What to do if you get lost and need to quickly get to the nearest locality? How to find the right way, if you are in an open area and cannot find the right direction to move? How to navigate in the forest? You will find answers to all these and other questions if you know how to work with the map correctly.

Orientation is a simple process and does not require great effort. To easily determine your location, you just need to know the important basics, which we will discuss below.

Orientation stages

Every tourist should know how to navigate a forest or vacant lot in case of unforeseen circumstances. The entire process of determining location on the ground consists of three components:

1. Finding terrain - your location using known objects nearby.
2. Precise definition location points on the map and locations of the objects you need.
3. Determining the direction of the route and cardinal points. To do this, you need to correctly orient the map, then find your location on it and compare the diagram with the surrounding area. To correctly orient the map, you need to rotate it so that all directions on it become parallel and coincide with existing lines on the ground. It is also important that northern point cards (its top part) was turned, accordingly, to the north.

Working with the map

Before you go on any trip, you must first analyze the route exactly and, if necessary, discuss it with other participants in the trip. To ensure safety on the road, you need to know how to navigate a map, use it correctly and be able to read it correctly.

Working with a map is a complex and interesting process; with its help you can study the area around the chosen route down to the smallest detail and clarify the location of all the objects indicated on the map. In addition, the skills of working with a map will help you develop a large number of personal qualities. For example, the ability to think quickly, a sharp mind, a developed eye, increased attentiveness, etc.

Before setting out on the route, mark all the main landmarks on the map and plot the direction of your movement on it. It is advisable to plot as many landmarks as possible, using all visible objects. This seemingly small nuance will help you feel more confident on the road in the future and enjoy your journey with good mood.

Types of orientation on the map

In contrast to the exact way in which the necessary objects are searched for, there are different kinds orientation:

Topographical. Carried out using primary definition cardinal directions and then finding your location using them.

General. Orientation using the approximate location of your location in space, as well as using the direction of the route and time of movement.

Detailed. The most accurate and verified determination of the location on the map and the direction of the path. Often, in addition to the map, this type of orientation requires additional instruments and measurements (for example, a tourist compass, measuring ruler, additional landmarks, etc.). A compass is often used when moving through monotonous and empty terrain, where there are no obvious objects to determine the location. For example, in the taiga, desert, etc. Moreover, you cannot do without additional devices even under conditions of insufficient visibility (when walking at night, moving in increased fog, excessive smoke, unfavorable weather conditions - rain or snow).

Orientation sequence

So, how does the process of orienteering take place?

Let's look at the whole process one by one.

To begin with, you will need to correctly position the map in front of you and accurately find the cardinal directions. A compass or any two landmark objects can help with this.

How to navigate using a compass and map?

A compass is as indispensable a tool in determining your location as a map of the area. If you have both tools, then finding this point will be much easier. A compass will help you find out exactly how the cardinal directions around you are oriented, where is north and south on the map.

How to correctly find the direction of movement?

First, pick up the compass, place it horizontally on the map and release the brake of the device all the way. After this, the arrow indicating the cardinal directions should begin to move, and then itself set in the desired direction (to the north).

In the same way, after this you can determine all other cardinal directions. If you stand facing north, then the south will be behind you, the east will be on your right, and the west will be on your left. The cardinal directions will also be indicated on the compass scale itself.

Once you have decided on the cardinal directions, you need to correctly orient the map relative to them.

Orientation using two selected objects

First you need to find and select any two objects relative to which you will orient yourself on the spot. It is important that both of them are located at a small distance from each other, in common area visibility.

Then go to one of the landmarks and find it on the topographic map.

Look at another landmark and turn the diagram towards you so that the direction vector to the second object on the map coincides with the same direction vector on the ground.

Orientation using line objects

How to learn to navigate on a map if you confidently know your current location, and there are similar areas where you are? Linear orientation objects include straight roads (country roads, driveways), intersections, rivers and forest paths. They will need to be taken as reference objects.

To do this, you need to place the map in your hands so that the direction vector of the road or any other linear object (power line, communication line, etc.) on the map coincides with the vector of the same line at the place where you are. If the map is positioned correctly, then objects located at both ends of the line will be located on the map in the same places.

The map is oriented preferably along the lines of the surrounding area and landmarks. Only where they are difficult to find, the location of the map must be determined using a compass.

Finding an exact location on the ground

After the correct location of the map, it is already possible to begin the actual orientation and search for your current location. To do this, you need to know how to navigate a topographic map based on the terrain and the objects around you.

For any task, they usually start by finding themselves on the map. This, in turn, can also be done in different ways.

Determining location by local objects on the map

This option is suitable if you are located near any geographical feature- be it a road, a lake or a river. In this case, understanding how to navigate the map is not difficult at all. Exactly symbol The found landmark will become your starting point of orientation and will help you find your location.

Determining location relative to nearby objects by eye

The easiest and most effective option for finding your way around on a map. This method is similar to the previous one, it differs only in that initially you need to find 2-3 landmarks nearby on your own. Then you need to pick up a map and find the designations of these landmarks on it. According to the information received, apply to geographical diagram your location point.

Orientation using distance information

This option can be used only in cases where your route runs along linear landmarks (past communication lines, roads, forest paths, rivers). Thanks to them, it is possible to navigate even in poor visibility around, in difficult weather conditions, or when there are no objects around for orientation.

How to navigate on the map in this case? Start your movement from any of the maps, while remembering the number of steps (your location is determined by scale).

In order to subsequently find yourself on the map, you need to plot on it, according to the map scale, the distance on the ground covered from the starting point of the path (landmark object) to any specific direction. The scale is measured in steps from the start of the route to the point of reaching a new landmark.

Determining location by comparing the terrain on the map with the surrounding area

This method involves constantly checking landmarks on the map with objects in the surrounding area. In the process, it is necessary to find new reference points nearby and compare them with symbols on the topographic map.

Determining location using the serif method

This method is mainly used for routes in open areas. If there is a road or any other linear feature nearby, you need to rotate the map correctly, then mark on it any landmark that you see in the area around you. After that, take a ruler and apply it to the map in the direction of the landmark point.

Orientation using the sighting method

If you are traveling in open areas, you should also know how to navigate using a map. In such conditions, the sighting method is used.

As in the previous option, you need to select an object marked on the map that you see next to you on the ground. After this, you need to take a pencil, place it vertically on symbol selected landmark and, without changing the direction of the map, mentally draw a line through the object and pencil. After this, mark the point of your location on the linear object.

Orientation using the resection method

For this method, it is necessary to determine at least two landmark objects on the map and on the ground (the third is needed for verification). First, orient the map correctly, then identify the selected objects on it. After this, just as in the sighting method, perform the same operations with each of the three landmarks in turn. When finished, you should have three drawn lines on the map. The point where these lines intersect will be your location.

There are many various systems coordinates, All of them serve to determine the position of points on earth's surface. This includes mainly geographical coordinates, flat rectangular and polar coordinates. In general, coordinates are usually called angular and linear quantities, defining points on any surface or in space.

Geographic coordinates are angular values- latitude and longitude, which determine the position of a point on the globe. Geographic latitude is the angle formed by a plane equator and a plumb line at a given point on the earth's surface. This angle value shows how far a particular point on the globe is north or south of the equator.

If a point is located in the Northern Hemisphere, then it geographic latitude will be called northern, and if in Southern Hemisphere- southern latitude. The latitude of points located on the equator is zero degrees, and at the poles (North and South) - 90 degrees.

Geographic longitude is also an angle, but formed by the plane of the meridian taken as the initial (zero) and the plane of the meridian passing through this point. For uniformity of definition, we agreed to consider the prime meridian to be the meridian passing through the astronomical observatory in Greenwich (near London) and call it Greenwich.

All points located to the east of it will have eastern longitude (up to the meridian 180 degrees), and to the west of the initial one will have western longitude. The figure below shows how to determine the position of point A on the earth's surface if its geographic coordinates (latitude and longitude) are known.

Note that the difference in longitude of two points on Earth shows not only their mutual arrangement towards prime meridian, but also the difference in these points at the same moment. The fact is that every 15 degrees (24th part of the circle) in longitude is equal to one hour of time. Based on this, it is possible to geographic longitude determine the time difference at these two points.

For example.

Moscow has a longitude of 37°37′ (east), and Khabarovsk -135°05′, that is, lies east of 97°28′. What time do these cities have at the same moment? Simple calculations show that if it is 13 hours in Moscow, then in Khabarovsk it is 19 hours 30 minutes.

The figure below shows the design of the frame of a sheet of any card. As can be seen from the figure, in the corners of this map the longitude of the meridians and the latitude of the parallels that form the frame of the sheet of this map are written.

On all sides the frame has scales divided into minutes. For both latitude and longitude. Moreover, each minute is divided into 6 equal sections by dots, which correspond to 10 seconds of longitude or latitude.

Thus, in order to determine the latitude of any point M on the map, it is necessary to draw a line through this point, parallel to the lower or upper frame of the map, and read the corresponding degrees, minutes, seconds on the right or left along the latitude scale. In our example, point M has a latitude of 45°31’30”.

Similarly, drawing a vertical line through point M parallel to the lateral (closest to this point) meridian of the border of a given map sheet, we read the longitude (eastern) equal to 43°31’18”.

Application to topographic map points at given geographic coordinates.

Drawing a point on a map at specified geographic coordinates is done in the reverse order. First, the indicated geographic coordinates are found on the scales, and then parallel and perpendicular lines are drawn through them. Their intersection will show a point with the given geographic coordinates.

Based on materials from the book “Map and Compass are My Friends.”
Klimenko A.I.

Our planet - Earth - has many names: blue planet, Terra (lat.), third planet, Earth (eng.). It revolves around the Sun in a circular orbit with a radius of about 1 astronomical unit (150 million km). The orbital period occurs at a speed of 29.8 km/s and lasts 1 year (365 days). Its age is comparable to the age of the entire solar system, and is 4.5 billion years old. Modern science believes that the Earth was formed from dust and gas that remained from the formation of the Sun. From the fact that the elements with high density are at great depths, and light substances (silicates of various metals) remained on the surface, a logical conclusion follows - the Earth, at the beginning of its formation, was in a molten state. Now, the temperature of the planet's core is within 6200 °C. After the high temperatures subsided, it began to harden. Huge areas of the Earth are still covered with water, without which the emergence of life would have been impossible.

The main core of the Earth is divided into an inner solid core with a radius of 1300 km and an outer liquid core (2200 km). The temperature in the center of the core reaches 5000 °C. The mantle extends to a depth of 2900 km and makes up 83% of the Earth's volume and 67% total mass. It has a rocky appearance and consists of 2 parts: external and internal. Lithosphere is the outer part of the mantle, about 100 km long. The Earth's crust is the upper part of the lithosphere of uneven thickness: about 50 km on the continents and about 10 km under the oceans. The lithosphere consists of large plates, the size of which reaches entire continents. The movement of these plates, under the influence of convective flows, was called by geologists “the movement of tectonic plates.”

A magnetic field

Essentially, the Earth is a generator direct current. The Earth's magnetic field arises due to the interaction of rotation around own axis, with a liquid core inside the planet. It forms the magnetic shell of the Earth - the “magnetosphere”. Magnetic storms are sudden changes Earth's magnetic field. They are caused by streams of particles of ionized gas that move from the Sun (solar wind), after flares on it. Particles colliding with atoms earth's atmosphere, form one of the most beautiful natural phenomena – auroras. A special glow usually occurs near the North and South Poles, which is why it is also called Northern Lights. Analysis of the structure of ancient rocky formations showed that once every 100,000 years, an inversion (change) of the North and South Poles occurs. Scientists cannot yet say exactly how this process occurs, but they are struggling to answer this question.

Previously, the atmosphere of our planet included methane with water vapor dioxide and carbon dioxide, hydrogen and ammonia. Further, most of elements went into space. They were replaced by water vapor and carbon anhydrite. The atmosphere is held in place by the force of earth's gravity. It has several layers.

The troposphere is the lowest and densest layer of the earth's atmosphere, in which the temperature drops with height by 6 °C for every kilometer. Its height reaches 12 km from the Earth's surface.
The stratosphere is a part of the atmosphere located at a distance of 12 to 50 km, between the troposphere and mesosphere. It contains a lot of ozone, and the temperature increases slightly with altitude. Ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation emanating from the Sun, thereby protecting living organisms from radiation.
The mesosphere is a layer of the atmosphere lying below the thermosphere, at an altitude of 50 to 85 km. It is characterized by low temperatures up to -90 °C, which decreases with altitude.
Thermosphere is a layer of the atmosphere located at an altitude of 85 to 800 km, between the mesosphere and exosphere. Characterized by temperatures up to 1500 °C, falling with altitude.
The exosphere, the outer and last layer of the atmosphere, is the most rarefied and passes into interplanetary space. It is characterized by an altitude of more than 800 km.

Life in the Earth

The average temperature on Earth hovers around 12 °C. The maximum in Western Sahara reaches +70 °C, the minimum in Antarctica reaches –85 °C. Water shell The Earth - the hydrosphere - occupies 71%, 2/3 or 361 million km2, of the Earth's surface. IN Earth's oceans 97% of all are located water reserves. Some is in the form of snow and ice, and some is present in the atmosphere. Depth of the world's oceans Mariana Trench, is 11 thousand m, and the average depth is about 3.9 thousand m. Both on the continents and in the oceans, there are very diverse and amazing forms of life. Scientists of all times have wrestled with the question: where did life on Earth come from? Naturally, there is simply no clear and precise answer to this question. There can only be guesses and assumptions.

One of the versions that is considered the most reliable and fits numerous criteria, uniting various opinions, is the chemical reactions of gases. Allegedly, Favorable conditions for the formation of life, appeared thanks to electrical and magnetic storms, which caused these reactions of gases that were in the then existing atmosphere. Products such chemical reactions, contained the most elementary particles, which were part of proteins (amino acids). These substances entered the oceans and continued their reactions there. And only after many millions of years, the first simplest, primitive cells capable of reproduction or division developed. Hence the explanation that life on Earth originated from water. Plant cells, synthesized different molecules and fed on carbonic anhydride. Plants still do this process today, it is called photosynthesis. As a result of photosynthesis, oxygen accumulated in our atmosphere, which changed its composition and properties. As a result of evolution, the diversity of living beings on the planet grew, but to maintain their life, oxygen was needed. So, without a strong shield of our planet - the stratosphere, protecting all living things from radioactive solar radiation, and oxygen - produced by plants, life on earth might not exist.

Characteristics of the Earth

Weight: 5.98*1024kg
Diameter at the equator: 12,742 km
Axle tilt: 23.5°
Density: 5.52 g/cm3
Surface temperature: –85 °C to +70 °C
Duration of sidereal day: 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4 seconds
Distance from the Sun (average): 1 a. e. (149.6 million km)
Orbital speed: 29.7 km/s
Orbital period (year): 365.25 days
Orbital eccentricity: e = 0.017
Orbital inclination to the ecliptic: i = 7.25° (to the solar equator)
Acceleration free fall: g = 9.8 m/s2
Satellites: Moon

Hello readers! It's a cool planet, isn't it? She is beautiful and loved. Today, in this article, I would like to tell you about what our planet is made of, what its shape, temperature, composition, size and a few other interesting things are...

Earth, on this planet we live, it is the fifth of major planets c and third from the Sun. On Earth, generally favorable , a lot of natural resources and maybe she is the only planet, on which life exists.

Active geodynamic processes occurring in the bowels of the Earth are manifested in the build-up oceanic crust and its further opening, earthquakes, eruptions, etc.

Shape and size.

The approximate contours and dimensions of the Earth have been known for more than 2000 years. The Greek scientist quite accurately calculated the radius of the Earth back in the 3rd century. BC e. In our time, it is already known that the polar radius of the Earth is about 12,711 km, and the equatorial radius is 12,754 km.

The Earth's surface area is about 510.2 million km2, of which 361 million km2 is water. The volume of the Earth is approximately 1121 billion km 3. Due to the rotation of the planet, a centrifugal force arises, which is maximum at the equator and decreases towards the poles; this rotation is responsible for the uneven radii of the Earth.

If only this one force acted on Earth, then all objects located on the surface would fly into space, but thanks to the force gravity, this doesn't happen.

Gravity.

Gravity, or the force of the earth's attraction, keeps the atmosphere near the earth's surface and the moon in orbit. With height, the force of gravity decreases. The state of weightlessness that astronauts feel is explained precisely by this circumstance.

Due to the rotation of the Earth and the action of centrifugal force, gravity on its surface decreases somewhat. The acceleration of freely falling objects, the value of which is 9.8 m/s, is due to the force of gravity.

The heterogeneity of the Earth's surface leads to differences in gravity in different areas. Information about internal structure The Earth allows you to obtain a measurement of the acceleration of the force of weight.

Mass and density.

The mass of the Earth is approximately 5976 ∙ 10 21 tons. For comparison, the mass of the Sun is approximately 333 thousand times greater, and the mass of Jupiter is 318 times greater. But on the other hand, the mass of the Earth exceeds the mass of the Moon by 81.8 times. The Earth's density varies from extremely high in the center of the planet to negligible in upper layers atmosphere.

Knowing the mass and volume of the Earth, scientists calculated that it average density approximately 5.5 times the density of water. Granite is one of the most common fossils on the Earth's surface, its density is 2.7 g/cm3, the density in the mantle varies from 3 to 5 g/cm3, within the core - from 8 to 15 g/cm3. At the center of the Earth it can reach 17 g/cm3.

Conversely, the density of air near the Earth's surface is approximately 1/800th the density of water, and in the upper atmosphere it is very small.

Pressure.

At sea level, the atmosphere exerts a pressure of 1 kg/cm2 (pressure of one atmosphere), and with height it decreases. The pressure decreases by approximately 2/3 at an altitude of about 8 km. Inside the Earth, the pressure increases rapidly: at the boundary of the core it is about 1.5 million atmospheres, and in its center - up to 3.7 million atmospheres.

Temperatures.

On Earth, temperatures vary greatly. For example, in Al-Azizia (Libya), a record heat 58 °C (September 13, 1922), and at the Vostok station near South Pole Antarctica, record low – 89.2 °C (July 21, 1983).

In depth, the temperature rises by 0.6 °C every 18 m, then this process slows down. Earth's core, placed in the center of the Earth, heated to a temperature of 5000 – 6000 °C.

The average air temperature in the near-surface sphere of the atmosphere is 15 °C, it decreases gradually in the troposphere, and above (starting from the stratosphere) it varies within wide limits depending on the absolute altitude.

The cryosphere is the shell of the Earth, usually the temperature within which is below 0 °C. At high latitudes it begins at sea level, and in the tropics at an altitude of about 4500 m. The cryosphere in subpolar regions on continents can extend several tens of kilometers below the earth's surface, forming the horizon.

Thus, I told you the most important facts about the Earth, as it were, from the inside. From the side from which we usually never thought. It was a brief description of Earth. I hope this article was the answer to your search. 🙂

The most studied planet in the solar system is our home planet - Earth. Currently, this is the only known space object in the solar system inhabited by living organisms. In a word, the Earth is our home.

History of the planet

Estimated scientists planet The earth was formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago, and the first forms of life only 600 million years later. A lot has changed since then. Living organisms have created a global ecosystem, the magnetic field together with ozone layer protected them from harmful cosmic radiation. All this and many other factors made it possible to create the most beautiful and “living” planet in the solar system.

10 things you need to know about Earth!

1. Earth in the solar system is the third planet from the suns A;
2. One revolves around our planet natural satellite- Moon;
   
3. Earth is the only planet not named after a divine being;
4. The Earth's density is the greatest of all the planets in the solar system;
5. The Earth's rotation speed is gradually slowing down;
6. The average distance from the Earth to the Sun is 1 astronomical unit(a conventional measure of length in astronomy), which equals approximately 150 million km;
7. The earth has magnetic field sufficient strength to protect living organisms on its surface from harmful solar radiation;
8. First artificial satellite Earth called PS-1 (The simplest satellite - 1) was launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome on the Sputnik launch vehicle on October 4, 1957;
9. In orbit around the Earth, compared to other planets, there is the largest number of spacecraft;
10. The earth is the most big planet terrestrial group in the solar system;

Astronomical characteristics

The meaning of the name of planet Earth

The word Earth is very old, its origins are lost in the depths of the Proto-Indo-European language community. Vasmer's dictionary provides references to similar words in Greek, Persian, Baltic, and also, of course, in Slavic languages, where the same word is used (in accordance with phonetic laws specific languages) with the same meaning. The original root has the meaning "low". Previously, it was believed that the earth was flat, “low,” and rested on three whales, elephants, turtles, etc.

Physical characteristics of the Earth

Rings and satellites

One natural satellite, the Moon, and more than 8,300 artificial satellites orbit the Earth.

Features of the planet

Earth is our home planet. It is the only planet in our solar system where life definitely exists. Everything we need to survive is hidden under a thin layer of atmosphere that separates us from being desolate and uninhabitable for life as we know it. outer space. The Earth is made up of complex interactive systems that are often unpredictable. Air, water, land, life forms, including humans, join forces to create the ever-changing world that we strive to understand.

Exploring the Earth from space allows us to look at our planet as a whole. Scientists from all over the world, working together and sharing their experiences, have discovered many interesting facts about our planet.

Some facts are well known. For example, Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the fifth largest in the Solar System. The diameter of the Earth is only a few hundred kilometers larger than that of Venus. The four seasons are the result of a tilt of the Earth's axis of rotation of more than 23 degrees.

Oceans, with an average depth of 4 kilometers, occupy almost 70% of the earth's surface. Pure water exists in the liquid phase only in a narrow temperature range (from 0 to 100 degrees Celsius). This temperature range is especially small compared to the temperature spectrum that is present on other planets in the solar system. The presence and distribution of water vapor in the atmosphere is largely responsible for the formation of weather on Earth.

Our planet has at its center a rapidly rotating molten core consisting of nickel and iron. It is thanks to its rotation that a magnetic field is formed around the Earth, protecting us from solar wind, turning it into auroras.

Atmosphere of the planet

Near the surface of the Earth there is a huge ocean of air - our atmosphere. It consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% other gases. Thanks to this air gap, which protects us from what is destructive for all living space, various weather. It is this that protects us from harmful solar radiation and falling meteors. Space research vehicles have been studying our gas shell, however, she has not yet revealed all the secrets.