Neptune
Neptune is the eighth planet from the Sun, a large planet in the solar system, and belongs to the giant planets. Its orbit intersects with Pluto's orbit in some places. Discovered on September 23, 1846, Neptune was the first planet found by mathematical calculation rather than by regular observation.
Neptune moves around the Sun in an elliptical, close to circular (eccentricity 0.009) orbit; its average distance from the Sun is 30.058 times greater than that of the Earth, which is approximately 4500 million km. This means that light from the Sun reaches Neptune in a little over 4 hours. The length of a year, that is, the time of one complete revolution around the Sun, is 164.8 Earth years. The equatorial radius of the planet is 24,750 km, which is almost four times the radius of the Earth, and its own rotation is so fast that a day on Neptune lasts only 17.8 hours. Although Neptune's average density of 1.67 g/cm3 is almost three times less than that of Earth, its mass, due to the large size of the planet, is 17.2 times greater than that of Earth. Neptune appears in the sky as a 7.8 magnitude star (invisible to the naked eye); at high magnification it looks like a greenish disk, devoid of any details. Effective surface temperature approx. 38 K, but as it approaches the center of the planet it increases to (12-14) · 103 K at a pressure of 7-8 megabars.
Like a typical gas planet, Neptune is famous for its large storms and eddies, fast winds blowing in limited bands parallel to the equator. Neptune has the fastest winds in the solar system, accelerating up to 2200 km/h. The winds blow on Neptune in a westerly direction, against the planet's rotation. Note that for giant planets, the speed of flows and currents in their atmospheres increases with distance from the Sun. This pattern has no explanation yet. In the pictures you can see clouds in Neptune's atmosphere. Like Jupiter and Saturn, Neptune has an internal heat source - it emits more than two and a half times more energy than it receives from the Sun.
Neptune has a magnetic field whose strength at the poles is approximately twice that of Earth.
Neptune also has rings. They were discovered during the eclipse of one of the stars by Neptune in 1981. Observations from Earth showed only faint arcs instead of full rings, but Voyager 2 photographs in August 1989 showed them to their full size. One of the rings has a curious curved structure. Like Uranus and Jupiter, Neptune's rings are very dark and their structure is unknown. Currently, Neptune has 13 known natural satellites.
The fastest wind in the world was recorded by a commission of experts on April 10, 1996. The wind gust reached its record high on Barrow Island, Australia. At this time, Cyclone Olivia was passing through here.
The wind speed on the island reached 408 kilometers per hour. For comparison, the average wind speed in the world reaches 15 kilometers per hour.
Previously, the fastest wind in the world was considered to be a current that was caught in New Hampshire at Mount Washington. This place is still considered one of the most unfriendly on the planet. Before the new record was set in 1996, the American wind in New Hampshire was considered the strongest flow for about 70 years.
Wind speeds at the top of Mount Washington reached 372 kilometers per hour.
Despite these planetary anomalies, a general weakening of winds around the world is being recorded today. Researchers analyzed the performance of 800 weather stations over the past 3 decades. It turned out that today wind speeds have decreased by 15%. That is, if earlier the air flows moved at a speed of 17 km/h, today it is already 14 km/h.
What is the reason? Scientists believe that one of the main reasons for such indicators is the restoration of forests due to the acute environmental situation. But no one discounts global warming.
What is the threat? But the consequences of such changes can be negative for humans. For example, the researchers suggested that slowing wind flows could lead to air pollution, as well as a sharp reduction in the dispersal of seeds on the ground. Not to mention that wind farms will now produce significantly less energy. The strangest clouds have also appeared in the world.
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The science
Space exploration is an incredible adventure. Secrets of our Universe always attracted us, and scientists made incredible discoveries, looking into the most hidden corners of space.
However, the Universe may turn out to be a rather inhospitable and even frightening place. Hardly anyone would want to visit some of its most amazing places, for example, to visit distant mysterious planets and their satellites.
Carbon exoplanet
Our planet maintains high levels of oxygen relative to carbon. Carbon is approximately 0.1 percent of the Earth's volume, so we are short of carbon-based materials such as fossil fuels and diamonds.
However, in the region of the center of our galaxy, planets have been observed much more carbon than oxygen, since the formation of planets there was different. These planets were named carbon planets.
The morning sky of a carbon planet will never be crystal clear and blue. You will see yellow fog with black clouds of soot. If you go down to the surface, you can see seas of unrefined oil and tar. Bubbles of unpleasant-smelling methane rise on the surface of these seas. The weather forecast is also not encouraging: it is raining gasoline. This is the place we imagine reminds me of hell.
Planet Neptune
On Neptune You can find winds constantly blowing at jet speeds. These winds push natural gas ice clouds towards the northern edge Big dark spot planets. The spot is a huge hurricane, comparable in size to the diameter of our Earth. The wind speed on Neptune reaches about 2500 kilometers per hour.
The strength of such winds is far beyond what a person can bear. Assuming that one of us suddenly ends up on Neptune, he'll be torn apart in the blink of an eye this incredible threatening wind.
While scientists cannot say for sure, where does this strongest wind in the solar system get so much energy?, despite the fact that the planet Neptune is located quite far from the Sun, and also has relatively weak internal heat.
Exoplanet 51 Pegasi b with unusual rains
Nicknamed Bellerophon in honor of the Greek hero who tamed the winged horse Pegasus, this gas giant planet is approximately 150 times more massive than Earth and consists mainly of hydrogen and helium.
The problem is that the planet Bellerophon is roasting in the rays of its star at temperatures about 1000 degrees Celsius. Distance of this planet from the star 100 times less than the distance from the Earth to the Sun. Extremely high temperatures at the surface cause incredible winds.
As warm air rises, cold air sinks, creating winds that blow at 1000 kilometers per hour. The incredible heat does not allow liquid or solid water to remain on the surface, however, this does not mean that there is no rain on the planet.
The unprecedented heat causes iron, one of the planet's components, to evaporate. Vapors rise upward, forming iron steam clouds, which essentially resemble clouds of water vapor on Earth. The only difference is that these clouds shed rain that is not quite familiar to us in the form of molten iron.
Exoplanet COROT-3b
The densest and most massive exoplanet discovered to date is COROT-3b was discovered using the COROT telescope in 2008. It is comparable in size to Jupiter, however 20 times heavier his. That is, COROT-3b is approximately 2 times denser than lead.
The pressure that would be exerted on a person walking on its surface would be insurmountable. With such a mass of the planet, a person on it would weigh approximately 50 times more than it weighs on Earth. For example, a person who on Earth weighs about 80 kilograms, on the planet COROT-3b would have the weight 4 tons!
The human skeleton cannot withstand such pressure. It's like an elephant sitting on your chest.
Planet Mars and dust storms
On Mars, dust storms can last for long hours and cover the entire surface of the planet in a few days. These are the largest and the most powerful dust storms in the solar system. The height of Martian dust devils can reach heights exceeding the height of Mount Everest on Earth, and winds reach speeds of about 300 kilometers per hour.
Once formed, dust storms sometimes require a few months to calm down. According to one version, dust particles detached from the surface of Mars absorb sunlight and heat the Martian atmosphere.
Warm air currents are directed towards colder areas, forming winds. Strong winds raise more dust from the surface, which, in turn, heats the atmosphere, increasing the winds and so on.
It is surprising that many of the planet's dust storms originate in a single impact crater. Plain of Hellas– the deepest impact crater in the Solar System. The temperature at the bottom of this crater can be 10 degrees higher than on the surface. This crater is filled with a large layer of dust. The difference in temperature fuels the action of the winds, which lift dust from the crater floor upward.
The hottest planet is exoplanet WASP-12 b
This planet is currently considered the hottest planet in the Universe. Its temperature is approximately 2200 degrees Celsius, and its orbit is closest to the star than any other orbit of known planets.
Without any doubt, at this temperature any substance will burn immediately in the atmosphere of this planet. This planet quickly covers the distance around its star: 3.4 million kilometers it passes in approximately 24 Earth hours.
Planet Jupiter
Storms form in Jupiter's atmosphere that are larger than the diameter of our planet. These giants cause winds to blow at speeds 650 kilometers per hour, as well as powerful lightning discharges, which 100 times brighter than lightning on Earth.
An ocean of liquid metallic hydrogen splashes on the surface of the planet. 40 thousand kilometers deep. On Earth, hydrogen is a colorless, transparent gas, but in Jupiter's core, hydrogen transforms into something that does not exist on our planet.
In Jupiter's outer layers, hydrogen resembles the gas found on Earth, but the deeper you go to the surface, the higher the pressure. Eventually the pressure becomes so high that it squeezes electrons out of hydrogen atoms. Under such extreme conditions, hydrogen turns into a liquid metal that conducts electricity as well as heat. Just like a mirror, it reflects light.
Dwarf planet Pluto
Pluto, which has already dropped out of the planet category, is different extremely cold temperature. Frozen nitrogen, carbon monoxide and methane cover the entire surface of the dwarf planet like a blanket of snow during most of the Plutonian year, which lasts 248 earth years.
The ice turned from white to pinkish-brown due to interaction with gamma rays from deep space and the Sun. During the day, the Sun delivers no more light and heat to the surface of the planet than the Moon does for the Earth. Temperatures on Pluto's surface reach from minus 228 to minus 238 degrees Celsius.
Exoplanet COROT-7 b and active volcanoes
Temperature on the surface of the side of the planet facing the star COROT-7 b so high that allows you to melt rocks. Scientists who modeled the planet's atmosphere determined that there are most likely no volatile gases (carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrogen) on this planet. The atmosphere is probably consists of evaporated rock.
The atmosphere of the planet COROT-7 b has weather systems that, unlike the weather on Earth, cause rain of molten stone that fall onto the molten surface. It is clear that under such conditions, life as we know it cannot arise here. Moreover, the planet seems even more inhospitable considering what it represents volcanic nightmare.
Scientists know that the orbit of planet COROT-7 b is not perfectly circular. The gravitational forces of one of its two neighbors push and pull the surface, creating friction that heats the interior of the planet. This results in volcanic activity across the entire surface of COROT-7 b, which is even more active than the volcanoes of Jupiter's moon Io. This satellite boasts more 400 volcanoes.
Planet Venus
Very little was known about Venus until the USSR launched its first successful spacecraft to it during the space race. The USSR remains the only country that managed to land their devices on the surface of Venus.
The planet's environment is so harsh that probes can survive on it no more than 127 minutes, after which they break and melt. Venus is considered the most dangerous planet in our system. If you find yourself on it, you will immediately suffocate from the toxic air and be crushed by the enormous weight of its atmosphere.
Pressure on the surface of Venus 100 times more than on the surface of the Earth. Walking on Venus is like walking under a kilometer-long layer of water on Earth. The surface temperature is 475 degrees Celsius, and highly concentrated sulfuric acid rains from the sky.
Neptune is a planet similar to Uranus in many respects. There are two factors that make it more difficult to explore and develop: it is 2 times farther from the Sun than Uranus, and its atmosphere is more turbulent. The first factor is not critical in the presence of nuclear engines and long-term life support systems. Although, of course, Uranus will be developed much earlier than Neptune. Apparently, humanity will not reach here, on the outskirts of the solar system, very soon - at best, in 200 or 300 years, and maybe in many centuries...
But the second problem is more serious. The most powerful winds in the solar system (up to 500 m/s) blow on Neptune - and, moreover, they are difficult to predict. But, if we take into account the development of technology in 200 years, a flying habitable base on Neptune is quite possible - I have already argued that such a base can be made on Uranus and even on Saturn. The main thing is a fast and at the same time powerful maneuvering system (based on propellers and, possibly, jet engines), anticipating wind gusts.
Neptune's satellite Triton is one of the most mysterious worlds in the solar system. This icy world has an atmosphere, clouds, nitrogen geysers and complex geological processes. His research is very interesting from a scientific point of view. But the problem of the base on Triton is even more serious than the problem of the submarine on Titan. The fact is that the habitable base will be very “warm”, and heat removal in such a frail atmosphere is only possible through the ground. That is, the base will melt the soil and fall underground, causing powerful gas emissions into the atmosphere, with unpredictable consequences for the climate. Therefore, it is reasonable not to make a stationary base on Triton, but to explore it “from the air” using flying vehicles with jet engines.
Pluto is the most famous, although not the largest, Kuiper belt body. We know very little about it (we will know more in 2015, when the New Horizons spacecraft flies past Pluto), but, apparently, it is similar to Triton, and the same problems will arise when studying it. Apparently, it, like other Kuiper Belt bodies, is most conveniently studied from orbital stations and maneuverable descent vehicles.
Why do we even need Neptune and the Kuiper Belt? We don’t need them, but the supercivilizations of the future may come in handy. She will need energy and all the elements of the periodic table to create ethereal settlements and terraform planets. Energy can be obtained by thermonuclear fusion (fortunately, there is enough hydrogen and helium in the Solar System). The main source of heavy elements is asteroids, hydrogen and helium are gas giants, but light elements are oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, etc. - just the icy bodies of the Kuiper belt (their total weight is tens of times greater than the weight of the asteroid belt!). Those bodies that are not of interest for study, like Pluto and Triton, but are simply blocks of ice, can simply be broken into pieces by thermonuclear projectiles, and then transported to the inner solar system. But that won't be for a long time...
Space exploration is a great adventure. Its mysteries have always fascinated us, and new discoveries will expand our knowledge of the Universe. However, let this list serve as a warning to avid intergalactic travelers. The universe can also be a very scary place. Let's hope no one ever gets stuck in one of these ten worlds.
10. Carbon Planet
The ratio of oxygen to carbon on our planet is high. In fact, carbon makes up only 0.1% of our planet's mass (which is why carbon-based materials like diamonds and fossil fuels are so scarce). However, near the center of our galaxy, where there is much more carbon than oxygen, planets may have a completely different composition. This is where you can find what scientists call carbon planets. The sky of the carbon world in the morning would be anything but crystal clear and blue. Imagine a yellow haze with black clouds of soot. As you descend deeper into the atmosphere, you will notice seas of unrefined oil and tar. The surface of the planet seethes with stinking methane fumes and is covered with black mud. The weather forecast is also not encouraging: it is raining gasoline and bitumen (...throw away the cigarettes). However, there is a positive aspect to this oil hell. You probably already guessed which one. Where there is a lot of carbon, you can find a lot of diamonds.
9. Neptune
On Neptune you can experience winds that reach such terrifying speeds that they can be compared to the blast of a jet engine. Neptune's winds are blowing frozen clouds of natural gas past the northern edge of the Great Dark Spot, an Earth-sized hurricane with wind speeds of 2,400 kilometers per hour. This is twice the speed required to break the sound barrier. Such strong winds are naturally far beyond what humans can withstand. A person who somehow ended up on Neptune would most likely be quickly torn to pieces and lost forever in these cruel and incessant winds. It remains a mystery where the energy that fuels the fastest planetary winds in the solar system comes from, given that Neptune is so far from the Sun, sometimes even further than Pluto, and that Neptune's internal temperature is quite low.
8. 51 Pegasus b (51 Pegasi b)
Nicknamed Bellerophon after the Greek hero who wielded the winged horse Pegasus, this giant gas planet is 150 times larger than Earth and is mostly made of hydrogen and helium. Bellerophon is roasted by his star to a temperature of 1000 degrees Celsius. The star around which the planet revolves is 100 times closer to it than the Sun is to Earth. To begin with, this temperature causes the appearance of strong winds in the atmosphere. Hot air rises, and cold air, accordingly, goes down in its place, which generates winds reaching speeds of 1000 kilometers per hour. This heat also causes a lack of water evaporation. However, this does not mean that it does not rain here. We have come to the most important feature of Bellerophon. The highest temperatures allow the iron contained in the planet to evaporate. When iron vapors rise, they form clouds of iron, similar in nature to earthly clouds of water vapor. Just don't forget one important difference: when rain pours from these clouds, it will be red-hot liquid iron pouring directly onto the planet (...don't forget your umbrella).
7. COROT-3b
COROT-3b is the densest and heaviest exoplanet known to date. It is approximately equal in size to Jupiter, but its mass is 20 times greater. Thus, COROT-3b is approximately 2 times denser than lead. The scale of pressure exerted on a person stranded on the surface of such a planet would be unimaginable. On a planet with the mass of 20 Jupiters, a person would weigh 50 times what they weigh on Earth. This means that an 80-kilogram man will weigh as much as 4 tons on COROT-3b! Such pressure will break a person’s skeleton almost instantly - it’s the same as if an elephant sits on his chest.
6. Mars
On Mars, in just a few hours a dust storm can form that will cover the surface of the entire planet in a few days. These are the largest and most violent dust storms in our entire solar system. Martian dust funnels easily exceed their terrestrial counterparts - they reach the height of Mount Everest, and winds rush through them at speeds of 300 kilometers per hour. Once formed, a dust storm can last for several months before completely disappearing. According to one theory, dust storms can reach such large sizes on Mars because dust particles absorb solar heat well and heat up the atmosphere around them. The heated air moves towards colder regions, thereby forming winds. Strong winds raise even more dust from the surface, which in turn heats the atmosphere, which causes even more wind to form and the circle continues again. Surprisingly, most dust storms on the planet begin their lives in a single impact crater. Hellas Planitia is the deepest crater in the Solar System. Temperatures at the bottom of the crater can be ten degrees higher than at the surface, and the crater is filled with a thick layer of dust. Differences in temperature cause the formation of wind, which picks up dust, and the storm begins its further journey across the planet.
5.WASP-12 b
In short, this planet is the hottest planet discovered so far. Its temperature, which provides such a title, is 2200 degrees Celsius, and the planet itself is in the closest orbit to its star, compared to all other worlds known to us. It goes without saying that everything known to man, including man himself, would instantly ignite in such an atmosphere. For comparison, the planet's surface is only twice as cold as the surface of our Sun and twice as hot as lava. The planet also orbits its star at incredible speeds. It travels its entire orbit, located just 3.4 million kilometers from the star, in one Earth day.
4. Jupiter
Jupiter's atmosphere is home to storms twice the size of Earth itself. These giants, in turn, are home to winds that reach speeds of 650 kilometers per hour and colossal lightning that is 100 times brighter than earthly lightning. Beneath this terrifying and dark atmosphere lies an ocean 40 kilometers deep, composed of liquid metallic hydrogen. Here on Earth, hydrogen is a colorless, transparent gas, but in the core of Jupiter, hydrogen turns into something that has never existed on our planet. On the outer layers of Jupiter, hydrogen is in a gas state, just like on Earth. But as you dive into the depths of Jupiter, the atmospheric pressure increases sharply. Over time, the pressure becomes so strong that it “squeezes” electrons out of the hydrogen atoms. Under such unusual conditions, hydrogen turns into a liquid metal that conducts electricity and heat. It also begins to reflect light like a mirror. Therefore, if a person were immersed in such hydrogen, and a giant lightning flashed above him, he would not even see it.
3. Pluto
(Note that Pluto is no longer considered a planet) Don't be fooled by the image - this is not a winter's tale. Pluto is a very cold world where frozen nitrogen, carbon monoxide and methane cover the planet's surface like snow for most of Pluto's year (equivalent to about 248 Earth years). These ices transform from white to pinkish-brown due to interaction with gamma rays from deep space and the distant Sun. On a clear day, the Sun provides Pluto with about the same amount of heat and light as the Moon does on a full moon. At Pluto's surface temperature (-228 to -238 degrees Celsius), the human body would freeze instantly.
2. COROT-7b
Temperatures on the side of the planet facing its star are so high that they could melt rock. Scientists who simulated the atmosphere of COROT-7b believe that the planet most likely does not contain volatile gas (carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrogen), and the planet consists of something that can be called molten mineral. In the atmosphere of COROT-7b, such weather phenomena are possible, during which (unlike terrestrial rains, when water droplets collect in the air), entire stones fall onto the surface of the planet covered with a lava ocean. If the planet still doesn't seem uninhabitable to you, it's also a volcanic nightmare. Some indications suggest that if COROT-7b's orbit is not perfectly round, the gravitational forces of one or two of its sister planets could push and pull on COROT's surface, creating a motion that heats up its interior. This heating could cause intense volcanic activity on the planet's surface - even more so than on Jupiter's moon Io, which has more than 400 active volcanoes.
1. Venus
Very little was known about Venus (its thick atmosphere does not allow visible light to pass through) until the Soviet Union launched the Venus program during the space race. When the first robotic interplanetary spacecraft successfully landed on Venus and began transmitting information to Earth, the Soviet Union achieved the only successful landing on the surface of Venus in human history. The surface of Venus is so changeable that the longest time one of the spacecraft survived was 127 minutes - after which the device was simultaneously crushed and melted. So what would life be like on the most dangerous planet in our solar system - Venus? Well, a person would almost instantly suffocate on the toxic air, and although the gravity on Venus is only 90% of that on Earth, the person would still be crushed by the enormous weight of the atmosphere. The pressure of the atmosphere of Venus is 100 times higher than the pressure to which we are accustomed. Venus's atmosphere is 65 kilometers high and so thick that walking on the planet's surface would feel no different than walking 1 kilometer underwater on Earth. In addition to these “pleasures,” a person would quickly burst into flames due to a temperature of 475 degrees Celsius, and over time, even his remains would be dissolved by high concentration sulfuric acid falling as precipitation on the surface of Venus.