Where was the Treaty of Paris signed? Treaty of Paris signed

After the end of hostilities in the Crimean War in the fall of 1855, the parties began to prepare peace negotiations. At the end of the year, the Austrian government handed a 5-point ultimatum to Russian Emperor Alexander II. Russia, not ready to continue the war, accepted them, and on February 13 a diplomatic congress opened in Paris. As a result, on March 18, peace was concluded between Russia on the one hand and France, Great Britain, Turkey, Sardinia, Austria and Prussia on the other. Russia returned the Kars fortress to Turkey and ceded the mouth of the Danube and part of Southern Bessarabia to the Principality of Moldova. The Black Sea was declared neutral; Russia and Turkey could not maintain a navy there. The autonomy of Serbia and the Danube principalities was confirmed.

By the end of 1855 fighting at the fronts Crimean War have practically stopped. The capture of Sevastopol satisfied the ambitions of the French Emperor Napoleon III. He believed that he had restored the honor of French weapons and took revenge for defeats by Russian troops in 1812-1815. Russia's power in the South was greatly undermined: it lost its main Black Sea fortress and lost its fleet. Continuing the struggle and further weakening of Russia did not meet Napoleon’s interests; it would only benefit England.
The long, stubborn struggle cost the European allies many thousands human lives, required a lot of economic and financial stress. True, the ruling circles of Great Britain, annoyed that the successes of their army were too insignificant, insisted on continuing military operations. He expected to intensify military operations in the Caucasus and Baltic. But to fight without France and her ground army England didn't want to, and couldn't.
The situation in Russia was difficult. Two years of war placed a heavy burden on the shoulders of the people. More than a million able-bodied people were drafted into the army and militia. male population, more than 700 thousand horses were transferred. This was a heavy blow for Agriculture. The difficult situation of the masses was aggravated by epidemics of typhus and cholera, drought and crop failure in a number of provinces. Ferment intensified in the village, threatening to take more decisive forms. In addition, weapons stocks began to deplete, and there was a chronic shortage of ammunition.
Informal peace negotiations between Russia and France began at the end of 1855 through the Saxon envoy in St. Petersburg von Seebach and the Russian envoy in Vienna A.M. Gorchakova. The situation was complicated by the intervention of Austrian diplomacy. On the eve of the new year, 1856, the Austrian envoy in St. Petersburg, V. L. Esterhazy, conveyed his government’s ultimatum to Russia to accept the preliminary conditions for peace. The ultimatum consisted of five points: the abolition of Russian patronage of the Danube principalities and the drawing of a new border in Bessarabia, as a result of which Russia was deprived of access to the Danube; freedom of navigation on the Danube; neutral and demilitarized status of the Black Sea; the replacement of Russian patronage of the Orthodox population of the Ottoman Empire with collective guarantees on the part of the great powers of the rights and benefits of Christians and, finally, the possibility of the great powers in the future making new demands on Russia.
December 20, 1855 and January 3, 1856 in Winter Palace two meetings were held at which new emperor Alexander II invited prominent dignitaries of past years. The issue of the Austrian ultimatum was on the agenda. Only one participant, D.N. Bludov, during the first meeting spoke out against accepting the terms of the ultimatum, which, in his opinion, was incompatible with the dignity of Russia as a great power. Emotional, but weak and not supported real arguments speech famous figure Nikolaev time did not find a response at the meeting. Bludov's performance was sharply criticized. All other participants in the meetings unequivocally spoke in favor of accepting the presented conditions. A. F. Orlov, M. S. Vorontsov, P. D. Kiselev, P. K. Meyendorff spoke in this spirit. They pointed to the very difficult economic state of the country, disrupted finances, and the deteriorating situation of the population, especially in the countryside. An important place at the meetings belonged to the speech of the Minister of Foreign Affairs K.V. Nesselrode. The Chancellor developed a lengthy argument in favor of accepting the ultimatum. There was no chance of winning, Nesselrode noted. Continuing the struggle will only increase the number of Russia's enemies and will inevitably lead to new defeats, as a result of which future peace conditions will become much more difficult. On the contrary, accepting the conditions now would, in the opinion of the Chancellor, upset the calculations of opponents expecting a refusal.
As a result, it was decided to respond to Austria's proposal with consent. On January 4, 1856, K.V. Nesselrode informed the Austrian envoy V.L. Esterhazy that Russian Emperor takes five points. On January 20, a protocol was signed in Vienna, stating that the “Austrian Communiqué” sets out the preliminary conditions for peace and obliges the governments of all interested parties to send representatives to Paris within three weeks to negotiate and conclude a final peace treaty. On February 13, meetings of the congress opened in the capital of France, in which authorized delegates from France, Great Britain, Russia, Austria, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia participated. After everything important questions were already decided, and representatives of Prussia were admitted.
The meetings were chaired by the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, cousin Napoleon III Count F. A. Valevsky. The main opponents of Russian diplomats in Paris were the English and Austrian foreign ministers - Lord Clarendon and C. F. Buol. As for the French minister Walewski, he more often supported the Russian delegation. This behavior was explained by the fact that, in parallel with the official negotiations, confidential conversations took place between Emperor Napoleon and Count Orlov, during which the positions of France and Russia were clarified and the line that each party would adhere to at the negotiating table was developed.
At this time, Napoleon III was playing a complex political game. His strategic plans included a revision of the “Vienna Treaty System of 1815.” He intended to take a dominant position in the international arena and establish French hegemony in Europe. On the one hand, he went to strengthen relations with Great Britain and Austria. On April 15, 1856, an agreement was signed on Triple Alliance between England, Austria and France. This treaty guaranteed the integrity and independence of the Ottoman Empire. The so-called “Crimean system” emerged, which had an anti-Russian orientation. On the other hand, Anglo-French contradictions made themselves felt more and more. Napoleon's Italian policy inevitably led to aggravation of relations with Austria. Therefore, he included in his plans a gradual rapprochement with Russia. Orlov reported that the emperor greeted him with unfailing friendliness, and conversations took place in a very friendly atmosphere. The position of the Russian side was also strengthened by the fact that at the end of 1855 the powerful Turkish fortress of Kars capitulated. Russia's opponents were forced to moderate their appetites and the echo of the glorious Sevastopol defense. According to one observer, Nakhimov's shadow stood behind the Russian delegates at the congress.
The peace treaty was signed on March 18, 1856. It recorded Russia's defeat in the war. Due to the abolition of Russian patronage over the Danube principalities and the Sultan's Orthodox subjects, Russia's influence in the Middle East and the Balkans was undermined. The most difficult articles for Russia were those articles of the treaty that concerned the neutralization of the Black Sea, that is, those prohibiting it from maintaining a navy there and having naval arsenals. Territorial losses turned out to be relatively insignificant: the Danube Delta and the southern part of Bessarabia adjacent to it were transferred from Russia to the Principality of Moldavia. The peace treaty, which consisted of 34 articles and one “additional and temporary”, also included conventions on the Dardanelles and Bosporus straits, Russian and Turkish ships in the Black Sea, and on the demilitarization of the Åland Islands. The most important first convention obliged the Turkish Sultan not to allow any foreign warship into the Black Sea straits, “as long as the Porta is at peace....” In the conditions of neutralization of the Black Sea, this rule should have become very useful for Russia, protecting the defenseless Black Sea coast from a possible enemy attack.
In the final part of the congress, F. A. Valevsky proposed commemorating the European diplomatic forum with some kind of humanitarian action, following the example of the Westphalian and Vienna congresses. This is how the Paris Declaration on the Law of the Sea was born - an important international act designed to regulate maritime trade and blockades during war, and also proclaimed the prohibition of privateering. The first Russian commissioner, A. F. Orlov, also took an active part in developing the articles of the declaration.
The Crimean War and the Paris Congress became a milestone an entire era in the history of international relations. Finally ceased to exist " Vienna system" It was replaced by other systems of unions and associations of European states, primarily the “Crimean system” (England, Austria, France), which, however, was destined to have a short life. Major changes were also made in the foreign policy of the Russian Empire. During the work of the Paris Congress, a Russian-French rapprochement began to emerge. In April 1856, K.V. Nesselrode, who headed the Russian Foreign Ministry for four decades, was dismissed. He was replaced by A.M. Gorchakov, who led foreign policy Russia until 1879. Thanks to his skillful diplomacy, Russia was able to restore authority in the European arena in October 1870, taking advantage of the collapse of the empire of Napoleon III in Franco-Prussian War, unilaterally refused to comply with the demilitarization regime of the Black Sea. Russia's right to Black Sea Fleet was finally confirmed at the London Conference in 1871.

In the name of God almighty. Their Majesties the Emperor of All Russia, the Emperor of the French, the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the King of Sardinia and the Ottoman Emperor, prompted by the desire to put an end to the disasters of the war and at the same time prevent the resumption of the misunderstandings and difficulties that gave rise to it, decided to enter into an agreement with E.V. the Austrian Emperor regarding the grounds for the restoration and establishment of peace, ensuring the integrity and independence of the Ottoman Empire by mutual valid guarantee. To this end, Their Majesties were appointed as their representatives (see signatures):

These plenipotentiaries, upon the exchange of their powers, found in due order, decreed the following articles:

ARTICLE I
From the date of exchange of ratifications of this treaty, be on eternal times peace and friendship between E.V. Emperor of All Russia with one, and E.V. Emperor of the French, her in. Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, H.V. King of Sardinia and H.I.V. the Sultan - on the other hand, between their heirs and successors, states and subjects.

ARTICLE II
As a result of the happy restoration of peace between their Majesties, the lands conquered and occupied by their troops during the war will be cleared by them. Special conditions will be established regarding the procedure for the movement of troops, which must be carried out as soon as possible.

ARTICLE III
E.v. The All-Russian Emperor undertakes to return E.V. to the Sultan the city of Kars with its citadel, as well as other parts of the Ottoman possessions occupied by Russian troops.

ARTICLE IV
Their Majesties the Emperor of the French, the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the King of Sardinia and the Sultan undertake to return H.V. to the All-Russian Emperor the cities and ports: Sevastopol, Balaklava, Kamysh, Evpatoria, Kerch-Yenikale, Kinburn, as well as all other places occupied by the allied forces.

ARTICLE V
Their Majesties the Emperor of All Russia, the Emperor of the French, the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the King of Sardinia and the Sultan grant full forgiveness to those of their subjects who were guilty of any complicity with the enemy during the continuation of hostilities. At the same time, it is decided that this general forgiveness will be extended to those subjects of each of the warring powers who during the war remained in the service of another of the warring powers.

ARTICLE VI
The prisoners of war will be immediately returned from both sides.

ARTICLE VII
E.V. All-Russian Emperor, E.V. Emperor of Austria, E.V. Emperor of the French, her in. Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, E.V. King of Prussia and E.V. The king of Sardinia announces that the Sublime Porte is recognized as participating in the benefits of common law and the union of European powers. Their Majesties undertake, each for their part, to respect the independence and integrity of the Ottoman Empire, ensure with their joint guarantees the exact observance of this obligation and, as a result, will consider any action in violation of it as a matter relating to general rights and benefits.

ARTICLE VIII
If any disagreement arises between the Sublime Porte and one or more of the other powers that have concluded this treaty, which could threaten the preservation of friendly relations between them, then both the Sublime Porte and each of these powers, without resorting to the use of force, have the right to deliver to the other contracting parties the opportunity to prevent any further conflict through its mediation.

ARTICLE IX
E.I.V. The Sultan, in constant concern for the welfare of his subjects, granted a firman, by which their lot is improved without distinction of religion or tribe, and his magnanimous intentions regarding the Christian population of his empire are confirmed, and wishing to give new proof of his feelings in this regard, decided to inform the contracting parties to the powers, a firman designated, issued at his own prompting. The contracting powers recognize the high importance of this message, understanding that in no case will it give these powers the right to interfere, jointly or separately, in the relations of E.V. the Sultan to his subjects and to the internal administration of his empire.

ARTICLE X
Convention of July 13, 1841, which established compliance with ancient rule Ottoman Empire regarding the closure of the entrance to the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, was subjected to a new consideration by common consent. An act concluded by the high contracting parties in accordance with the above rule is attached to this treaty and will have the same force and effect as if it formed an inseparable part thereof.

ARTICLE XI
The Black Sea is declared neutral: entry into the ports and waters of all nations, open to merchant shipping, is formally and forever prohibited to military vessels, both coastal and all other powers, with the only exceptions that are stipulated in Articles XIV and XIX of this treaty.

ARTICLE XII
Trade in the ports and on the waters of the Black Sea, free from any obstacles, will be subject only to quarantine, customs, and police regulations, drawn up in a spirit favorable to the development of trade relations. In order to provide all the desired benefits to the benefits of trade and navigation of all peoples, Russia and the Sublime Porte will admit consuls to their ports on the shores of the Black Sea, in accordance with the rules of international law.

ARTICLE XIII
Due to the declaration of the Black Sea as neutral on the basis of Article XI, there cannot be a need to maintain or establish naval arsenals on its shores, as they no longer have a purpose, and therefore E.V. All-Russian Emperor and H.I.V. The Sultan undertakes not to establish or leave any naval arsenal on these shores.

ARTICLE XIV
Their Majesties the All-Russian Emperor and the Sultan concluded a special convention defining the number and strength of light ships that they allow themselves to maintain in the Black Sea for the necessary orders along the coast. This convention is annexed to this treaty and will have the same force and effect as if it formed an integral part thereof. It can neither be destroyed nor changed without the consent of the powers that have concluded this treaty.

ARTICLE XV
The contracting parties, by mutual consent, decide that the rules established by the Act of the Congress of Vienna for navigation on rivers separating or flowing through different possessions will henceforth be fully applied to the Danube and its mouths. They declare that this resolution is henceforth recognized as belonging to the general national European law and is confirmed by their mutual guarantee. Navigation on the Danube will not be subject to any difficulties or duties other than those specifically defined in the following articles. As a result of this, no payment will be collected for the actual navigation on the river and no duty will be charged on goods constituting the cargo of ships. Police and quarantine rules necessary for the safety of states along this river must be drawn up in such a way that they are as favorable as possible to the movement of ships. Apart from these rules, no obstacles of any kind will be established to free navigation.

ARTICLE XVI
To put into effect the provisions of the previous article, a commission will be established, in which Russia, Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, Sardinia and Turkey will each have their own deputy. This commission will be entrusted with designing and carrying out the work necessary to clear the Danube arms, starting from Isakchi and the adjacent parts of the sea, from sand and other obstacles blocking them, so that this part of the river and the mentioned parts of the sea become completely convenient for navigation. To cover the costs necessary both for this work and for establishments aimed at facilitating and ensuring navigation on the Danube arms, constant duties will be established on ships, commensurate with the need, which must be determined by the commission by a majority vote and with the indispensable condition, that in this respect and in all others, perfect equality will be observed regarding the flags of all nations.

ARTICLE XVII
A commission will also be established consisting of members from Austria, Bavaria, Sublime Porte and Wirtemberg (one from each of these powers); they will also be joined by the commissioners of the three Danube principalities, appointed with the approval of the Porte. This commission, which should be permanent, has: 1) draw up rules for river navigation and river police; 2) remove all obstacles of any kind that still arise in the application of the provisions of the Vienna Treaty to the Danube; 3) to propose and carry out the necessary work along the entire course of the Danube; 4) upon the abolition of the general provisions of Article XVI of the European Commission, to monitor the maintenance of the Danube arms and the parts of the sea adjacent to them in a state appropriate for navigation.

ARTICLE XVIII
The General European Commission must fulfill everything entrusted to it, and the Coastal Commission must complete all the work indicated in the previous article, Nos. 1 and 2, within two years. Upon receipt of news of this, the powers that have concluded this treaty will decide on the abolition of the common European Commission, and from now on the power that has hitherto been vested in the common European Commission will be transferred to the Permanent Coastal Commission.

ARTICLE XIX
In order to ensure the implementation of the rules that will be established by common consent on the basis of the principles set out above, each of the contracting powers will have the right to maintain at any time two light seagoing vessels at the Danube estuaries.

ARTICLE XX
In place of the cities, ports and lands indicated in Article 4 of this treatise, and to further ensure freedom of navigation along the Danube, E.V. The All-Russian Emperor agrees to draw a new border line in Bessarabia. The beginning of this boundary line is set at a point on the Black Sea coast at a distance of one kilometer east of the salt lake Burnasa; it will join perpendicularly to the Akerman road, along which it will follow to Trajanova Val, go south of Bolgrad and then up the Yalpuhu River to the heights of Saratsik and to Katamori on the Prut. From this point up the river, the previous border between the two empires remains unchanged. The new boundary line must be marked in detail by special commissioners of the contracting powers

ARTICLE XXI
The expanse of land ceded by Russia will be annexed to the Principality of Moldova under supreme power The Sublime Porte. Those living in this area of land will enjoy the rights and benefits assigned to the Principalities, and for three years they will be allowed to move to other places and freely dispose of their property.

ARTICLE XXII
The principalities of Wallachia and Moldova will, under the supreme authority of the Porte and with the guarantee of the contracting powers, enjoy the advantages and benefits that they enjoy now. None of the sponsoring powers is granted exclusive protection over them. No special right interference in their internal affairs.

ARTICLE XXIII
The Sublime Porte undertakes to maintain in these Principalities independent and national government, as well as complete freedom of religion, legislation, trade and navigation. The laws and regulations currently in force there will be revised. For a complete agreement regarding this revision, a special commission will be appointed, on the composition of which the high contracting powers will agree. This commission must meet in Bucharest without delay; the Commissioner of the Sublime Porte will be with her. This commission has the task of examining the present situation of the Principalities and proposing the basis for their future structure.

ARTICLE XXIV
E.V. The Sultan promises to immediately convene a special divan in each of the two regions, which must be composed in such a way that it can serve as a faithful representative of the benefits of all classes of society. These divans will be tasked with expressing the wishes of the population regarding the final structure of the principalities. The relationship of the commission to these sofas will be determined by special instructions from Congress.

ARTICLE XXV
Having taken the opinion presented by both Divans into due consideration, the Commission will immediately report to the present meeting place the results of its own labor. The final agreement with the supreme power over the Principalities must be approved by a convention, which will be concluded by the high contracting parties in Paris, and Hati-Sherif, who agrees with the provisions of the convention, will be given the final organization of these areas with the general guarantee of all the signatory powers.

ARTICLE XXVI
The Principalities will have a national armed force to maintain internal security and ensure border security. No obstacles will be allowed in the event of emergency measures of defense which, with the consent of the Sublime Porte, may be taken in the Principalities to repel invasion from without.

ARTICLE XXVII
If inner peace The Principalities are endangered or violated, the Sublime Porte will enter into an agreement with the other contracting powers on the measures necessary to preserve or restore legal order. Without prior agreement between these powers there can be no armed intervention.

ARTICLE XXVIII
The Principality of Serbia remains, as before, under the supreme authority of the Sublime Porte, in agreement with the imperial Khati-Sherifs, who affirm and define its rights and advantages with the general joint guarantee of the contracting powers. Consequently, the said Principality will retain its independent and national government and complete freedom of religion, legislation, trade and navigation.

ARTICLE XXIX
The Sublime Porte retains the right to maintain a garrison, determined by previous regulations. Without prior agreement between the High Contracting Powers, no armed intervention in Serbia can be allowed.

ARTICLE XXX
E.V. All-Russian Emperor and E.V. The Sultan preserves their possessions in Asia intact, in the composition in which they were legally located before the break. In order to avoid any local disputes, the boundary lines will be verified and, if necessary, corrected, but in such a way that no damage to land ownership can result from this for either side. At this end, immediately upon the restoration of diplomatic relations between Russian court and the Sublime Porte, sent
a commission composed of two Russian commissioners, two Ottoman commissioners, one French commissioner and one English commissioner will be in place. She must complete the task entrusted to her within eight months, counting from the date of exchange of ratifications of this treaty.

ARTICLE XXXI
The lands occupied during the war by the troops of Their Majesties the Emperor of Austria, the Emperor of the French, the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the King of Sardinia, on the basis of the conventions signed at Constantinople on March 12, 1854, between France, Great Britain and the Sublime Porte, on June 14 of the same year between Sublime Porte and Austria, and on March 15, 1855, between Sardinia and the Sublime Porte, will be cleared after the exchange of ratifications of this treaty, as soon as possible. To determine the timing and means of fulfilling this, an agreement must follow between the Sublime Porte and the powers whose troops occupied the lands of its possessions.

ARTICLE XXXII
Until the treaties or conventions that existed before the war between the warring powers are renewed or replaced by new acts, mutual trade, both import and export, must be carried out on the basis of the regulations that had force and effect before the war, and with the subjects of these powers in all In other respects, we will act on a par with the most favored nations.

ARTICLE XXXIII
The convention concluded this day between E.V. the Emperor of All Russia on the one hand, and their Majesties the Emperor of the French and the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, on the other hand, regarding the Aland Islands, is and remains attached to this treatise and will have the same force and effect as if it formed an integral part of it.

ARTICLE XXXIV
This treaty will be ratified and ratifications thereof will be exchanged in Paris within four weeks, and if possible, earlier. In assurance of what, etc.

In Paris, on the 30th day of March 1856.
SIGNED:
Orlov [Russia]
Brunnov [Russia]
Buol-Schauenstein [Austria]
Gübner [Austria]
A. Valevsky [France]
Bourquenay [France]
Clarendon [UK]
Cowley [UK]
Manteuffel [Prussia]
Hatzfeldt [Prussia]
C. Cavour [Sardinia]
De Villamarina [Sardinia]
Aali [Türkiye]
Megemed Cemil [Türkiye]

ARTICLE ADDITIONAL AND TEMPORARY
The provisions of the convention on the straits signed today will not apply to military vessels, which the warring powers will use for the withdrawal by sea their troops from the lands they occupy. These decisions will be included in full force, as soon as this withdrawal of troops is completed. In Paris, on the 30th day of March 1856.
SIGNED:
Orlov [Russia]
Brunnov [Russia]
Buol-Schauenstein [Austria]
Gübner [Austria]
A. Valevsky [France]
Bourquenay [France]
Clarendon [UK]
Cowley [UK]
Manteuffel [Prussia]
Hatzfeldt [Prussia]
C. Cavour [Sardinia]
De Villamarina [Sardinia]
Aali [Türkiye]
Megemed Cemil [Türkiye]

England, Sardinia, Prussia, Austria and France, on the one hand, and Russia, on the other, took part in the work.

During 1856-1871 Russian empire fought for the lifting of restrictions on this agreement. The government did not like the fact that the Black Sea border remained open to sudden deposition. After long negotiations, the incomplete abolition of the articles of the Paris Peace Treaty, namely the lifting of the ban on maintaining a fleet in the Black Sea, took place thanks to the London Convention in 1871.

Crimean War

After the termination of all diplomatic and economic relations Russia and Turkey in 1853 were the first to occupy the Danube principalities. The Turkish government did not tolerate similar attitude to himself and on October 4 of the same year declares war. The Russian army was able to push Turkish troops away from the banks of the Danube, as well as repulse their offensive in the Transcaucasus. She coped well with the enemy at sea, who was heading to the very center of events. After such actions, Great Britain and France enter the war. They successfully pass through the Black Sea and surround the enemy army. On March 27, England declares war on Russia, and France does the same the next day. A month later, the Anglo-French army tries to land near Odessa, having previously fired locality of 350 guns. On September 8, 1854, the same troops defeat Russia and stop in Crimea. The siege of Sevastopol begins on October 17. The troop locations numbered about 30 thousand people; The settlement suffered from 5 large-scale bombings. After the French conquest of the southern part of Sevastopol, the Russian army retreats. Throughout the siege (349 days), the empire tries in every possible way to distract the enemy, but the attempts are unsuccessful. Sevastopol comes under the control of Anglo-French troops.

The Treaty of Paris of 1856, signed on March 18, ended hostilities. It provided for the liberation of the Black Sea (becoming neutral), reducing the Russian fleet to a minimum level. The same obligations were imposed on Turkey. In addition, the Empire remains without the Danube estuary, part of Bessarabia, and power in Serbia, Wallachia and Moldavia.

Treaty of Paris

Due to the tragic resolution of the Crimean conflict for Russia, it is becoming infringed on its rights and interests. Surprisingly, the territorial borders of the Empire were practically not affected. She gave up some islands, principalities and the mouth of the Danube in exchange for cities such as Sevastopol, Kinburn and others. The only downside was that the territories obtained as a result of the peace treaty were besieged by allied forces. What hit Russia hardest was that the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856 limited its possessions on the Black Sea, prohibiting it from having a fleet, arsenals, and fortresses.

The agreement influenced the European social situation, the foundations of which were laid in the Vienna Treaties. Paris became the leader of all Europe, and former St. Petersburg was relegated to second place.

Terms of the Paris Peace Treaty

The Treaty of Paris included 34 mandatory and 1 temporary articles. The main conditions are the following:

Between the countries concluding the treaty, peace and friendliness now reign.
Territories conquered during the conflict will be liberated and returned to their original owners.
Russia undertakes to return Kars and other parts of the Ottoman possessions that are now occupied by troops.
France and Great Britain undertake to return to the Empire the captured ports and cities: Sevastopol, Evpatoria and others occupied by the Anglo-French army.
Russia, France, Great Britain and Sardinia must offer their forgiveness to those who were in any way responsible for the outbreak of hostilities.
All parties undertake to immediately return prisoners of war.
The Treaty of Paris of 1856 obliges the countries that signed the document to help the allies in the event of an enemy attack; carefully observe the conditions without violating them.
If a conflict or disagreement arises between any of the countries that have concluded the treaty, others do not use force to resolve it, giving the opportunity to settle everything peacefully.
None of the rulers interferes in the foreign and domestic policies of the neighboring state.
The entrance to the Bosphorus and Dardanelles remains closed.
The Black Sea becomes neutral; It is prohibited to have a fleet on it.
Trade is allowed on the shores of the Black Sea, which is subject only to the relevant department.
It is prohibited to have an arsenal on the Black Sea.
The number and strength of ships are determined by this agreement and cannot be exceeded.
Duties on navigation on the Danube are abolished.
An approved team will monitor the cleaning of the river banks, etc.
The created commission should subsequently draw up rules for navigation and cargo transportation, remove obstacles for convenient patrolling of the maritime territory.
The Coastal Commission will be given the necessary power to ensure that the work it undertakes to do is completed after 2 years.
Each country is allowed to have 2 light vessels on the banks of the Danube.
The Russian border near Bessarabia is being shifted for convenient navigation along the Danube.
Those territories liberated by the Russian Empire will be annexed to Moldova.
No one has the right to interfere in the internal politics of the Wallachian and Moldavian principalities.
The Ottoman Empire undertakes not to interfere in the politics of the allied countries, leaving them the right to independent rule; leaves complete freedom of choice in religion, trade, navigation and general legislation.

Cancellation of the Paris Peace Treaty

After accepting the Russian-English peace, Russia tried to soften the restrictions, thereby regaining the Black Sea and the opportunity to have a fleet. That is why they flourish at this time diplomatic relations. During 1856-1871 The Empire established profitable relations with France: it planned to receive help from Russia in the Austro-French conflict, and the latter counted on French influence in the eastern question.

The Paris Conference, which lasted until 1863, became decisive in Russian-French relations. The countries became noticeably closer and jointly resolved some issues. March 1859 was important for France because a secret treaty was concluded under which the Empire promised to remain neutral in the event of war with Austria. The deterioration of relations is observed during Polish uprising. As a result of these actions, Russia is improving relations with Prussia.

After strengthening in 1872, Berlin hosted 3 emperors. A convention begins, during which Austria also joins. According to the Berlin Treaty, adopted at this time, the abolition of the articles of the Paris Peace Treaty becomes a matter of time for Russia. She regains her fleet in the Black Sea and lost territories.

Question 1 Crimean War (1853-1856)

2.1 Causes and conditions of the war

The cause of the Crimean War of 1853-1856. There was a struggle for dominance in the Middle East, the reason was a clash of interests between the Russian and Turkish governments on the issue of holy places in Palestine.

Russia was not ready for military operations in military-technical terms. In addition, Emperor Nicholas I in this war found himself alone against a powerful coalition, having no allies, without arousing the sympathy of either European governments or European society. Such were the consequences of the Russian policy of “intervention”, which since the time Congress of Vienna made Europe afraid of the invasion of Russian troops.

The war began as a Russian-Turkish one, but from February 1854 Russia had to fight a war with a coalition of states, which, in addition to Turkey, included Great Britain, France, and from 1855 the Kingdom of Sardinia. Austria and Prussia, although they did not declare direct war on Emperor Nicholas, showed an unfavorable mood for Russia, which forced them to keep some troops against them.

2.2 Progress of the war

Defense of Sevastopol.

In the spring of 1854, England and France decided to provide assistance to Turkey and issued an ultimatum to the Russian Tsar. On March 15-16, England and France declared war on Russia. On April 10, the Allies carried out a major action against weakly fortified Odessa, but without success. In the summer of 1854, Allied forces began to concentrate on the eastern coast of Bulgaria in the city of Varna, preparing for landing operation in Crimea, the goal of which was to capture the strong naval base of Sevastopol. During the stay of the English army in Varna, a cholera epidemic began. On September 1, near Yevpatoria, the British and French made a landing of 61,000 people. Having received information about this, the commander of the Russian troops, Prince A. S. Menshikov, concentrated his troops on the river. Alma, where on September 8 he gave battle to the allies, who lost. After this defeat, Sevastopol was under threat of capture from land, where there were no defensive fortifications. The defense of the city was led by admirals V.A. Kornilov, P.S. Nakhimov and V.I. Istomin. Taking advantage of the confusion of the Allies, who were approaching the city by a roundabout route in order to secure a naval base at Balaclava, the admirals began building a fortification. The defense scheme was developed by Lieutenant Colonel E.I. Totleben. On September 9, Kornilov ordered the scuttling of 7 Black Sea ships, September 11, 5 more ships and 2 frigates. These measures made it possible to block the Allies' entrance to the Bay of Sevastopol from the sea. Menshikov, leaving the city to its own devices, made a dangerous flank march and, to communicate with the rear, withdrew troops to Bakhchisarai. On September 15, the defensive line of Sevastopol was occupied by 16 thousand bayonets with 32 field guns. On October 5, the first bombardment of the city began, seriously damaging the defensive fortifications. On the same day, Admiral Kornilov died. However, the Allies failed to suppress the resistance of the Russian batteries. On the night of October 5-6, the destroyed fortifications were restored. As a result, the Allies were forced to abandon the assault, and soon they themselves were attacked. On October 13, Menshikov went on the offensive and, in a short battle near Balaklava, destroyed the flower of the English light cavalry in the “Valley of Death.” However, the commander-in-chief failed to take advantage of the success, wasting time. Early in the morning of October 24, the Russians launched an attack on the British located on the Inkerman Plateau. Initially, the offensive was successful, but the Russians were soon stopped, delayed due to confusion and the delay of several units, and were eventually overthrown by the French who arrived in time. Menshikov retreated with damage. But still, the Battle of Inkerman thwarted plans for the assault on Sevastopol on November 6 by Allied troops.

Having failed and despairing of taking Sevastopol outright, the allies resorted to a strategy of indirect rapprochement, and hostilities began in the Baltic, White Seas and Kamchatka. On March 7, the English squadron of Admiral Napier left the ports of England and headed to the shores of Finland. It was driven away from Abo and Gangut by fire from coastal batteries. On July 26, having destroyed the Bormazund fortress, the British took possession of the ruins. On June 6, English ships approached the Solovetsky Monastery and fired at it. But the monks did not open the gates, but courageously responded to enemy fire by firing from several guns. Near the city of Kola, the British were repulsed by the brave actions of the disabled team. On August 18, the English squadron approached Petropavlovsk-on-Kamchatka and on August 19 began shelling. Twice, on August 20 and 24, Russian soldiers and sailors repelled the landing assault, which forced the squadron to retreat a few days later.

Sevastopol, 1855. The fighting near the city continued, the garrison stubbornly held out. The Allies decided to change tactics. The Turks were concentrating in Yevpatoria to rush to Perekop. On February 5, Menshikov ordered Gen. S. A. Khrulev to carry out the assault on Evpatoria. The assault was not successful. This failure led to Menshikov's resignation on February 15 and his replacement by Gorchakov. Emperor Nicholas I died on February 18. At the end of March, the Allies intensified preparations for the assault, which took place only on June 6. At all points the Allies were repulsed and suffered terrible losses. Having received reserves, Gorchakov attacked the Anglo-French positions on the river on August 4. Chernoy, but was defeated with 8,000 casualties. From August 5 to 8 and from August 24 to 27, Sevastopol withstood massive bombing, and on August 27, the Allies launched an assault that ended with the loss of Malakhov Kurgan. Further defense of the fortress, with the loss of such a strategically important point, made no sense. The 349-day defense of Sevastopol ended.

In the Caucasus in 1855, the commander-in-chief, Adjutant General Muravyov, decided to strike at the Kars fortress. In June the fortress was completely surrounded. On September 17, the first Russian assault was repulsed with huge losses (up to 7 thousand people). But on November 16, Kars was starved out, and the Turkish army in the fortress surrendered. Having learned about this, Omer Pasha's corps, which landed on the eastern coast of the Black Sea, with the task of releasing Kars, retreated on September 21 to Redoubt-Kala. After the fall of Kars, Russia could, without compromising its dignity, offer peace to its allies, which was done.

Paris Peace Treaty of 1856. Results of the war.

Signed at the final meeting of the Paris Congress, held from February 13 to March 18, 1856, between Russia and Great Britain, France, Turkey and Sardinia, which were at war with it.

Restored peace between the warring parties. Russia returned the city of Kars to Turkey in exchange for the city of Sevastopol and other cities captured by the allies in Crimea. The Black Sea was declared neutral. Türkiye and Russia could not keep warships here. Freedom of navigation on the Danube was proclaimed. The agreement was accompanied by 3 conventions.

1st Convention: confirmed the London Convention on the Black Sea Straits of 1841 (In peacetime, the straits were declared closed to military vessels of all countries. The Sultan retained the right to issue permits for the passage of light ships located at the embassies of friendly countries through the straits).

2nd Convention: limited the displacement of light military patrol vessels of Russia and Turkey in the Black Sea.

3rd Convention: obligated Russia not to build fortifications on the Åland Islands in the Baltic Sea.

The conditions dictated to Russia were difficult. She was inferior to Turkey southern part Bessarabia and returned Kars to it. The Allies, in turn, returned Sevastopol and other conquered cities to Russia. Russia renounced its demand for the transfer of Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman Empire under its special protection and agreed with the principle of sovereignty and integrity of the Ottoman Empire. Moldavia, Wallachia and Serbia remained under the sovereignty of the Turkish Sultan, and a collective protectorate of the great powers was recognized over them.

The navigation of merchant ships along the Danube became free, and the Black Sea became neutral. Russia and Turkey were prohibited from having a military fleet and naval bases in the Black Sea. Russia, in addition, was prohibited from strengthening the Åland Islands in the Baltic. Turkey has achieved confirmation of the ban on the passage of warships of all countries through the Bosporus and Dardanelles in peacetime. The Paris Peace Treaty weakened Russia's international influence in Europe and Eastern Affairs, led to an even greater aggravation of the so-called Eastern Question, and contributed to the further expansion of Western powers in the Middle East.

The main distinguishing feature of this war was poor troop management (on both sides). Of particular note is the indifference of governments. Russia, which fought with England, France, Turkey and Sardinia, collectively lost about 256 thousand people, France - 100 thousand. Britain - 22.7 thousand. Turkey 30 thousand. The losses on the battlefield were: on the Russian side - 128 700 thousand people, from the allies - 70 thousand people (the rest should be explained by diseases, mainly cholera and Crimean frosts). The soldiers themselves, despite the appalling conditions, fought exceptionally courageously. New trends in this war can be considered the awakening of public interest in the state of the army. This was especially evident in Great Britain, where society was literally shocked by the reports of war correspondents from the battlefield. Under the impression of these reports, the first volunteer field hospital staffed by nurses was organized.

The end of the Crimean War led to a radical change in the situation in Europe. The Anglo-Austro-French bloc that formed against Russia - the so-called Crimean system - was aimed at maintaining its political isolation and military-strategic weakness, ensured by the decisions of the Paris Congress. Russia has not lost its position as a great power, but it has lost the right to a decisive vote in solving international problems and has lost the opportunity to provide effective support to the peoples of the Balkans. Due to this main task Russian diplomacy began to fight for the abolition of the article of the Paris Peace Treaty on the neutralization of the Black Sea.

Main directions of foreign policy.

In the western direction, Russia sought to eliminate its foreign policy isolation. Relations with the Central European states were determined by traditional dynastic ties and the commonality of their political and ideological foundations. The tsarist government was also ready for new political alliances to maintain European balance and restore its international prestige.

The Central Asian direction acquired great importance. The Russian government put forward and implemented a program for the annexation of Central Asia, its further development and colonization.

Due to the strengthening of national liberation movements in the Balkans in the 70s years XIX V. The eastern question again acquired a special resonance. The peoples of the Balkan Peninsula launched a struggle for liberation from the Ottoman yoke and the creation of national independent states. Russia participated in this process through diplomatic, political and military means.

In the second half of the 19th century. The Far Eastern direction in Russian foreign policy gradually changed its peripheral character. The Anglo-French sabotage in Kamchatka during the Crimean War, the weakening of China and its transformation into a country dependent on Anglo-German-French capital, the rapid growth of Japanese naval and ground forces showed the need to strengthen Russian economic and military-strategic positions in the Far East.

According to the Aigun (1858) and Beijing (1860) treaties with China, Russia was assigned the territory along the left bank of the Amur River and the entire Ussuri region. Russian colonists, with the support of the government, began to quickly develop these fertile lands. A number of cities soon arose there - Blagoveshchensk, Khabarovsk, Vladivostok, etc.

Trade and diplomatic relations with Japan began to develop. In 1855, the Shimoda Treaty of Permanent Peace and Friendship was concluded between Russia and Japan. It secured Russia's right to the northern part of the Kuril Islands. The island of Sakhalin, which belonged to Russia, was declared joint possession. In 1875, a new Russian-Japanese treaty was signed in St. Petersburg, according to which Sakhalin Island was recognized as exclusively Russian. As compensation, Japan received the Kuril Islands. The territory of Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands at the end of the 19th century. continued to be a source of tension in Russian-Japanese relations.

Continuing the tradition of the first half of the 19th century c., Russia pursued a benevolent policy towards the United States. Unlike England, she sided with the North in its struggle against the slave-owning South. Further, she constantly supported the United States in international affairs. In 1867, Russia ceded (actually sold) the deserted northwestern part of the American continent - the Alaska Peninsula - to the North American United States for 7.2 million dollars. Contemporaries believed that these lands were not worth that amount. However, it later turned out that Alaska is a rich storehouse of minerals (gold, oil, etc.). In general, Russia’s relations with the United States have not yet played a decisive role in international affairs.

RUSSIA IN THE SYSTEM OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE 60-70s

Russia's struggle to revise the terms of the Treaty of Paris.

The main task of Russian diplomacy in the second half of the 50s - 60s of the XIX century. - abolition of the restrictive conditions of the Paris Peace Treaty. The absence of a navy and bases on the Black Sea made Russia vulnerable to attack from the south, which actually did not allow it to take an active position in solving international problems.

The fight was led by the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Prince A.M. Gorchakov, a major diplomat with a broad political outlook. He formulated a program, the essence of which was a refusal to interfere in international conflicts, an energetic search for allies and the use of contradictions between powers to solve the main foreign policy problem. His historical phrase: “Russia is not angry, it is concentrating...” figuratively expressed the basic principles of Russia’s domestic and foreign policy of that time.

Initially, Russia, changing its traditional course of relying on the German states, tried to focus on France. In 1859, a Russian-French alliance was concluded, which, however, did not lead to the result desired by Russia.

In this regard, its new rapprochement with Prussia and Austria began. Russia began to support Prussia in its desire to unite all German lands under its leadership, and in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871. took a position of neutrality.

Taking advantage of the moment, in October 1870 A.M. Gorchakov sent out a “circular note” notifying the Great Powers and Turkey that Russia did not consider itself bound by the obligation not to have a navy in the Black Sea. Prussia supported her in gratitude for her neutrality. England and Austria condemned the unilateral decision of the Russian government, and defeated France did not have the opportunity to protest.

The London Conference of the Great Powers in 1871 cemented the abolition of the neutralization of the Black Sea. Russia returned the right to have a navy, naval bases and fortifications on the Black Sea coast. This made it possible to recreate the defense line of the southern border of the state. In addition, foreign trade through the straits expanded, and the Novorossiysk Territory, the Black Sea region of the country, developed more intensively. Russia was again able to provide assistance to the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula in their liberation movement.

Union of Three Emperors.

In the 70s of the XIX century. The international situation in Europe has undergone significant changes. France was greatly weakened after the Franco-Prussian War. A new state, strong economically and militarily, emerged in the center of the European continent - the German Empire. From the very beginning of its existence, it carried out an aggressive foreign policy, wanting to ensure dominant influence in Europe, create and expand their colonial possessions. A complex of contradictions has developed between Germany, on the one hand, and France and Great Britain, on the other. Austria-Hungary intensified its foreign policy in the Balkans.

Under these conditions, Russia, trying to avoid isolation and not relying on France, which had lost its international prestige, began to seek rapprochement with the Central European states. Germany willingly entered into an alliance with Russia in the hope of finally isolating France. In 1872, a meeting of the emperors and foreign ministers of Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary took place in Berlin. An agreement was reached on the terms and principles of the future union. In 1873, a trilateral treaty was signed between Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary - the Alliance of Three Emperors. The three monarchs promised each other to resolve differences among themselves through political consultations, and if there was a threat of an attack by any power on one of the parties to the alliance, they would agree on joint actions.

Germany, inspired by this diplomatic success, prepared to defeat France again. The German Chancellor, Prince O. Bismarck, who went down in history as the conductor of German militarism, deliberately escalated tensions in relations with France. In 1875, the so-called “war alarm” broke out, which could have caused a new European conflict. However, Russia, despite its alliance with Germany, came out in defense of France. Great Britain actively supported it. Germany had to retreat. France was saved from defeat, but mistrust and alienation grew in Russian-German relations. Although the three emperors later confirmed their commitment to the alliance several times, Russian diplomacy was increasingly inclined to think about the need to acquire other partners. Gradually, the possibility of Russian-French rapprochement emerged.

ACCESSION OF CENTRAL ASIA TO RUSSIA

In the southeast of Russia there were vast Central Asian territories. They extended from Tibet in the east to the Caspian Sea in the west, from Central Asia (Afghanistan, Iran) in the south to the southern Urals and Siberia in the north. The population of this region was small (about 5 million people).

The peoples of Central Asia developed unequally economically, socially and politically. Some of them were exclusively engaged in nomadic cattle breeding, others - in agriculture. Crafts and trade flourished in a number of areas. There was virtually no industrial production. The social structure of these peoples intricately combined patriarchy, slavery and vassal-feudal dependence. Politically, the territory of Central Asia was divided into three separate state entities (the Bukhara Emirate, the Kokand and Khiva Khanates) and a number of independent tribes. The most developed was Bukhara Emirate, which had several large cities in which crafts and trade were concentrated. Bukhara and Samarkand were the most important trading centers in Central Asia.

In the first half of the 19th century. Russia, showing some interest in the Central Asian region bordering it, tried to establish economic ties with it and study the possibility of its conquest and subsequent development. However, Russia did not take decisive foreign policy actions. In the second half of the 19th century. the situation changed dramatically due to Great Britain's desire to penetrate these areas and turn them into its colony. Russia could not allow the appearance of the ‘English lion’ in close proximity from its southern borders. Rivalry with England became the main reason for the intensification of Russian foreign policy in the Middle East.

At the end of the 50s of the XIX century. Russia has taken practical steps to penetrate Central Asia. Three Russian missions were organized: scientific (under the leadership of orientalist N.V. Khanykov), diplomatic (embassy of N.P. Ignatiev) and trade (led by C.Ch. Valikhanov). Their task was to study the political and economic situation of the states of the Middle East and establish closer contacts with them.

In 1863, at a meeting of the Special Committee, it was decided to begin active military operations. The first clash occurred with the Kokand Khanate. In 1864, troops under the command of M.G. Chernyaev undertook the first campaign against Tashkent, which ended unsuccessfully. However, the Kokand Khanate, torn apart by internal contradictions and weakened by the struggle with Bukhara, was in difficult situation. Taking advantage of this, in June 1865 M.G. Chernyaev virtually took control of Tashkent without bloodshed. In 1866, this city was annexed to Russia, and a year later the Turkestan Governor-General was formed from the conquered territories. At the same time, part of Kokand retained its independence. However, a springboard for a further offensive into the depths of Central Asia was created.

In 1867-1868 gt. Russian troops under the command of the Turkestan Governor-General K.P. Kaufman fought an intense struggle with the Bukhara emir. Incited by Great Britain, he declared a “holy war” (gazavat) on the Russians. As a result of successful military operations, the Russian army took Samarkand. The emirate did not lose its sovereignty, but fell into vassalage to Russia. The power of the Bukhara emir was nominal. (It remained with the emir until 1920, when the Bukhara People's Soviet Republic was formed.)

After the Khiva campaign in 1873, the Khiva Khanate renounced the lands along the right bank of the Amu Darya in favor of Russia and, politically, became its vassal while maintaining internal autonomy. (The Khan was overthrown in 1920, when the territory of Khiva was conquered by units of the Red Army. The Khorezm People's Soviet Republic was proclaimed.)

During these same years, penetration into the Kokand Khanate continued, the territory of which in 1876 was included in Russia as part of the Turkestan Governor-General.

At the same time, lands inhabited by Turkmen tribes and some other peoples were annexed. The process of conquering Central Asia ended in 1885 with the voluntary entry of Merv (the territory bordering Afghanistan) into Russia.

The annexation of Central Asia can be assessed in different ways. On the one hand, these lands were mainly conquered by Russia. A semi-colonial regime was established on them, imposed by the tsarist administration. On the other hand, as part of Russia, the Central Asian peoples received the opportunity for accelerated development. It was an end to slavery, the most backward forms of patriarchal life and feudal strife that ruined the population. The Russian government cared about the economic and cultural development of the region. The first industrial enterprises were created, agricultural production was improved (especially cotton growing, since its varieties were imported from the USA), schools, special educational institutions, pharmacies and hospitals were opened. middle Asia gradually became involved in internal Russian trade, becoming a source of agricultural raw materials and a market for Russian textiles, metal and other products.

The peoples of Central Asia, being part of Russia, did not lose their national, cultural and religious features. On the contrary, from the moment of accession the process of their consolidation and the creation of modern Central Asian nations began.

EASTERN CRISIS AND RUSSIAN-TURKISH WAR 1877-1878.

After the abrogation of the main article of the Paris Peace Treaty on the neutralization of the Black Sea, Russia again gained the opportunity to provide more active support to the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula in the fight against the Ottoman yoke.

The first stage of the eastern crisis of the 70s of the XIX century.

In 1875, an uprising broke out in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It soon spread to the territory of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Macedonia. In the summer of 1876, Serbia and Montenegro declared war on the Sultan. However, the forces were unequal. Turkish army brutally suppressed the resistance of the Slavs. In Bulgaria alone, the Turks massacred about 30 thousand people. Serbia suffered defeats from Turkish troops. A small Montenegrin army took refuge high in the mountains. Without the help of European powers, and primarily Russia, the struggle of these peoples was doomed to defeat.

At the first stage of the crisis, the Russian government tried to coordinate its actions with the Western European powers. Broad sections of Russian society demanded that Emperor Alexander II take a more decisive position. Russian Slavic committees in St. Petersburg, Moscow and some other cities were active. The most prominent representatives of the intelligentsia took part in their activities (writer and publicist K.S. Aksakov, literary critic V.V. Stasov, sculptor M.M. Antokolsky, scientists I.I. Mechnikov, D.I. Mendeleev, etc.). The committees collected funds for “brothers by blood and faith” and sent Russian volunteers to support the rebel Serbs, Bulgarians and other Balkan peoples. Among them: doctors N.F. Sklifasovsky and S.P. Botkin, writer G.I. Uspensky, artists V.D. Polenov and K.E. Makovsky.

Given the passivity Western Europe in the Balkan issue and yielding to public pressure, the Russian government in 1876 demanded that the Sultan stop the extermination of the Slavic peoples and make peace with Serbia. However, the Turkish army continued active operations, strangled the uprising in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and invaded Bulgaria. With the Balkan peoples suffering defeat and Turkey rejecting all proposals for a peaceful settlement, Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire in April 1877. The second stage of the Eastern crisis began.

Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878

The tsarist government sought to avoid this war, as it was poorly prepared for it. The military reforms that began in the 60s were not completed. Small arms corresponded only 20% to modern models. The military industry was weak: the army lacked shells and other ammunition. IN military theory outdated doctrines prevailed. The Supreme Command (Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich and his entourage) adhered to a conservative military doctrine. At the same time, the Russian army had talented generals M.D. Skobelev, M.I. Dragomirov, I.V. Gurko. The War Ministry developed a plan for a quick offensive war, as it understood that protracted operations were beyond the capabilities of the Russian economy and finances.

Military operations unfolded in two theaters - the Balkan and Transcaucasian. In May 1877, Russian troops entered the territory of Romania and crossed the Danube. They were supported by Bulgarian militias and regular Romanian units. The main part of the Russian army besieged Plevna, a strong Turkish fortress in Northern Bulgaria. General I.V. Gurko received an order to seize the passes through the Balkan ridge and carry out sabotage in southern Bulgaria. He accomplished this task by capturing the ancient capital of Bulgaria, Tarnovo, and the Shipka mountain pass, the most important strategic point. Since the main forces of the Russian army lingered for a long time near Plevna, I.V. Gurko was forced to defend himself from July to December 1877. A small detachment of the Russian army, supported by Bulgarian volunteers, showed miracles of heroism at the Shipka Pass and defended it at the cost of great human sacrifice.

After the capture of Plevna in early December 1877, the Russian army, in difficult winter conditions, crossed the Balkan Mountains and entered Southern Bulgaria. A widespread offensive began across the entire theater of military operations. In January 1878, Russian troops occupied Adrianople and reached the approaches to Constantinople. In these military operations, General M.D. played an outstanding role. Skobelev.

Years

The Parisian world is under-pi-sa-li before Russia (Count A.F. Or-lov, Baron F.I. Brun-nov) and on-ho-div-shih -sya with her in a state of war in France (Va-lev-sky, ambassador to Ve-ne F. Bur-ke-ne), Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-nii (Minister of Foreign Affairs J.U. Claren-don, envoy to Paris Lord G. Kau-li), Ottoman Empire (Grand Vizier Ali- pa-sha, in the slan-nik in Pa-ri-zhe Me-gem-med-Dzhe-mil), Sar-di-nii (Prime Minister Count K. Ka-voor and in the slan- nickname in Pa-ri-zhe mar-kiz S. di Vill-lama-ri-na), as well as before-sta-vi-te-li pro-vo-divas during the war of the enemy -zh-deb-nuyu Russia po-li-ti-ku of the Austrian Empire (Minister of Foreign Affairs K. Bu-ol-Shau-en-stein, minister in Pa-ri-zhe Y . Hubner) and the os-ta-vav-shey neutral Prussia (Minister of Foreign Affairs O. Manteufel and Ambassador in Paris M. Harz-feldt). Prussian de-le-ga-tsiya study in con-gress from March 6 (18) at the insistence of A.F. Or-lo-va, count on her support.

Re-go-vo-ry about the conditions for stopping the war were you on-cha-you under Emperor Nicholas I on the basis of eng -lo-French program of “four points” at the Vienna Conferences of 1854-1855 (interrupted in June 1855, to -where France and Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-niya on-tre-bo-va-li from Russia og-ra-ni-chen-niy its sovereign rights to Cher -nom my and ga-ran-tiy tse-lo-st-no-sti of the Os-man Empire). In December 1855, in the conditions of military operations in the Crimea after the capture of the southern part by the Anglo-French troops ti Se-va-sto-po-la in August/September 1855 and the establishment of the English-French Union, Austria on behalf of the Western powers in three bo-wa-la from Russia to re-new the re-go-vo-ry, to recognize earlier you-advanced pre-li-mi-nar-nye-us-lo- Via the world and the right of the union to present new requirements. In the opposite case, Austria ug-ro-zha-la raz-ry-vom diplomatic relations, which could have brought to her entry into the war on the side of France and Great Britain. At a meeting on December 20, 1855 (January 1, 1856) in St. Petersburg with the participation of His Serene Highness Prince M.S. Vo-ron-tso-va, Count P.D. Ki-se-le-va, military minister of Prince V.A. Dol-go-ru-ko-va, A.F. Or-lo-va, Grand Duke Kon-stan-ti-na Ni-ko-lae-vi-cha Emperor Alexander II decided to accept ul-ti-ma-tum. Ras-sta-nov-ka forces on the re-go-vor-rah (the French Emperor Na-po-le-on III was ready to partially support the position of Russia- these, including not presenting her with new requirements; Austrian diplomacy eventually departed from the principles of the Holy -but the union and strived to strengthen ties with Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-ni-ey) by-in-calling the Russian representatives -vi-te-lyam ma-nev-ri-ro-vat and to-beat about the ease of the world.

The do-go-thief consisted of pre-am-bu-ly and 34 hundred. Hundreds of us have pledged to withdraw our troops from these territories, including the Turkish fortress of Kars on Kavkaz, Ku- Yes, Russian troops entered, the cities of Se-va-sto-pol, Ba-lak-la-va, Ev-pa-to-ria, Kerch and Kin-burn, the French military city Ro-dok Ka-mysh in the Crimea, where the Ang-lo-French troops were located, as well as Mol-da-viu and Va-la-khiya, who entered part of the Osman Empire, but ok-ku-pi-ro-van-nye by the Austrian troops in 1854. Russia, Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia and the Sardinian Kingdom have agreed to -together with maintaining the integrity and non-vi-si-most of the Os-man Empire, common efforts- mi ga-ran-ti-ro-vat so-blue-de-nie av-to-no-mii Mol-da-vii and Wa-la-hii (in Bu-ha-re-ste coz-da-va- there was a joint commission on the reform of the state structure of these principalities, their status of participants Parisian world window-cha-tel-but op-re-de-li-li at the conference in Paris in 1858). The same countries recognized it as sufficient to ensure the implementation of Christianity in the Ottoman Empire Decree of the Sul-ta-na dated 18.2 (1.3). 1856 on granting them equal rights with the mu-sul-ma-na-mi, in connection with this from-ka- you were asked to intervene in the internal affairs of Turkey (Russia thus ter-rya-la the exclusive right to protect the right-to-glory of the Os-man Empire and provide the gar-ran-tiy of the av-to-no-miya Mol -da-wii and Wa-la-hii). Us-ta-nav-li-va-la-sa-bo-da-su-do-mov-st-va along the Danube, for ure-guli-ro-va-niya in-pro-sov su-do-khod The European and Coastal Commissions were studied.

The most painful thing for the in-te-re-s of Russia would be a us-tup-ka in favor of Mol-da-vii’s small-size territory -that-rii in Southern Bessa-rabia (which is beyond Russia's exit to the mouth of the Danube), as well as the principle of “neu- tra-li-za-tion" of the Black Sea - it is a ban for both Russia and Turkey to have a Navy there, to build and maintain on-the-re- their naval bases. The last condition is the actual destruction of the Russian Black Sea Fleet, while Turkey is in service -after the war, it was possible to introduce a fleet from the Middle-Earth into the Black Sea. The parties also pledged to resolve future conflicts politically, in exchange for captivity , declare “complete forgiveness” to their under-givens, who turned out to be guilty of “participating with not-a-friend” or settled “in the service of another of the warring powers.”

An important achievement of Russia at the cross-roads was the preservation of the former Russian-Turkish border on the Caucasus, from -kaz so-yuz-ni-kov from tre-bo-va-niy kon-tri-bu-tion, intervening-tel-st-va in re-solving the Polish question and from non- some other conditions. There were 3 conventions up to date: the 1st confirmed the London Convention of 1841 on closure Black Sea provinces for the passage of military vessels (years), 2nd us-ta-nav-li-va-la extreme number - what and where-of light military courts that are not needed for one-to-one service on Cher -nom sea for both Russia and Turkey, the 3rd obligated Russia not to build military units and naval bases zy on the Åland Islands in the Baltic Sea. Re-zul-ta-tom of unsatisfactory-le-crea-no-sti Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-nii and Austria us-lo-vi-mi of the Parisian world became a-lo-sec -ret-new agreement between them and France about the guarantee of wholeness and not-for-vi-si-mo -Turkey dated April 3 (15), which was right-but against Russia and pro-the Parisian peace (pre- po-la-ha-lo us-ta-new-le-nie of the actual pro-tek-to-ra-ta three countries over Tur-tsi and their co-gla-s-van-armed incorporation into a conflict with the participation of Tur-tsi, without using zo-va-niya measures for-li-ticheskogo ure-gu-li-ro-va-niya).

All teach-st-ni-ki world-no-go con-gress in Pa-ri-same under-pi-sa-li April 4 (16) Dec-la-ra-tion about the prince -the smell of the inter-people's maritime law (its ini-tion-ro-va-la France), which created-da-va-la more b-la-go-pri- yat-nye conditions for sea trade, in part-st-no-sti for-pre-ti-la ka-per-st-vo.

The Parisian peace and the do-ku-men-men attached to it created a new dis-position of political forces in Europe (“ Crimea sys-te-ma"), window-cha-tel-but whether-to-vi-di-ro-va-li the Holy Union, led-to the temporary os-lab - the influence of Russia in Europe and the further strengthening of the country of Great Britain and France, including in the resolution of the Eastern issue. In 1870-1871, Russia refused to comply with the restrictive articles of the Parisian peace, which prohibited it from having water in the Black Sea naval fleet and naval bases.

Historical sources:

Collection of do-go-vo-rov of Russia with other go-su-dar-st-va-mi. 1856-1917 M., 1952.