station to the sea, and not meet a single person. For the winter, all the dachas were boarded up, and only the janitors remained with them, sleepy, gloomy people who rarely got out of their cramped and stuffy dens...
Description as a type of speech is closely connected with the person (portraitization), with the place, as in the example just given (stage), with the conditions (situational) in which the action takes place. Descriptions can be portrait, landscape, event, etc. Weaving into the author’s speech, they perform diverse stylistic functions.
Thus, a landscape description depicts the atmosphere of the action. It either coincides with inner world the hero, or is dissonant with him, is given by contrast. The range of shades here is very diverse.
The ocean roared behind the wall like black mountains, the blizzard whistled strongly in the heavy rigging, the whole steamer trembled, overcoming both it and these mountains, as if with a plow, breaking apart their unsteady masses, now and then boiling and fluttering high with foamy tails, in the siren suffocated by the fog moaned in mortal melancholy, the watchmen on their watchtower were freezing from the cold and went crazy from the unbearable strain of attention, the gloomy and sultry depths of the underworld, its last, ninth circle was like the underwater womb of the steamer - the one where the gigantic furnaces cackled dully, devouring with their hot the mouths of piles of coal, with a roar thrown into them by people drenched in acrid, dirty sweat and naked to the waist, crimson from the flames; and here, in the bar, they carelessly threw their feet up on the arms of the chairs, sipped cognac and liqueurs, swam in waves of spicy smoke, in the dance hall everything shone and shed light, warmth and joy, couples either waltzed or twisted in tango - and music persistently, in sweet, shameless sadness, she kept praying for one thing, all for the same thing... (I.A. Bunin).
A landscape can also recreate a vigorous, cheerful picture in a major key, as in Pushkin’s poem “Winter Morning”:
Frost and sun; wonderful day!
You are still dozing, dear friend, -
It's time, beauty, wake up!
Open your closed eyes
Towards northern Aurora,
Be the star of the north!
In the evening, do you remember, the blizzard was angry,
There was darkness in the cloudy sky:
The moon is like a pale spot
Through the dark clouds it turned yellow,
And you sat sad -
And now... look out the window.
Under blue skies
Magnificent carpets,
Glistening in the sun, the snow lies;
The transparent forest alone turns black,
And the spruce turns green through the frost,
And the river glitters under the ice.
Important Feature descriptions - the creation of figurative pictures: the setting, the atmosphere of events, which is often achieved by selecting vivid details and listing them at length:
Farewell, witness of fallen glory,
Petrovsky Castle. Well! don't stand,
Let's go! Already the pillars of the outpost
Turn white; here on Tverskaya
The cart rushes over potholes.
The booths and women flash past,
Boys, benches, lanterns,
Palaces, gardens, monasteries,
Bukharians, sleighs, vegetable gardens,
Merchants, shacks, men,
Boulevards, towers, Cossacks,
Pharmacies, fashion stores,
Balconies, lions on the gates
And flocks of jackdaws on crosses.
This description from "Eugene Onegin" expressively paints a picture of fast driving. And the main means of imagery is enumeration, in which booths and women, boys and lanterns appear side by side. This is exactly how Tatyana Larina perceives the situation from a fast-moving cart.
It is difficult to name all the stylistic functions of description in a work of art - they are too diverse and depend on the individual style, genre, and specific segment of text in which the description is used. But it is important to emphasize that description is always an essential component of the verbal and artistic fabric.
The description in journalism has a slightly different character. Let's take as an example an excerpt from M. Sturua's report “The Morning Star over Ferrindon Road”:
I know Ferrindon Road very well. This comparison is involuntary. Most of the houses there have peeling facades. These are, as a rule, warehouses, offices, garages, workshops. Here the London Underground comes to the surface and runs in the dry bed of a non-existent river, past the warehouses of the company that produces the famous English Boots jeep. The naked urban picture is brightened only by a string of carts on which second-hand book dealers lay out their unique product - books touched by the golden yellowness of time. The sellers - old men and women in blue robes and black berets - sit like owls on high chairs and doze, shuddering from the roar of passing trains.
This is the first paragraph, the beginning of the report. The purpose of the description is to introduce the reader into the setting of the action, to make him a spectator, an eyewitness of what is happening. The description is given not “detachedly”, objectivistically, but through the perception of the author, directly and openly revealing his I narrator (I know Ferrindon Road very well). The subjective, emotional nature of the description brings the reader closer to the setting of the events and makes the description an element of reporting. Here I-not a kind of stylization, not an artistic device, but genuine I author, journalist. This is what distinguishes a reportage or, more broadly, journalistic description from a fictional one, where it is plausible, but does not have the character of authenticity, reliability, being colored by the moods of the hero and fulfilling an artistic and compositional role. The function of description in journalism is a documentary, accurate reproduction of the situation, as the author saw it.
This purpose is served by an abundance of specific details, among which visual ones predominate: peeling facades; nude urban painting; books touched golden yellow time; old men and women in blue robes and black berets they sit like owls.
Probably, the visually perceived landscape and setting are a characteristic feature of the reportage description. Characterizing the scene of action through visual perception most sharply, vividly, and intelligibly paints a picture of what is happening. This is due to one of the most important features of the genre - to show, depict, reproduce. The reporter describes what appears before his eyes, what he sees, and the reader sees what is happening with him.
The description language, its syntax, and vocabulary are also subordinated to this task. Present forms (has peeling facades; the subway comes to the surface etc. - “present constant”) give a static picture, as if an instant snapshot of the situation and, due to their timeless nature, have an emphatically descriptive meaning. Artistic and figurative speech concretization (term by M.N. Kozhina) is also very important. One could write: The sellers sit and doze. But how much more expressive, more figurative (thanks to the specification) is the author’s: The sellers - old men and women in blue robes and black berets - sit like owls on high chairs and doze, shuddering from the roar of passing trains. Dozing - this is a fixation of action; dozing, shuddering from the roar of passing trains - This is already a picture, a description.
The specificity of description in reporting and in journalism in general lies in its documentary quality, reliability, and authenticity. This nature of the description determines restraint, moderation in the use of visual means. Reportage description, apparently, is alien to overly bright, overly “fictional” means and new formations. All this contradicts the nature of description in reporting and in newspaper speech in general. But as interspersed language metaphors, epithets and other means of expressiveness successfully encrust the verbal fabric and enliven the narrative. Here is how the famous journalist V. Orlov wrote: “Probably, it is impossible to formulate the indisputable ideal of the newspaper form. You can only express personal tastes. When pressing on the formal point, it is dangerous to overdo it. Poems in prose fit alienly on a newspaper sheet. Overly polished correspondence here looks pretentious, like walking on pointe shoes at a trade union meeting. Behind any finds, it seems to me, there should be a sense of cursive writing. Even jewelry must be woven into a modest business fabric that is organic to a newspaper page."
A type of description in non-fiction prose - characteristic, a special case of which is technical description. Here is a typical example:
The Chaika tape recorder is a device designed for recording and playing music and speech at home. The tape recorder provides the ability to record from a microphone, sound recorder, as well as recording from another tape recorder, radio broadcast network, radio or TV.
The "Chaika" tape recorder is made in a decorative portable box. The design of the entire device consists of the following components... All controls of the tape recorder, with the exception of the fuse, input and output jacks, are located on the top panel "...
Here, as we see, artistic and aesthetic tasks are completely excluded. The main thing is to accurately indicate the technical parameters, characterize the model, design, etc.
What is the role of description in fiction, journalism, and business speech?
Narration
Narration, as the “Theory of Literature” defines, as opposed to description, “there is an image of events or phenomena that do not occur simultaneously, but follow each other or condition each other.”
Apparently, the shortest example of a narrative in world literature is the famous story of Caesar: “I came, I saw, I conquered” (Veni, vidi, vici). It vividly and condensedly conveys the very essence of the story, semantic and linguistic - this is a story about what happened, happened. The main means of such a story are past perfect verbs that replace each other and name actions. Figuratively, we can say that narration is a kind of speech science.
So, the narrative reveals closely related events, phenomena, and actions as objectively occurring in the past. Sentences of narrative contexts do not describe actions, but narrate about them, that is, the event itself, the action, is conveyed. For example:
Several weeks have passed... Suddenly the priest receives a letter from our relative Prince B** from St. Petersburg. The prince wrote to him about me. After the usual attack, he announced to him that the suspicions about my participation in the plans of the rebels, unfortunately, turned out to be too solid, that an exemplary execution should have befallen me, but that the empress, out of respect for the merits and advanced years of her father, decided to pardon the criminal son and , saving him from a shameful execution, only ordered him to be exiled to the remote region of Siberia for eternal settlement.
This unexpected blow almost killed my father. He lost his usual firmness, and his grief (usually silent) poured out in bitter complaints (L.S. Pushkin).
The narration can be considered the main, main part of the author's monologue. Narration, story is the essence, the soul of literature. A writer is, first of all, a storyteller, a person who knows how to tell an interesting, exciting story. Like other functional and semantic types of speech, narration is a reflection of real reality in which a story, novel, or novel takes place. Narration is intimately connected with space and time. Designations of place, actions, names of persons and non-persons performing actions, and designations of the actions themselves are language means, with the help of which the story is told.
The stylistic functions of the narrative are varied and are associated with individual style, genre, subject of the image. The narrative can be more or less objectified, neutral, or, on the contrary, subjective, permeated with the author’s emotions.
The last type of narration is typical for many journalistic genres. Here is an excerpt from the already quoted report by M. Sturua:
That day - it was April 24 - when I got to Ferrindon Road, I involuntarily noticed changes here. Outwardly everything was in its place. And yet, something was missing, something without which, as it seemed earlier, Ferrindon Road was simply unthinkable. I saw the solution right away: letters had been removed from the façade of house No. 75 that read: “Daily Worker.” In their place were others: "Morning Star".
In this text, the plan of the past tense predominates, which is typical for a story about events and facts of the past. It is significant that verb forms of the perfect form denote actions that replace each other (noticed, saw) and are dynamic in nature, and verb forms of the imperfect form denote actions that take place in one time plane and have a static nature (elements of description). The narration is given from the author, the events are passed through the author’s perception, as evidenced by the use I, colloquial syntax, cf., for example, triple use What in one sentence (And yet something was missing, something without which, as it seemed earlier, Ferrindon Road was simply unthinkable).
Message as a type of narrative - mainly the sphere of newspaper speech.
The thief who stole a shopping bag from a 29-year-old Los Angeles woman while she was ordering lunch at the counter of a local diner showed a certain nobility towards his victim. He took the money, of course, but then threw the bag away. And in the bag was an expensive silicone prosthetic left hand of a robbed citizen, which she had lost in a car accident four years ago. The skillful work of the prosthetists apparently impressed the swindler so much that he did not even take off his index finger prosthetic expensive ring with amethyst and diamond. The woman tries not to wear her prosthesis in hot weather due to discomfort.
Not everyone can swim across Vyatka with their legs and arms tied
A 47-year-old resident of Kirovo-Chepetsk, Anatoly Dormachev, with a large crowd of onlookers, swam across the Vyatka River on the stormiest section of the river. The athlete's legs were tied, and his hands were clasped behind his back. Vyatka Houdini swam on his stomach, making movements reminiscent of the butterfly style. Throughout the entire route, Anagolia was accompanied by a boat with rowers for insurance. Eleven minutes later, the brave swimmer covered a distance of more than 300 meters and came ashore, Euro-Asian News reports.
As a functional-semantic type of speech, the message is distinguished by laconic presentation, informative richness, and strict composition.
Messages are not limited to newspaper speech or radio and television. They are also possible in historical literature. Here is a typical illustration from the history of the siege of the Trinity Monastery by the Poles (example by V.V. Odintsov):
Having received a decisive refusal to surrender the fortress, the lords attempted to take it by storm on September 30. The attack was carried out from four sides at once, but was repulsed with great damage to the attackers. Sapega was finally convinced that it was impossible to take the fortress without a proper siege, and from October 3 he launched an almost continuous shelling of the monastery that lasted more than six weeks. Preparing the assault on the fortress, the interventionists launched a tunnel against the so-called Pyatnitskaya tower.
This text talks only about the most significant moments of the siege. But if we add details here, details that are less significant, then the message will turn into a narrative that is familiar to us.
Write about the same event in the form of a narrative story and in the form of a message.
Reasoning
"Reasoning... aims to clarify some concept, develop, prove or refute some thought." This is how the old "Theory of Literature" defines reasoning.
From a logical point of view, reasoning is a chain of conclusions on some topic, presented in a sequential form. Reasoning also refers to a series of judgments related to any issue, which follow one after another in such a way that others necessarily follow from previous judgments, and as a result we receive an answer to the question posed. So, the reasoning is based on a conclusion, for example:
All frogs are amphibians.
All amphibians are vertebrates.
All frogs are vertebrates.
However, inference is rarely found in speech in its pure form; more often it appears in the form of reasoning. V.V. Odintsov distinguishes two types of reasoning. In the first of them, concepts and judgments are connected directly with each other (but not in the form of a syllogism - this is the similarity and difference between reasoning and inference), for example:
And one more important circumstance. While methods for encoding hereditary properties have now been well studied, much less is known about the pathways connecting the code with specific phenotypic characteristics (especially morphological ones). While this is the case, we must be careful in judging what can and cannot be in heredity. After all, heredity is not only a code, but also a reading mechanism.
In the second type of reasoning, concepts and judgments are correlated with facts, examples, etc. Here is a typical example:
The desire for balance is one of the main laws of development of the world around us. The disruption of even one link in the chain causes a response from all components connected together. Population growth in river basins, an increase in cultivated areas lead to an increase in water consumption, a reduction in river flow, which leads to a decrease in sea level, which in turn causes an increase in salinity sea water, salinization of spawning grounds, consequently, a reduction in fish catches, etc. These connections are multi-valued and have many side connections.
As can be judged even from our examples, the main area of use of reasoning is scientific, popular science speech. And this is natural, because here we most often have to prove, develop, confirm or refute an idea.
However, reasoning is also widely found in fiction, especially in intellectual, psychological prose. The heroes of literary works not only act, commit certain actions, but also talk about life, death, the meaning of existence, God, morality, art. The topics are truly endless. And the method, manner of reasoning, its subject, on the one hand, undoubtedly characterize the hero, on the other hand, allow the author to express very important thoughts, supplement the artistic depiction with conceptual information, and thus the reader receives, one might say, a three-dimensional picture: the event is depicted and explained, philosophically comprehended. Remarkable in this regard is L. Tolstoy's story "Cutting Wood", where there is a vivid description, narration, and deep reasoning. Here is one of them:
I have always and everywhere, especially in the Caucasus, noticed our soldier’s special tact in times of danger in keeping silent and avoiding those things that could have an unfavorable effect on the spirit of his comrades. The spirit of the Russian soldier is not based, like the courage of the southern peoples, on quickly ignited and cooling enthusiasm: it is just as difficult to kindle it as it is to make it lose heart. He does not need effects, speeches, warlike cries, songs and drums; on the contrary, he needs calm, order and (the absence of everything tense. In a Russian, a real Russian soldier, you will never notice boasting, brashness, a desire to become foggy, to get excited in times of danger, on the contrary, modesty, simplicity and the ability to see in danger something completely different than danger constitute distinctive features his character. I saw a soldier wounded in the leg, who at first only regretted the hole in his new sheepskin coat, the rider getting out from under the horse that had been killed under him and unfastening the girth to take the saddle. Who doesn’t remember the incident during the siege of Gergebil, when a tube filled with a bomb and fireworks caught fire in the laboratory? He ordered two soldiers to take the bomb and run and throw it into the cliff, and how the soldiers did not throw it in the nearest place near the colonel’s tent, which stood over the cliff, but carried it further so as not to wake up the gentlemen who were sleeping in the tent, and both were torn to pieces.
The discussion begins with the “personal” observation of the author (I always and everywhere... noticed...), smoothly introducing the following reflection into the general context of the story. Then comes the already generalized thought-sentence (The spirit of the Russian soldier is not based on this...). And then follows a transition from a generalized characterizing position to its detailing: a list of the traits of a Russian soldier is given that reveal his spirit (calmness, love of order, etc.). Further reflection imperceptibly turns into storytelling. This is the structure of the argument. Naturally woven into the context, it emphasizes the leading theme of the story, which is revealed in images, paintings, dialogues, descriptions, and narratives. This theme is the spirit of the Russian soldier. It is characteristic that in the previous chapters there were already elements of reasoning that directed the reader’s attention to this idea. Thus, Chapter II begins with the words: “In Russia there are three predominant types of soldiers”... Then a detailed description of the traits of each type is given. In the passage quoted above, this theme receives the most complete, concentrated expression in the form of reasoning, organically complementing the artistic and aesthetic information and ultimately giving a relief, three-dimensional disclosure of the theme.
Apparently, the artist often feels a deep need for direct, immediate expression of his thoughts and views, the need not only to artistically, but also to comprehend reality philosophically. And then philosophical, aesthetic digressions are born - reasoning, such as, for example, the famous reflection of N.V. Gogol about writers:
Happy is the writer who, past boring, disgusting characters, striking with their sad reality, approaches characters that demonstrate the high dignity of a person who, from the great pool of daily rotating images, chose only a few exceptions, who never changed the sublime structure of his lyre, did not descend from the top to his poor, insignificant brothers and, without touching the ground, plunged entirely into his own images, far removed from it and exalted. His wonderful destiny is doubly enviable: he is among them, as in his own family; and yet his glory spreads far and loudly. He smoked people's eyes with intoxicating smoke, he wonderfully flattered them, hiding the sad things in life, showing them a wonderful person. Everyone rushes after him, applauding, and rushes after his solemn chariot. They call him a great world poet, soaring high above all other geniuses of the world, like an eagle soaring above other high-flying ones. At his very name, young, ardent hearts are already filled with trembling, reciprocal tears sparkle in everyone’s eyes... He has no equal in strength - he is a god! But this is not the fate, and the fate of the writer is different, who dared to call out everything that is every minute before the eyes and what indifferent eyes do not see - all the terrible, stunning mud of little things that entangle our lives, all the depth of the cold, fragmented, everyday characters with which ours teems. an earthly, sometimes bitter and boring road, and with the strong power of an inexorable chisel, who dared to expose them prominently and brightly to the eyes of the people! He cannot gather popular applause, he cannot see the grateful tears and unanimous delight of the souls excited by him, a sixteen-year-old girl with a dizzy head and heroic enthusiasm will not fly towards him, he cannot lose himself in the sweet charm of the sounds he emitted; he cannot, finally, escape from the modern court, the hypocritically insensitive modern court, which will call the creatures he cherished insignificant and base, will assign him a despicable corner among the writers who insult humanity, will give him the qualities of the heroes he depicted, will take away his heart, both the soul and the divine flame of talent. For the modern court does not recognize that glass that looks at the sun and conveys the movements of unnoticed insects is equally wonderful; for the modern court does not recognize that a lot of spiritual depth is needed in order to illuminate a picture taken from a despicable life and elevate it to the pearl of creation; for the modern court does not recognize that high, enthusiastic laughter is worthy to stand next to high lyrical movement and that there is a whole abyss between it and the antics of a buffoon! The modern court will not recognize this and will turn everything into reproach and reproach for the unrecognized writer, without division, without answer, without participation, like a familyless traveler, he will remain alone in the middle of the road. His field is harsh, and he will bitterly feel his loneliness.
And for a long time it was determined for me by the wonderful power to walk hand in hand with my strange heroes, to survey the whole enormously rushing life, to survey it through laughter visible to the world and invisible, unknown to it tears! And the time is still far off when, in another key, a menacing blizzard of inspiration will rise from the head, clothed in holy horror and splendor, and in confused trepidation they will sense the majestic thunder of other speeches...
The author's reasoning can be expressed in the form of deep philosophical generalizations, maxims, and sometimes in the form of humorous conclusions and conclusions, such as the thoughts of A.P. Chekhov about sneezing in the story “The Death of an Official”:
One fine evening, an equally wonderful executor, Ivan Dmitrich Chervyakov, sat in the second row of chairs and looked through binoculars at The Bells of Corneville. He looked and felt at the height of bliss. But suddenly... This “but suddenly” is often found in stories. The authors are right: life is so full of surprises! But suddenly his face wrinkled, his eyes rolled up, his breathing stopped... he took the binoculars away from his eyes, bent down and... apchhi!!! He sneezed, as you can see. Sneezing is not forbidden to anyone anywhere. Men, police chiefs, and sometimes even privy councilors sneeze. Everyone sneezes. Chervyakov was not at all embarrassed.
Definition as a functional-semantic type of speech is widespread mainly in the scientific literature and consists in the fact that the defined concept is correlated with the closest genus to which it belongs, while signs (or signs) are given that are special for this concept(species difference).
For example:
Flotation is one of the methods of enriching minerals, based on the principle of floating of crushed parts of the mineral to the surface along with air bubbles
The definition is revealed, developed in explanation. Here, for example, is an explanation of the concept of flotation:
The essence of flotation is to bring heavy mineral particles to the surface of the bath. This is done by air bubbles, which stick well only to useful substances. And the waste rock goes to the bottom. But bringing a “useful” particle up is not enough; it still needs to be kept afloat. And if the bubbles did not have strong walls and foam clothing, if they burst like ordinary air bubbles burst, enrichment plants could not work.
The definition is more often found in scientific texts, the explanation - in popular science, in the language of mass communication. But often they appear together - the definition is accompanied by an explanation.
Until now, we have considered functional types of speech separately. However, in reality, for example in a work of art, purely descriptive or purely narrative contexts are very rarely encountered. This could be seen in the examples given above. Much more common is the combination of narration and description. Complementing each other, they often merge so organically that it is sometimes difficult to differentiate between them. Here is a typical example. The context begins with a declarative sentence and immediately moves into description:
One day, returning home, I accidentally wandered into some unfamiliar estate. The sun had already hidden, and evening shadows stretched across the blooming rye. Two rows of old, closely planted, very tall fir trees stood like two solid walls, forming a dark, beautiful alley.
I easily climbed over the fence and walked along this alley, sliding along the spruce needles that covered the ground here by an inch.
It was quiet, dark, and only high on the peaks here and there a bright golden light trembled and shimmered like a rainbow in the spider’s webs. There was a strong, stuffy smell of pine needles.
Then again action, followed by description.
Then I turned into a long linden alley. And here, too, is desolation and old age, last year’s foliage rustled sadly underfoot, and in the twilight shadows hid between the trees (A.P. Chekhov).
As we can see, the elements of narration and description are organically fused. Without such a merger, the text would have acquired a protocol character. I. R. Galperin rightly believes that the synthesis of narrative and descriptive contexts is a characteristic feature of the language of artistic prose.
But what determines the shift, the alternation of narration and description? First of all, the imagery of the presentation. Analyzing the above Chekhov passage, I. R. Galperin writes: “The reader seems to be walking along with the character and observing the changing pictures of the surrounding nature. This imagery is achieved by almost reliable temporal and spatial characteristics, as well as a synaesthetic effect - “a strong, stuffy smell of pine needles” .
Descriptions-brush strokes not only create an artistic depiction of the character’s movement, but also, to some extent, indirectly indicate a slower pace of movement. In the semantics of words accidentally, wandered in, unfamiliar, as I.R. shows Halperin, contains components of meaning expressing caution, attentiveness. These words seem to predetermine the narrator’s slow pace of movement, allowing his gaze to dwell on the details of an unfamiliar environment. Spatial and temporal parameters are woven into the narrative-descriptive context:
a) movement in space: returning home, he wandered... into the estate, climbed over the fence, along this alley, turned into a long linden alley; b) movement of time: the sun was already hiding, the evening shadows, it was quiet, dark, in the twilight... shadows were hiding.
The change in functional and semantic types of speech (description, narration, reasoning) depends on the individual inclinations of the writer, on the prevailing literary ideas of the era, on the content of the work. For example, in Hemingway's stories, description is relatively rare, the narration is most often given in the form of background, and dialogue takes a predominant place. On the other hand, in those stories in which the reader’s attention is directed to events and actions in their course, narration and description occupy a significant place.
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« »Russian language lesson plan in 10th grade
Popova L.Yu., teacher of Russian language and literature
Topic: Characteristics of functional and semantic types of speech. Structure. Linguistic features. Function. The semantic basis of the type of speech.
Objectives of the lesson: deepening knowledge about the functional and semantic types of speech, structure, linguistic-stylistic features, functions, semantic basis of speech types. Strengthening text analysis skills different styles and types of speech, text analysis skills with different types of speech in one text.
Methods and techniques: deepening previously studied material, text analysis; verbal, visual, practical. Application of computer technologies.
Type of lesson: research lesson, stylistic experiment.
Equipment: multimedia installation, table “How to determine the type of speech (memo).
Progress of the lesson
Organizing time. Presentation of the topic of the lesson, introduction to additional literature on this topic, handouts, table.
Checking homework. Analysis of figurative language in the proposed text (According to Belov). Blitz survey on the topic studied in the previous lesson “Visual and expressive means of language, stylistic figures. Stylistic coloring words (stylistic connotations).
Learning new material.
Consolidation of the studied material.
Summary of the lesson.
-Our speech (topic, compositional and language design etc.) depends both on the purpose, motive, circumstances of communication, and on the situation being described. All the diversity of the content of our statements can ultimately be reduced to three types:
the world is static, perceived objectively, simultaneously;
the world in dynamics, perceived in motion, in time;
the world in cause-and-effect relationships.
In the first case, the statement is realized in the form of a description, in the second - in the form of a narrative; in the third - in the form of reasoning.
Let's consider character traits these functional and semantic types of speech.
(Students take notes)
DESCRIPTION
Description is a functional-semantic type of speech, which consists in depicting a number of signs, phenomena, objects or events that need to be imagined simultaneously.
The world is static. You can ask a question about the text - what is the object?
The basis of the description is a list, enumeration of signs, properties of an object, phenomenon. The purpose of the description is for the reader (listener) to see the subject of the description and imagine it in his mind.
Description structure:
general idea of the subject;
a list of distinctive features of the item;
author's assessment, conclusion, conclusion.
Main types of descriptions
Most often they talk about scientific, business and artistic descriptions. Scientific, business descriptions are descriptions that provide a list of essential features of an object, the concept of its properties. In descriptions of a scientific nature, the main thing is accuracy and logical consistency. Business descriptions are instructions, advertisements. Artistic descriptions are descriptions where images of images and impressions predominate. The main thing here is to give a vivid idea of the subject, while not necessarily exhaustive or complete.
Description functions
Descriptions can be portrait, landscape, event. An important function of description is the creation of figurative pictures: the setting, the atmosphere of events, which is often achieved by selecting vivid details and listing them at length.
Linguistic features of the description
The connection between sentences is usually parallel. First - the first sentence or paragraph as a starting point. All other sentences are related in meaning to the first, specifying it. These sentences are less closely related or not grammatically related at all. Each sentence is relatively independent.
There is a characteristic unity of types of tense forms of predicate verbs. Verbs are most often in the imperfect form, most often in the past tense, and for special clarity - in the present tense. In the description, the verbs do not denote a sequential change of events, but the simultaneity of what is happening. If the verbs are perfective, then usually they mean a sign, not an active action. Characteristic syntactic parallelism. Frequent use of nominal predicates, nominal and impersonal sentences. The description uses more words denoting qualities and properties of objects. Synonyms, definitions, incomplete sentences.
Example artistic description may serve as an excerpt from the story of I.A. Bunin “ Antonov apples" Working with this text. It is necessary to prove that the text is of description type.
(In the process of joint analysis of the text with students, we draw a conclusion - the text is a speech type description)
My aunt’s garden was famous for its neglect, nightingales, turtle doves and apples, and the house was famous for its roof. He stood at the head of the courtyard, right next to the garden - the branches of the linden trees hugged him - he was small and squat, but it seemed that he would not last a century - so thoroughly did he look from under his unusually high and thick thatched roof, blackened and hardened by time. Its front facade always seemed to me to be alive: as if an old face was looking out from under a huge hat with sockets of eyes - windows with mother-of-pearl glass from the rain and sun. And on the sides of these eyes there were porches - two old large porches with columns. Well-fed pigeons always sat on their pediment, while thousands of sparrows rained from roof to roof. And the guest felt comfortable in this nest under the turquoise autumn sky.
M. Prishvin “First frost”. Working with this text. It is necessary to prove that the text is of description type.
The night passed under a large, clear moon, and by morning the first frost had settled. Everything was gray, but the puddles did not freeze. When the sun appeared and warmed up, the trees and grass were bathed in such heavy dew, the spruce branches looked out from the dark forest with such luminous patterns that the diamonds of our entire land would not have been enough for this decoration. The Queen Pine, sparkling from top to bottom, was especially beautiful. Joy jumped like a young dog in my chest.
NARRATION
Narration is a story, a message about an event in its time sequence.
The world in dynamics - tells about actions and events in a certain time sequence. A narrative text develops over time, has a plot and characters. You can ask a question about the text: what happened?
The basis of the narrative is a story about events, actions, and deeds. To narrate means to talk about what is happening, to report events in a certain sequence.
Text structure:
The plot is the beginning of a contradiction (conflict) that forms the basis of the plot, the initial episode, the moment that determines the sequential unfolding of the action.
Main part: development of action, climax - the highest point of tension in the development of action.
The denouement is the outcome of events, the resolution of contradictions (conflict).
The functions of narration are varied and are associated with individual style, genre, and the subject of the image.
Linguistic features of the narrative
The connection between sentences is chain. The sentences are maximally dependent on each other, especially those standing next to each other: they are related to each other on the basis of either lexical repetition, either using demonstrative and other pronouns, or synonymous substitution.
The story can be told either from the first person or from the third.
We find the author's narration, for example, in the story “Olesya” by A.I. Kuprin. Working with this text. It is necessary to prove that the text is a narrative type.
(In the process of joint analysis of the text with students, we draw a conclusion - the text is a speech-type narrative)
I was once writing a letter and suddenly felt that someone was standing behind me. Turning around, I saw Yarmola approaching, as always, silently in his soft bast shoes.
- What do you want, Yarmola? – I asked.
- Yes, I’m surprised how you write. “I wish I could No, no, not like you,” he hurried in embarrassment, seeing that I was smiling. - I just want my last name
-Why do you need this? - I was surprised. Why do you need to be able to write your last name?
“But you see, what’s the matter, sir,” Yarmola answered unusually softly, “there’s not a single literate person in our village.” When a document needs to be signed, either it’s a matter in the volost, or no one can do it. The headman just puts a seal, but he himself doesn’t know what’s printed on it. It would be good for everyone if someone knew how to sign.
Such caring of Yarmola - a known poacher, a careless vagabond, whose opinion a village gathering would never even think of taking into account - such caring of him about public interest for some reason touched me from my native village. I myself offered to give her lessons. And what hard work it was - all my attempts to teach him conscious reading and writing.
REASONING
Reasoning is a verbal presentation, an explanation of a thought; aims to clarify some concept; develop, prove or refute any idea.
The world in cause-and-effect relationships - the causes of phenomena and events are stated. In general, a thesis is proven or refuted, a conclusion or generalization is made. You can ask a question about the text: why?
The basis of the argument is a listing of facts and arguments that substantiate the conclusion to which the author seeks to lead the reader.
Structure of the argument:
thesis is the main idea.
proof (or refutation) of this thought, i.e. arguments accompanied by examples.
conclusion, or conclusion.
The main area of use of reasoning is scientific, popular science speech. However, reasoning is also widely found in fiction, especially in intellectual, psychological prose. Reasoning can be constructed as proof of the truth or, conversely, the falsity of the thesis put forward. The argument may contain all the elements (thesis, evidence, conclusion), or it may lack the conclusion that is already contained in the thesis.
Linguistic features of reasoning
In the text, a logical and grammatical connection is established between the thesis and arguments, as well as between individual arguments. All facts presented must be convincing and confirm the thesis put forward.
The connection between the proposals is mixed. The use of verbs in the form of the present or future tense is typical, perhaps the presence in the text of impersonal verbs or personal verbs in impersonal form.
An example of reasoning can be an excerpt from the story by K. G. Paustovsky “The Art of Seeing the World” (book “ Golden Rose"). Working with text, it is necessary to prove that the text is a type of reasoning.
(In the process of joint analysis of the text with students, we draw a conclusion - the text is a speech-type reasoning)
What enriches the language of a prose writer most of all is knowledge of poetry.
Poetry has amazing property. She returns the word to its original, virgin freshness. The most erased, completely “spoken” words by us, which have completely lost their figurative qualities for us, living only as a verbal shell, begin to sparkle, ring, and smell fragrant in poetry!
I don’t know how to explain this. I suppose that the word comes to life in two cases.
Firstly, when it is given back its phonetic (sound power). And it is much easier to do this in melodious poetry than in prose. Therefore, both in song and in romance, words have a stronger effect on us than in ordinary speech.
Secondly, even an erased word, placed in a melodic musical series in verse, seems to be saturated with the general melody of the verse and begins to sound in harmony with all the other words.
Finally, poetry is rich in alliteration. This is one of her precious qualities. Prose also has the right to alliteration.
But that's not the main point.
The main thing is that prose, when it reaches perfection, is essentially true poetry.
Teacher: It should be noted that the types of speech discussed are rarely found in isolated form. Most often the text contains fragments different types speeches are presented in combination, and sometimes in such close connection that it is difficult to distinguish them. Let's look at an excerpt from A.P. Chekhov's story “The House with a Mezzanine.”
Task: It is necessary to determine the type of speech of this text. Work with text.
(Context begins with a declarative sentence and immediately moves into description.)
One day, returning home, I accidentally wandered into some unfamiliar estate. The sun was already hiding, and evening shadows stretched across the blooming rye. Two rows of old, closely planted fir trees stood like two solid walls, forming a dark, beautiful alley.
(The narration follows again):
I easily climbed over the fence and walked along this alley, sliding along the spruce needles that covered the ground here by an inch.
(Then the description again):
It was quiet, dark, and only high on the peaks here and there a bright golden light trembled and shimmered like a rainbow in the spider’s webs. There was a strong, stuffy smell of pine needles.
Work according to the table “How to determine the type of speech” (memo), we use a multimedia installation.
HOW TO DETERMINE THE TYPE OF SPEECH (MEMO)
Function of speech (description - describe; narration - tell; reasoning - prove).
The semantic basis of the type of speech (simultaneity of phenomena, signs - in description; sequence of phenomena, actions - in narration; cause-and-effect relationship - in reasoning).
Nature of the message (listing of simultaneous, permanent signs, phenomena - in the description; a message about changing, successive actions - in narration; the message is in the form of a conclusion, the evidence is in the reasoning).
Characteristic features of the type of speech:
static – in the description;
dynamism - in storytelling;
the presence of a position that needs proof.
Language features:
verbs in one form of tense, definitions - in the description;
Verbs different forms tense, mood - in narration;
introductory words, conjunctions, impersonal verbs - in reasoning.
Description – WHAT IS IT?
Narration – WHAT IS HAPPENING?
Reasoning – THESIS-RATIONALE-CONCLUSION
Summary of the lesson. Summarizing the material studied.
Homework: determine the type of speech of the text (According to Belov).
Original text for homework
(1) Winter, completely defeated by April, is gone and exhausted. (2) Here in the alarming darkness the whole world was born and moved, no longer layered, but tight, dense warmth, turning itself into a powerful and even wind. (3) The trees, ready to blossom, trembled, the clouds darkening in the sky collided with their wide foreheads. (4) Faint spring lightning fell into the warm forest darkness, and the first crackling thunder boldly rolled.
(5) Terrible silence languishes in the forest after this roar. (6) The wind does not blow, but presses all the time, everything freezes.
(7) The rain hissed heavily and briefly in the night. (8) Everywhere in the scurrying, disappearing darkness, the earth smells of roots sniffles: grass sprouts have begun to stir in countless numbers, lifting and plowing open last year’s leaves, needles and rotting twigs.
(9) In the morning, golden columns of vapor rise in forest clearings; like good signs, they silently and quickly change their gigantic contours. (10) The branches on the birch trees barely audibly come to life, and from the bursting buds they also change. (11) The sun comes out very quickly. (12) Fiercely new, with vague outlines, it warms the still pale, but thickening greenery of the birch tree with every minute. (13) The birds sing excitedly, the earth continues to sniffle and squeak, everything changes its image every minute. (14) Everywhere in the world there is life and freedom, and the heart empathizes. (15) May there be no end to freedom and joy!.. (According to Belov)
I. Introduction
Primary requirements
1. Establish contact with listeners.
2. Attract attention, emphasize the importance of the topic.
3. Clearly formulate the topic and main idea, outline the plan for the speech
Techniques
. "Hooky Beginning"
The technique of paradoxical citation.
Quote, proverbs,
Sayings, aphorisms
Question to the audience
Examples speech formulas :
Can you read? This question usually causes bewilderment - of course, we are all literate people! But the great Goethe claimed that he I have been learning to read all my life, but even now I can’t be sure that I can do it.
II. Main part
Primary requirements
1. reveal 5-7 main provisions.
2. Divide the selected information into semantic parts.
3. Use the most convincing examples, quotes, numbers
Techniques
Analogy.
Opposition.
Comparisons.
Evaluative vocabulary
Examples of speech formulas:
Transitions:
. however;
. not only but;
. on the other side;
. now consider;
. another characteristic feature(line);
. no less important reason;
. to other advantages (disadvantages);
. against;
. still remains to be considered;
. let's name others...
III. Conclusion
Primary requirements
"General assault" of the audience:
Enable listeners to remember the main points
Activate the audience.
Techniques
Formulation of the main idea and general theses.
Aphorisms.
Round off the speech, i.e. be able to connect the beginning of a speech with its end.
Examples of speech formulas:
. to summarize all of the above;
. Thus;
. hence;
. From what has been said it follows;
. summarizing what has been said;
. allows us to conclude
Functional-semantic types of speech (FSTS) - communicatively determined typified varieties of monologue speech, which traditionally include description, narration and reasoning . In the history of the development of rhetoric, poetics and stylistics, they had different names: methods of presentation, types of text, verbal and stylistic unities, compositional and speech forms, etc. The term “functional-semantic type of speech” was introduced into scientific circulation by prof. O.A. Nechaeva (1974).
The development of functional stylistics, the special appeal of scientists to the problem of FSTR, the involvement as an object of study of the entire variety of socially significant functional varieties of speech led to the identification of subtypes within FSTR, the identification of new types of speech (the main ones include order and statement- types of speech characteristic primarily of official business texts). The specificity of functional varieties of language determines the variability in the manifestation of the same FSTR in different texts - up to their functional and semantic transformation.
Let us consider the main FSTRs, characterizing each of them. The main ones include types of speech that constitute the dominant of one or more functional styles.
Description - FSTR, the essence of which comes down to expressing the fact of coexistence of objects and their characteristics at the same time. The description serves to convey in detail the state of reality, an image of nature, terrain, interior, and appearance.
In the content of descriptive texts, the main thing is objects, properties, qualities, and not actions. Therefore, the main semantic load is carried by nouns and adjectives. Nouns refer to specific vocabulary (river, village, window, etc.). Words with a spatial meaning are widely used - circumstances of the place (on the river, on both sides, between the pines, in the clearing, behind the house, etc.). Verb predicates in a semantic sense, they are either weakened, erased (the estate stands on a river; the window faces the river; the road goes to the right), or have a qualitative and pictorial meaning (the grass was white with strawberry flowers; it was blooming thickly). Used frequently verb form present tense, expressing the long-term state of an object or a “timeless” state (stands, connects, props up). Verbs of the imperfect form of the past tense indicate the state of the described phenomena at the moment of observing them (whitened, blossomed). Even perfective verbs in descriptive contexts convey a property, a characteristic of an object, and not an active action (a barely noticeable path branched off from it, meandered between the pines and died in a clearing).
The description is characterized by the uniformity of the forms of the predicate, which is an indicator of the static nature of what is depicted. The most common are descriptions with a single plan of the present tense or with a single plan of the past tense. The degree of staticity in descriptions with a past tense plan is lower than in descriptions with a present tense plan. The structure of sentences in the description is often characterized by syntactic parallelism.
The description may include a sequence of nominative and elliptical constructions, which creates a unique nominative style, most clearly represented in stage directions for dramatic works, film scripts, and diary entries. In such descriptions, objects seem to be recorded by a video camera. The proposals are equal in relation to each other, they can be grouped in other ways, it all depends on the “starting point”.
A special type of description is characteristic- a type of speech used to depict the qualities of a person or thing. In a characterization, as in any description, there may be elements of reasoning. For literary text Characteristic is the contamination of description with narration. Elements of descriptiveness are present in almost any narrative text.
Sometimes the semantic load in the description falls on the action, in this case they talk about "dynamic description"- a transitional type of speech bordering on narration. Dynamic description conveys the flow of actions with small time intervals in a limited space. Dynamic description is often used to show external events, being a means of naturalistic reflection of reality (there is a special term to designate the naturalistic method is very detailed description actions with great accuracy in conveying details - “second style”). In addition, a dynamic description can serve as a means of sharp, subtle psychological sketches - when depicting the experience, the dynamics of the hero’s internal state.
Narration - FSTR, intended to depict a sequential series of events or the transition of an object from one state to another.
In the foreground in the content of narrative fragments of the text is the order of the action. Each sentence usually expresses some stage, stage in the development of action, in the movement of the plot. An important role is played by the temporal correlation of predicates, which can manifest itself both as their temporary uniformity and as temporal heterogeneity. The main semantic load is usually carried out by verbs of the perfect form, prefixes and non-prefixes (settled, introduced, talked, went, had lunch, walked, decided, etc.; came, bloomed, blossomed, turned blue, turned golden, etc.), which denote extreme actions , changing. The narrative is characterized by specific vocabulary (doctor, patients, horses, city, garden; forest, snowdrops, cat, mustache, paws). The course of events is emphasized through the circumstances of time (just now, one winter, spring, on a holiday, after receiving patients, then).
By use syntactic constructions and types of connection between sentences, narration is contrasted with description, which is manifested, in particular, in the following:
1) in the difference in aspectual and tense forms of verbs - the description is based mainly on the use of imperfect forms, the narration - perfect;
2) in the predominance of the chain connection of sentences in the narrative - a parallel connection is more typical for the description;
3) in the use of one-part sentences - atypical for storytelling nominative sentences, impersonal offers, widely represented in descriptive contexts.
Reasoning - FSTR corresponding to the form abstract thinking- inference, which performs a special communicative task - to give speech a reasoned character (to arrive logically at a new judgment or to argue for something previously expressed) and formalized using lexical and grammatical means of cause-and-effect semantics. The main sphere of use of reasoning is scientific, updating logical, rational type thinking.
Reasoning functions in texts in the form of several communicative-compositional options, the typology of which is a field structure.
The central variety is actually reasoning(discussion in in the narrow sense words) - a type of speech that most consistently expresses the cause-and-effect relationship between judgments: from cause to effect, and not from consequence (thesis) to cause (foundation). The central place of reasoning itself in the system of argumentative subtypes of speech is also determined by its role in the communicative-cognitive process. It is this type of speech that formalizes the derivation of new knowledge, demonstrates the course of the author’s thought, and the way to solve the problem. Structurally, the reasoning itself is a chain of sentences, connected by relationship logical consequence.
The area adjacent to the center, the area of the near periphery, is occupied by subtypes of reasoning, which serve to give the expressed judgments a more reasoned character: proof(communicative-cognitive function - establishing the truth of the thesis), refutation(a type of evidence that serves to establish the falsity of the thesis), confirmation(or empirical evidence, function - establishing the reliability of the stated position by supporting it with facts), justification(establishing the expediency of an action, motivation; in contrast to evidence, which corresponds to the question “Is this really so?”, justification provides an answer to the question “Is this really necessary, expedient?”). These subtypes of reasoning are united among themselves on the basis of structural similarity: they all include a thesis, which forms the key part of the construction, and arguments - a commentary part, which is designed to remove doubts (in whole or in part) about the position put forward as a thesis.
Proof, as a rule, ends with a variable repetition of the thesis - a conclusion, i.e. a judgment already known to the reader, the new point of which is that its truth has been proven. A distant lexical-semantic connection is established between the initial and final sentences, which is a signal of the beginning and end of the utterance and plays a special compositional role, organizing the text. The proof is characterized by the use of a typical set of tools. Stereotypical ways of its design include designating a sequence of operations using 1st person verbs plural: let's find, multiply, equate, define, etc. The result of these operations is introduced with the words will, will have, will get, where it turns out, it follows from here, then, etc. To express cause-and-effect relationships, conjunctions and conjunction analogues of the corresponding semantics are used: so as, so, therefore, therefore, therefore, thus, so. The proof, carried out with the help of additional assumptions, uses the particle let, conditional constructions.
In the region of the far periphery of the field structure of reasoning there is explanation. Unlike the named subtypes of reasoning, an explanation serves primarily not for the purposes of confirming the validity of the thesis (or establishing its falsity), but rather for revealing the causes of real phenomena.
Fictional, journalistic, and official business texts are not characterized by strictly logical, detailed reasoning. IN journalistic texts the reasoning itself performs the function of preparation, leading the reader to a certain conclusion, but here, unlike scientific speech, this subtype of reasoning, even with its large volume, as a rule, does not represent a chain of judgments logically following from one another, but factual information with subsequent conclusion. For journalism, focused on the mentality of an educated, intelligent addressee, argumentative types of speech are fundamentally important, since they ensure the implementation of the main communicative function of journalism - persuasive influence. However, the task of persuasion is solved in journalism not through proof itself, that is, not through strict logical procedures, as in scientific speech. In journalistic texts, in order to convince the reader of the correctness of the author’s judgments, confirmation of them with facts is used. In this regard, great activity of the argumentative subtype of speech “confirmation” is revealed here.
Explanation And justification are common not only in scientific but also in journalistic texts, where they serve the task of increasing the reader’s understanding of the problems being analyzed, the importance of decisions made, and actions taken. Explanation is also present in works of art, however, like other types of reasoning, it is distinguished here by a special “aura” and arises as a result of a creative dialogue between the author and the reader in the process of clarifying the artistic meaning of the text. An open explanation of the events described, the states of the characters, which increases the degree of verisimilitude of what is depicted, is combined with hidden forms of explanation, deliberate understatement, which encourages the reader to think, to look for answers to the numerous “whys” that arise. in the general context and subtext of the work and thereby helps the reader come closer to understanding the deep ideological and aesthetic content of the work.
Chapter 2 examined the various meanings of the term “speech,” one of which is synonymous with the term “text.” Thus, the text is a product of speech activity, it is the space of utterance within which the speech strategy is formed. In the 70-80s of the XX century. In linguistic studies of the text, two directions have clearly emerged: a functional typology, the basis of which was the social functions and purposes of using texts, and a structural typology, addressed to the internal organization of texts.
The functional approach to the typology of texts brings together types of speech with genres: narration, description, reasoning.
A type of speech is understood as a text (or a fragment of a text) with a certain generalized meaning (an object and its attribute; an object and its action; an assessment of an event, phenomenon; cause-and-effect relationships, etc.), which is expressed by certain linguistic means.
Functional type of speech - a type of speech that depends on the goals and meaning of a monologue utterance.
When forming the concept of functional types of speech, they take into account a set of essential features: ( 1 ) function (from here - functional type of speech); (2) meaning (from here - semantic type of speech); ( 3) structure and language means.
By functions texts (types of speech) are divided into: (a) texts that reflect reality; (b) texts are a person’s thoughts about reality.
By meaning texts (types of speech) are divided into description, narration, reasoning.
The first two types of speech presuppose a relationship with the world of objects (in a broad sense), the last - with the world of concepts and judgments.
Description - this is a functional-semantic type of speech in which an image of a phenomenon is given by listing its characteristic features.
Compositional model of this type of speech: description object - its signs - general picture, image.From the point of view of the object of description, the following types are distinguished: portrait, interior, landscape, household, scientific and technical, description of the state of affairs. The description involves listing characteristics (constant or homogeneous), therefore it differsstatic.In descriptive texts, the attributes of an object are thatnewinformation for the sake of which the statement is created. The starting point is the object itself or part of it. The development of thought occurs due to the fact that each subsequent sentence adds new features to what is said, therefore the connection of sentences in descriptions is usually parallel. Verbs are used in the imperfect form. The basis of the description is subject vocabulary. The descriptions are stylistically heterogeneous. This difference is especially obvious between artistic and scientific-business descriptions.
In some cases they talk about dynamic description. It is usually small in scope, included in the event, and does not pause the action. For example, the landscape is given through the perception of the subject as he moves (“The Steppe” by A.P. Chekhov).
Narration - this is a functional-semantic type of speech, which is an image of actions and events in time. Composition model: plot - once twist of action - climax - denouement.
In a story, individual sentences are connected chain link. The sequence of actions and events is conveyed using perfective verbs, which, replacing each other, show the unfolding of the narrative. Predicate verbs are usually found after the subject. Narrative texts, like descriptive ones, are stylistically different, which is especially clearly manifested in the contrast between artistic narration (story, story) and scientific-business narration (report, receipt, etc.).
Reasoning - this is a functional-semantic type of speech, which is a verbal presentation, explanation and confirmation of any thought. Composition model: thesis - proof - conclusion. It is advisable to formulate the conclusion briefly and clearly, in one sentence, which would be distantly linked to the thesis, confirming or refuting it depending on the task at hand.
This type of speech is characterized by a large number complex sentences, mainly - complex subordinate clauses with subordinate clauses of purpose, cause, condition, consequence, etc. Predicates are usually expressed by verbs in the present tense form. A lot of introductory words. Abstract vocabulary is widely used. So, depending on the goals of the monologue utterance, the presence of certain semantic and compositional-structural features of the text, three main communicative types of speech are distinguished: description, narration, reasoning.