FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION

State educational institution

Higher professional education

"MATI" - RUSSIAN STATE TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY named after K.E. TSIOLKOVSKY

Department of "Industrial ecology and production safety"

Course work

on this topic

"Physiological basis memory"

Student: Aurora V.B.

Moscow 2013

Table of contents

• Introduction
• Section 1 Structure and functions of the main organs of this system
• Types of memory
• Deviations
• Pathology of memory
• Conclusion
• Bibliography

Introduction

Memorizing material, storing it and subsequently reproducing it is one of the amazing properties of our brain. No wonder I.M. Sechenov called memory “perhaps the most important miracle of animal and especially human organization.”

It has been established that starting from the 20th century. For every 50 years, the level of human psychological development increases by approximately 2 times compared to the previous 50 years. At the same time, neither externally, nor anatomically, nor physiologically does a person change at all. This happens due to the fact that people have learned to preserve and transmit from generation to generation the knowledge and skills they have accumulated. They invented languages, sign systems, means of recording and storing information and continue to actively improve them in our time. Thus, people improved their ancestral memory, and it, in turn, played an important role in accelerating their psychological development. However, what is given to a person from birth is clearly not enough to live normally in life. modern society to lead a civilized, cultural, that is, human, way of life. It is necessary to have at least a minimum of knowledge and skills that humanity has accumulated in order to live in human society. Even constituting a very insignificant part of the knowledge and skills that all of humanity has at a given moment in time, individually necessary knowledge and skills are still large enough in volume and difficult enough in content for a newly born person to master them independently. For this he needs a good and strong memory, since a person must retain the relevant knowledge and skills throughout his life.

Almost from birth, a person begins to acquire new life experiences. From about one year of age, and sometimes before man They begin to systematically teach something. Gradually, with age, this process intensifies and becomes most active in school years, and also when a person receives professional education. The period of compulsory and active learning for modern people takes from 10-12 to 15-20 years. But the learning doesn't end there either. In other, perhaps less active and less organized, forms it continues further, often throughout a person’s life. It is clear that without a good memory it is almost impossible to learn anything. This is one of the main functions of human memory; if a person did not have a powerful, fast-acting memory, if people had not learned to preserve and pass on from generation to generation the knowledge they acquired and the skills they developed, then humanity would never have reached the level of development that it has reached. where it is now. If we imagine a catastrophe, as a result of which people would survive as physical beings, but would lose their memory of the past, then this would lead to the fact that humanity in its development would be thrown back thousands of years. Under these conditions, people would have to reinvent almost all the knowledge, skills and abilities, the entire culture accumulated over thousands of years. Memory made a person a person and keeps him that way - this is absolutely fair statement, which does not require additional proof in the light of the above.

In this work, I will try to understand the mechanisms that occur in the brain during memorization, when working with received information and other aspects. We will also consider the main deviations from the norm, diseases associated with memory, methods of treating and improving its condition, and the influence of the surrounding world on its performance.

memory brain pathology remembering

Section 1. Structure and functions of the main organs of this system

Of all other cognitive processes, human memory is represented most widely in the structures of his brain. The cerebral cortex, subcortex, and cerebellum are associated with memory. There are many physiological theories that explain various types of memory (we will look at them in more detail later). The longest human memory in terms of time of storing information in it, capable of storing and transmitting information by inheritance, without training, is called genetic. It is associated with the structures and processes that occur in genes. They are known to include two main types of molecules, DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid). Encoded in RNA molecules is probably the most durable and immutable genetic memory of a person, which determines his anatomical and physiological structure, innate behaviors and innate psychological phenomena. Human long-term memory is associated with DNA molecules.

It has been established: when a person remembers something firmly and for a long time, biochemical processes occur in the structure of DNA molecules, with the help of which this information is encoded and stored in the person’s long-term memory. Encoding is carried out by the sequence of arrangement of amino acid bases in the molecule.

Several more physiological theories that explain the mechanism of action of human long-term memory link the memorization, preservation and reproduction of information with the processes occurring in individual biological cells that make up a living organism. The neural theory of memory associates memory with neurons - the cells that make up the nervous system. Each neuron has three main parts: the body of the neuron, its short processes (dendrites) and the longest of the processes, which carries nerve impulses from the body of the neuron to other nerve cells (axon). According to the neural theory of memory, when a person remembers something for a long time, new complex biochemical compounds are formed in the body of the neuron, in which the memorized information is encoded and stored.

A similar hypothesis applies to others biological cells, of which, along with neurons, the human nervous system consists - the so-called glial cells. It is assumed that they are also involved in the operation of the long-term memory mechanism, that when remembering and storing information, processes also occur in them that contribute to the memorization and storage of information. Contact sites play an important role in the physiological support of memory functioning. nerve cells with each other in the brain. They are called synapses. If the conduction of nerve impulses through synapses is good enough, then a person’s memory, including the processes of memorization and recall, works normally. If the conductivity of synapses is poor, then these processes also occur with difficulty. In turn, the conductivity of synapses depends on many reasons: on the youth of the body (it is higher in youth, but worsens in old age); from physical condition the body at a given moment in time (in a healthy body the conductivity of synapses is higher, in a patient it is lower); on the psychological state of a person (if a person is alert and in a good mood, then the conductivity of synapses is better than when he is tired or in a bad mood). Using the mechanism of synaptic transmission of nerve impulses, it is possible to physiologically explain the processes of memorization and difficulties in recall. If the synaptic mechanism of transmission of nerve impulses works well, then both storing and recalling information is easy; if this mechanism does not work well, then both remembering new information and recalling known information will be difficult. Another interesting one physiological theory concerns the mechanism that ensures the functioning of human short-term memory, that is, memory that is capable of retaining information for 20 - 30 s. The physiological process associated with this type of memory is presented in the hypothesis of the so-called reverberation circles. This hypothesis assumes the following. When a person remembers something to solve a problem with the goal of then immediately forgetting what he remembered, closed chains of neurons are formed in the cerebral cortex, along which for some time in encoded form, in the form of specific combinations and sequences of nerve impulses circulates (reverberates) ) relevant information.

At least three large blocks can be distinguished in the brain, of which:

one provides cortical tone and regulation of general states of excitability;

the second is a block for receiving, processing and storing incoming information;

the third - the block of program formation, regulation and control of behavior.

This fact alone indicates the unequal participation of individual structures of the cerebrum in memory processes.

We also know that the neurophysiological characteristics of individual neurons belonging to different brain systems are not the same. If in the projection systems of the visual, auditory and cutaneous-kinesthetic zones of the cortex the overwhelming number of receptor cells are modality-specific and respond to narrowly selective signs of stimuli, then there are other areas (which, for example, include the hippocampus, caudate body), which primarily consist from neurons that do not have a modality-specific character and respond only to changes in excitation. Naturally, these facts give reason to assume:

1) the hippocampus and related formations (amygdala, thalamus nuclei, mamillary bodies) play a special role in fixing and preserving memory traces;

2) the neurons that make up them are an apparatus adapted for storing traces of excitations, comparing them with new stimuli, and are designed to either activate discharges (if the new excitation is different from the old one) or inhibit them.

The above facts make us think that these systems are an apparatus that provides not only an orienting reflex, but also an apparatus that carries the function of fixing and comparing traces that play a significant role in memory processes.

That is why, as observations have shown, bilateral damage to the hippocampus leads to severe memory impairment, and patients with such damage begin to show a picture of the inability to record irritations reaching them, which is known in the clinic as “Korsakoff syndrome.” These facts were established by many researchers (B. Milner, Scoville, V. Penfield) during operations and are of great theoretical importance.

Very important data were obtained in special experiments conducted by the Canadian neuropsychologist B. Milner. A patient with a unilateral lesion of the hippocampus was injected into the carotid artery of the second hemisphere with a hypnotic substance (sodium amytal); this led to a brief (for several minutes) shutdown of the functions of the cortex of the second hemisphere and led to the fact that for a short period of time both hippocampus turned off from work.

The result of such an intervention was a temporary switching off of memory and the impossibility of any kind of fixation of traces, which lasted for several minutes and then disappeared.

It is easy to see how important these studies are for understanding the role of the hippocampus in fixation and storage of memory traces.

No less important for understanding the role played by the hippocampus and associated formations in memory processes are clinical observations showing that lesions in these areas of the brain, closely associated with the reticular formation, lead not only to a general decrease in cortical tone, but and to a significant impairment of the ability to capture and store traces of current experience. Such disorders were observed in the clinic with any lesion that blocked normal movement along the so-called hippocampo-thalamo-mammillary circle ("Peipetz circle"), which includes the hippocampus, thalamus nuclei, mamillary bodies and amygdala. The cessation of normal circulation of excitation in this circle disrupted normal operation reticular formation and led to severe memory impairment.

All this does not mean that other parts of the cerebrum and, in particular, the cerebral cortex do not take part in memory processes. The essential point, however, is that damage to the occipital or temporal zones of the cortex can lead to loss of the ability to consolidate traces of modality-specific (visual, auditory) stimulation, but never leads to a general impairment of memory traces.

This means that memory is a complex process in its neural basis and different brain systems take part in providing memory, each of which plays its own role and makes its own specific contribution to the implementation of mnestic activity.

Section 2. Operation and regulation

Excitations coming to the brain from external and internal stimuli leave “traces” in it that can persist for many years (sometimes throughout life). In the cerebral cortex, paths for excitations seem to be paved, as a result of which nerve connections subsequently arise more easily and quickly.

Connections are preserved and come to life if the excitations are repeated" or: they fade away if the excitations are not repeated. In the latter case what is learned is forgotten. The formation and preservation of temporary connections constitutes the physiological basis of memory.

It is said that external impressions leave some “traces” in the human cerebral cortex. modern experiments performed by neurosurgeons. When certain parts of the brain were irritated with an electric current, the patient sometimes had memories of events in which he participated.

The speed of formation of connections in the cerebral cortex and their preservation depend on the ability of the brain to respond to stimuli and retain “traces” of previous excitations. Along with natural qualities The nervous system here plays a big role in the nature of a person’s activity, his exercises, and training.

Active mental work and the presence of a large number of connections in the cerebral cortex contribute to the fact that new associations arise more easily. This explains that specialists who know any field of knowledge well easily and firmly assimilate new information in this scientific field.

A student also remembers new educational material better if he knows well what he has already covered.

Memory includes the following mental processes: memorization, retention of what has been learned, recognition and reproduction.

Memory processes begin with memorization, i.e. establishing connections between objects and phenomena. The physiological basis of memorization is temporary nerve connections in the cerebral cortex.

Most of what our memory stores is remembered by us involuntarily. This is the result of so-called involuntary memorization. What is especially well remembered is that which arouses interest or is associated with a person’s feelings. If a teenager is interested in cars, he easily, without any special memorization, learns the names of car parts, their structure and purpose, etc. In the same way, some events in life that caused joyful or sad feelings in us are firmly stored in memory.

But human life and activity also require so-called voluntary memorization, when you have to force yourself to remember. Studying the basics of science at school and preparing for work in a particular profession usually require voluntary memorization. Without it, it is impossible to acquire the necessary knowledge and master skills and abilities.

Memorization can be semantic or mechanical.

When remembering semantically, thinking processes are of great importance. Here a person usually tries to understand what needs to be remembered, to establish a connection between new material and old, unknown - with what is already familiar. Thus, when memorizing the proof of a theorem, you should not engage in meaningless repetition of what is written in the textbook, but you must first of all try to understand what is said there, to figure out what previously studied mathematical principles the proof is based on. Only after this should you repeat it in order to better understand it.

Mechanical memorization consists only of repetitions, and repetitions are often carried out without understanding the material being learned. This leads to the fact that the student simply memorizes difficult, unclear material. Such memorization is usually difficult, takes a lot of time, and what is learned is quickly forgotten.

But sometimes you have to resort to rote memorization. So, after repeating several times, we remember the phone number or address of a friend, as well as foreign words, difficult terms, etc. However, even here it is advisable to somehow connect what is memorized with what is already familiar, to comprehend the assimilation, since semantic memorization is more productive than mechanical memorization.

Voluntary memorization, which is carried out systematically to acquire certain knowledge, is called memorization. It is important part student's educational work.

Of what we remember, only a relatively small part is retained in memory for a long time, sometimes throughout our entire lives. Most of what is learned is gradually forgotten, since there is no reinforcement of those irritations that previously occurred. Therefore, in order to retain what you have learned in your memory, you need to repeat it.

Material that is well understood is retained in memory much better than material that is learned verbatim, but without complete understanding.

In the process of retention, a peculiar phenomenon is sometimes observed: the material being learned is better remembered not immediately, but after some time (a day, two or more). During this time, the acquired material seemed to be fixed in the cerebral cortex, and it became easier to restore it. This phenomenon is partly explained by the fatigue of the corresponding cortical cells. Only after some time does it disappear, and the necessary excitations can again arise in the cerebral cortex and the corresponding nerve connections appear.

If, after mastering educational material, students are asked to remember something different, but similar to the previous one (for example, after literature, a student will study history), then memorizing similar material will be difficult. Vigorous follow-up activities that cause high arousal can also cause complete or partial forgetting of the material. This is explained by the fact that subsequent activity seems to erase those “traces” in the cortex that remained as a result of memorization.

The material that was learned in the middle of the day and then repeated before going to bed and in the morning after waking up is well retained in memory. This is explained by the fact that during sleep there are no strong impressions that can displace or erase what has been learned in memory.

We are talking about the need to retain what has been learned firmly and for a long time in memory. But this does not mean that forgetting has only negative meaning In human life. If we never forgot anything, our brain would be overloaded with unnecessary information, which would only make it more difficult to form new ones. useful connections. Forgetting allows us to store in memory only what has some meaning to us.

Much of what we perceived or did is remembered (reproduced) without any effort on our part, involuntarily. Thus, while studying history, a student can remember historical novel which he was reading. This is involuntary (or unintentional) reproduction.

But very often we remember something with some effort. For example, a student may not immediately remember the Pythagorean theorem. He tries to recall in his memory the drawing given in the textbook, remembers that we are talking about right triangle, about squares built on its sides, etc. Finally, he manages to remember the content of the theorem.

This is an example of voluntary (or intentional) reproduction. You have to resort to it very often, especially in educational work.

Reproduction associated with significant volitional efforts, requiring a certain amount of effort from a person, is called recollection. It includes active work thoughts proceed more easily if we reproduce those facts and circumstances in which we perceived the recalled object or phenomenon.

Recognition can also be involuntary and voluntary. The process of recognition is usually easier than reproduction, since it relies on repeated perception. Therefore, even when remembering, we sometimes use recognition.

So, having forgotten the name of our friend, we begin to go through the names in our minds: Petya, Vanya, Seryozha. Having said to ourselves: “Kolya,” we recognize in this word the name of a friend. But recognition cannot be a criterion (measure) of the strength and completeness of memorization. Sometimes, when students re-read educational material, it seems that they have mastered it. In fact, they just recognized him. When schoolchildren try to reproduce the material without looking at the book, it becomes clear to them that memorization is still a long way off. Therefore, the quality of memorization can only be judged by reproduction.

Memory qualities. Memory qualities include:

a) volume, i.e. the number of objects or facts that are certain time a person is able to remember;

b) accuracy of reproduction;

c) speed of memorization;

d) the duration of retention of what has been learned and e) the readiness of memory, i.e. the ability to quickly remember what is required.

The best memory is possessed by the person who has sufficiently developed all of these properties. But this happens relatively rarely. Typically, people are better developed in some memory qualities and worse in others. Some have a large amount of memory, but are slow to remember and soon forget the material, others can quickly learn, but a relatively small amount of material, and do not reproduce (remember) it accurately enough.

Types of memory

Depending on the activity of storing material, instantaneous, short-term, operational, long-term and genetic memory are distinguished.

Instant (iconic) memory represents a direct reflection of the image of information perceived by the senses. Its duration is from 0.1 to 0.5 s.

Short term memory retains for a short period of time (on average about 20 s.) a generalized image of the perceived information, its most essential elements. The volume of short-term memory is 5 - 9 units of information and is determined by the amount of information that a person is able to accurately reproduce after a single presentation. The most important feature short-term memory is its selectivity. From instant memory, only that information comes into it that corresponds to the current needs and interests of a person and attracts his increased attention. “The brain of the average person,” Edison said, “does not perceive even a thousandth part of what the eye sees.”

Operational memory designed to store information for a certain, predetermined period of time necessary to perform some action or operation. The duration of RAM is from several seconds to several days.

Long-term memory capable of storing information for an almost unlimited period of time, while there is (but not always) the possibility of its repeated reproduction. In practice, the functioning of long-term memory is usually associated with thinking and volitional efforts.

Genetic memory is determined by the genotype and is passed on from generation to generation. It is obvious that human influence on this type of memory is very limited (if it is possible at all).

Depending on the analyzer that predominates in the process of memory functioning, motor, visual, auditory, (tactile, olfactory, gustatory), emotional and other types of memory are distinguished.

In humans, visual perception is predominant. For example, we often know a person by sight, although we cannot remember his name. For saving and reproducing visual images answers visual memory. It is directly related to a developed imagination: what a person can visually imagine, he, as a rule, more easily remembers and reproduces. The Chinese have a proverb: “It is better to see once than to hear a thousand times.” Dale Carnegie explains this phenomenon by saying that “the nerves leading from the eyes to the brain are twenty-five times thicker than those leading from the ear to the brain.”

Auditory memory - This is a good memorization and accurate reproduction of various sounds, for example, musical, speech. A special type of speech memory is verbal-logical, which is closely related to word, thought and logic.

Motor memory represents the memorization and preservation, and, if necessary, reproduction with sufficient accuracy of a variety of complex movements. She participates in the formation of motor skills. A striking example of motor memory is handwritten text reproduction, which, as a rule, involves the automatic writing of once learned characters.

Emotional memory - it is a memory of experiences. It is involved in the work of all types of memory, but is especially evident in human relations. The strength of memorizing material is based on emotional memory: what evokes emotions in a person is remembered without much difficulty and for a longer period.

The capabilities of tactile, olfactory, gustatory and other types of memory compared to visual, auditory, motor and emotional memory are very limited; and do not play a special role in a person’s life.

The types of memory discussed above only characterize the sources of initial information and are not stored in memory in pure form. In the process of memorization (reproduction), information undergoes various changes: sorting, selection, generalization, coding, synthesis, as well as other types of information processing.

According to the nature of the participation of the will in the process of memorizing and reproducing material, memory is divided into arbitrary And involuntary.

In the first case, a person is given a special mnemonic task (memorization, recognition, preservation and reproduction), carried out through volitional efforts. Not random memory functions automatically, without much effort on the part of humans. Involuntary memorization is not necessarily weaker than voluntary; in many cases in life it is superior to it.

Peculiarities of memory as personality traits influence the development of abilities and human activity. People with less developed memory spend more time and effort on mastering educational material than those who easily remember. For many professions you need good memory.

Depending on the characteristics of memorizing and retaining in memory what has been learned (the qualities of memory), people can be divided into four groups: a) those who remember quickly and firmly, those who forget slowly (good memory); b) quickly, but fragilely assimilate the material, quickly forgetting the material; c) those who remember slowly, but remember what they have learned for a long time; d) those who learn slowly and quickly forget (the weakest memory).

People also differ in which analyzers usually take the greatest part in the process of assimilation and reproduction of memorized material. So, to remember something, you definitely need to look at the object or read about it yourself. When reproducing the material, these people seem to see the text they read before their eyes, remember the page where it was printed, the pictures that are depicted there. Such people are said to have a visual type of memory.

Others learn better when text they need to remember is read aloud to them. By reproducing it, they seem to hear the speech of the reader and repeat after him. These are people who have an auditory type of memory.

Some people are helped to remember the material by certain movements; for example, when learning a foreign word, such people try to write it, at least with their finger on the table or in the air. These people have a well-developed motor, or motor, type of memory.

If a person’s predominance of one or another type of memorization and reproduction makes him more suitable for the corresponding activity, then, in turn, a certain profession helps the development of the type of memory necessary for it. Therefore, artists often have a well-developed visual type of memory, while musicians often have a well-developed auditory type. Motor memory is well developed in athletes.

There are people who have exceptionally highly developed one type of memory associated with their professional activities. Thus, the following incident is told about Rachmaninov, when he was a student at the conservatory. The composer Glazunov once came to his teacher Taneev to perform his new thing. Taneyev, knowing Rachmaninov's exceptional musical memory, decided to joke and hid the student in the next room. Glazunov performed a complex musical piece he had composed. After some time, Rachmaninov appeared. After greeting Glazunov, he sat down at the piano and played this new work by the composer.

A significant proportion of people have a mixed type of memory, which combines elements of visual, auditory and motor memory.

Deviations

Memory weakens with age, but the effectiveness of its work is not the same in older people, just as it is not the same in children. Middle-aged people are the most homogeneous in this regard. Children and older people experience many identical difficulties in relation to memory activities. In particular, they have a shorter attention span than usual. They have difficulty analyzing information and are not capable of spontaneous organization of the thought process. They do not know how to accurately assess the meaning of perceived information for themselves and have difficulty forming associations related to information that needs to be remembered. Both of them do not record information in memory well. The main difference between children and old people is that children remember recent events better, while old people remember events more distant in time (since they do not process new impressions effectively enough).

In general, memory adapts to living conditions and functions normally until old age, but only if a person constantly uses it. With insufficient motivation, she weakens and often switches to work in other areas.

The quality of human memory is influenced by many factors. The main reasons for poor memory performance are psychological in nature (with the exception of pathological cases).

The mind of such a person is occupied exclusively with negative thoughts, and there is no room left for anything else that could stimulate memory. In the mind of an upset person, the thought of trouble that has befallen him entails a long chain of memories of past troubles. This painful condition gets worse obsessive thoughts when a person struggles and cannot remember a fact that is completely irrelevant to the essence of the matter. Nervous tension permanently blocks memory

If you stand in front of difficult question, and you will not be able to immediately retrieve the necessary information from memory, just ignore it, continuing the conversation on the same topic. This way, you will be able to cope with your anxiety and not lose the thread of the conversation. In addition, this saves the time necessary to restore the forgotten memory. Memory rarely returns instantly, and the more factors that impede its functioning, the more time it takes the subconscious to find the necessary information.

Having forgotten a word, a person begins to worry, worry, not realizing that by doing so he is only worsening his situation. Memory has a paradoxical feature: the longer and harder we try to remember the word that is “on the tip of our tongue,” the more time it takes us to consciously retrieve it from memory. The fact is that when we try to speed up the process of remembering, we become nervous and thereby complicate the functioning of the brain. Only by switching our attention to another subject do we allow our subconscious to search for the necessary information at a speed convenient for it.

All have a detrimental effect on memory performance chemical substances and medications that cause drowsiness. The list of them is very long. These are sedatives, antidepressants, antihistamines and many antiepileptics.

One of the main causes of memory problems is the abuse of sleeping pills, since they are used more often and more regularly than other drugs. Sleeping pills cause drowsiness and lethargy, dulling vigilance and attention. Some heart medications have a similar effect. Memory impairment is noticeable in alcoholics of any age. Alcohol reduces learning ability and slows down thinking processes, resulting in poor recording and storage of information. Just a few sips of alcohol are enough to impair short-term memory. Even moderate doses of alcohol have a detrimental effect on the cognitive processes of the brain (abstract thinking, information processing, memorization).

Consequences alcohol intoxication affect the functioning of the brain for a very long time.

Excess caffeine in the blood causes nervousness, excitability, and palpitations, which are incompatible with attention. Ideally, for memory to function properly, the brain should be both alert and relaxed. Abuse of tobacco and coffee deprives a person of the opportunity to relax.

There are many other physical disorders, which have a bad effect on memory function: high blood pressure, diabetes (even in mild forms), thyroid disease, the effects of anesthesia, hearing and vision loss, pesticide poisoning, vitamin deficiency (especially alcoholic).

Memory problems occur with various brain tumors, although the latter mainly provoke epilepsy and impaired motor function of the body.

The most dangerous disease that causes complete or partial amnesia (memory loss) is disease Alzheimer's . In the patient’s brain, the number of neurotransmitters responsible for memory and attention is catastrophically reduced. The affected areas are first localized in the hippocampus and in the amygdala nucleus, which is part of the limbic system. A deficiency of acetylcholine in these areas of the brain leads to fatal consequences. The patient can rarely remember the name of the objects shown to him. The causes of this disease are still not well understood.

Pathology of memory

Pathological conditions of the brain are very often accompanied by memory impairment; However, until recently, very little was known about what psychological features distinguish memory impairments in brain lesions of different locations and what physiological mechanisms underlie them.

There are widely known facts indicating that, as a result of acute injuries or intoxications, the phenomena of retrograde and anterograde amnesia can occur. In these cases, patients, retaining memories of long-past events, reveal significant memory impairments for current events, essentially exhausting the knowledge that psychiatrists and neurologists had who described memory changes during organic lesions brain These data are joined by evidence indicating that lesions in the deep parts of the brain can lead to profound impairments in the ability to record traces and reproduce what is remembered, but the nature of these impairments remains unclear.

Data obtained by numerous researchers over the past decades have significantly enriched our knowledge about the nature of memory impairment in lesions of various locations and have made it possible to clarify both the basic data on the role of individual brain structures in memory processes and the physiological mechanisms underlying its impairments.

Defeats deep departments brain - areas of the hippocampus and the system known as the “circle of Peipetz” (hippocampus, thalamus nuclei, mamillary bodies, amygdala) usually lead to To massive violations memory, Not limited any one modality. Patients in this group, while retaining memories of distant events (long consolidated in the brain), are, however, unable to capture traces of current influences; in less expressed cases they complain of poor memory, pointing out that they are forced to write everything down so as not to forget. Massive lesions in this area cause severe amnesia for current events, sometimes leading to the fact that a person loses a clear idea of ​​where he is and begins to experience significant difficulties in orienting himself in time, being unable to name the year, month, date, day weeks, and sometimes the time of day.

It is characteristic that memory impairments in these cases are not selective in nature and are equally manifested in difficulties in retaining visual and auditory, visual and verbal material. In cases where the lesion involves both hippocampi, these memory impairments are especially pronounced.

Detailed neuropsychological studies have made it possible to further characterize how psychological structure these memory defects, and approach the analysis of the physiological mechanisms underlying its disorders.

It has been shown that in cases of relatively mild lesions of these areas of the brain, the disturbances are limited to defects in elementary, immediate memory, leaving the possibility of compensating for these defects through the semantic organization of the material. Patients who cannot remember a series of isolated words, pictures or actions are able to perform this task much better by resorting to auxiliary means and organizing the memorized material into known semantic structures. The impairment of immediate memory in these patients is not accompanied by any significant impairment of intelligence, and these patients, as a rule, do not show signs of dementia.

Essential facts were obtained by analyzing possible physiological memory impairments in these cases.

As these studies have shown, patients with lesions of the deep parts of the brain can retain relatively long series of words or actions and reproduce them after an interval of 1-1.5 minutes. However, a slight distraction by any interfering activity is enough to make the reproduction of a just memorized series of elements impossible. The physiological basis of memory impairment in these cases is not so much the weakness of the traces as increased braking traces interfering influences. These mechanisms of memory impairment in the described cases are easily explained by the fact that the persistent preservation of dominant foci and selective orientation reflexes is easily disrupted due to a decrease in the tone of the cortex and the isolation from the normal functioning of those primary trace comparison apparatuses, which, as stated above, is a direct function of the hippocampus and related entities.

The picture of memory impairment changes significantly when damage to the deep parts of the brain is accompanied by damage to the frontal lobes (and especially their medial and basal parts). In these cases, the patient ceases to be critical of the shortcomings of his memory, is unable to compensate for its defects and loses the ability to distinguish between genuine performance and uncontrollably emerging associations. Confabulations and memory errors (“pseudo-reminiscences”) that appear in these patients join gross memory disorders (“Korsakoff syndrome”) and lead to those phenomena of confusion that stand on the borders of memory impairment and consciousness impairment.

Memory impairments that occur with local lesions differ significantly from all variants of the picture described above. external (convexital) surface of the brain.

Such lesions are never accompanied general violation memory and never lead to the emergence of “Korsakov syndrome” and, even more so, disturbances of consciousness with the disintegration of orientation in space and time.

Patients with local lesions of the convexital parts of the brain may exhibit private violation mnestic activities, usually worn modal-specific character, in other words, manifesting themselves in one particular area.

Thus, patients with lesions left temporal region show signs of impairment auditory-verbal memory, cannot hold any long series of syllables or words. However, they may not show any defects in visual memory and in some cases, relying on the latter, they can compensate for their defects by logical organization of the material being fixed.

Patients with local lesions of the left parieto-occipital region may exhibit visual-spatial impairment memory, but, as a rule, they retain auditory-verbal memory to a much greater extent.

Patients with lesions frontal shares brain, as a rule, they do not lose memory, but their mnestic activity may be significantly hampered pathological inertia once stereotypes have arisen and difficult switching from one link of the memorized system to another; attempts to actively remember the material proposed to them are also complicated by the pronounced inactivity of such patients, and any memorization of a long series of elements, requiring intense work on the memorized material, turns into a passive repetition of those links in the series that are remembered immediately, without any effort. Therefore, the “memory curve,” which normally has a distinct progressive nature, ceases to increase in them, continuing to remain at the same level, and begins to have the character of a “plateau,” reflecting the inactivity of their mnestic activity. It is characteristic that local lesions of the right (subdominant) hemisphere can occur without noticeable disturbances in mnestic activity.

Research conducted over the past decades has made it possible to come closer to the characteristics of those memory impairments that arise when general cerebral mental disorders.

If these disorders cause weakness and instability of excitations in the cerebral cortex (and this can occur with various vascular lesions, internal hydrocephalus and cerebral hypertension), memory impairments can be expressed in a general decrease in memory capacity, difficulty in learning and easy inhibition of traces by interfering influences; they lead to sharp exhaustion of the patient, as a result of which memorization becomes very difficult and the “learning curve” begins to not increase, and even decreases with subsequent repetitions.

Learning curve analysis can have a big impact diagnostic value, making it possible to distinguish between different syndromes of changes in mental processes with brain lesions that are different in nature.

Characteristic features of memory impairment are: organic dementia ( Pick's disease, Alzheimer's disease) and in cases of mental retardation.

The central location for such lesions is usually is violation higher forms memory, and above all logical memory. Such patients are unable to apply the necessary techniques for the semantic organization of memorized material and exhibit particularly pronounced defects in experiments with indirect memorization.

It is typical that in cases mental retardation(oligophrenia), these violations of logical memory can sometimes appear against the background of well-preserved mechanical memory, which in some cases can be satisfactory in its volume.

Memory research is very important for clarifying the symptoms of brain diseases and their diagnosis.

Methods for improving information memorization

Those who complain that they have a bad memory often simply do not know how to remember and do not take into account the conditions necessary for successful memorization.

1. An important condition In order for educational material to be remembered quickly and for a long time, it is necessary to have interest in what you remember and attention in the process of assimilation and reproduction of the material. A.S. Pushkin showed exceptional interest in poetry. He loved poetry very much, read it with enthusiasm and therefore remembered it easily. The poet's contemporaries noted that Pushkin only had to read a page or two of a poem once or twice, and he could already repeat it by heart. Exceptional memory for poetic works Vladimir Mayakovsky was also distinguished.

2. Feelings are of great importance for remembering. Everything that is associated with joy, sadness, anger, as a rule, is remembered better than something to which a person is indifferent.

3. An important condition for good memorization is understanding what needs to be learned. If the thoughts that need to be remembered are not clear to the student, he begins to memorize them mechanically, memorizing them word for word; such educational work only harms his mental development, and what is learned in this way is quickly forgotten.

4. It is also very important to set yourself the task of mastering it firmly and for a long time. If a student learns a lesson only in order to answer the teacher tomorrow (and then forget everything), then usually what he has learned for this purpose is quickly lost in memory. If a student teaches with the idea that this material you need to remember it for a long time, since it will be useful in life, then its assimilation will be faster and more durable.

In one experiment, two passages were read to a group of students literary text of equal difficulty, and they said that the first one would be asked tomorrow, and the second one in a week. But in reality, both passages were proposed to be told two weeks later. It turned out that the students almost completely forgot the first passage, since they had an involuntary intention to remember it for a short time (until tomorrow), and the second passage was better preserved in their memory (here they had the intention not to forget it for a long time).

5. Of great importance for the assimilation of educational material is the combination of memorization with human activities that require thinking and activity. If a student compares, generalizes, and draws conclusions in the process of memorizing, then under these conditions the process of assimilation becomes especially conscious and therefore proceeds more successfully. We carried out such an experiment. Students were given sentences to read, each of which was based on a specific spelling rule. At the same time, the children were asked what rules these sentences were based on. Then they had to make their own proposals for these rules. A few days later they asked how the schoolchildren remembered all the sentences. It turned out that they remembered three times more of the sentences that were invented by the students themselves than the sentences given in finished form.

6. Having knowledge of the academic subject in which the material is being learned also serves as a favorable condition for memorization, since in this case the new is more easily and more firmly connected with what is already known.

7. Memorization is work, and the work is sometimes not easy, so an important condition for mastering educational material is perseverance, perseverance in work, the ability not to give up halfway through, but to achieve complete and lasting memorization. These are strong-willed qualities, without which serious mental work is impossible.

Basic methods, directed on improvement memorization information

Memorization, recollection, reproduction, recognition, which are included in memory, are built on the basis of the elementary ability to capture and restore data. It is very important to develop and improve memorization at school age.

One of the techniques that facilitate memorization and increase memory capacity is mnemonics, based on the formation of additional associations. A specially developed system for retaining any information in memory is called “mnemonics” or “mnemonics” (“mnemo” from Greek means memory). Mnemonics involves the creation of a fixed series of reference images and its constant storage in activated memory. Mnemonics relies on the creation of visual associations with reference images. In addition to mnemonics, there are other methods that make memory work better. Recommendations for improving memorization can be summarized as the following main methods.

1. Attention management. To improve memory, first of all, you need to learn to control your attention to the necessary information and isolate only essential information from it. Attention is the concentration of the psyche on certain sources of information: both external and internal. Human attention is designed in such a way that it is easily attracted by bright signs of objects, sounds, etc. Therefore, focus on necessary information presents a difficulty. It is necessary to make an effort to concentrate. The capacity of short-term memory is limited, therefore, only significant information needs to be highlighted in the memorized information; attention must work like a filter that allows only significant data to penetrate into short-term memory and blocks it from overloading with minor details from the world of information.

2. Structuring information. The ability and strength of memorizing new material depends on how quickly and efficiently we can prepare them for storage in long-term memory. Techniques for structuring information include:

a) Semantic division.

b) Isolation of semantics strong points.

c) Use of visual images.

d) Correlation with already known knowledge.

a) Semantic division. It is very difficult to remember material that is large in volume, because... The capacity of short-term memory is very small. Typically, any educational material contains several main thoughts and micro-topics. Therefore, when memorizing, it is necessary to highlight the main micro-topics and, according to them, divide the material into parts. Next, absorb the material in parts. It is convenient to carry out such a breakdown by drawing up “plans for yourself” or flowcharts that reflect the main thoughts and connections between them. Structuring the material is made easier by relying on external signs: headings, underlined or highlighted key sentences, starting new thoughts with a red line .

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MEMORY

Memory and its meaning

Our brain has very important property. He not only receives information about the world around him, but also stores and accumulates it. Every day we learn a lot of new things, our knowledge is enriched every day. Everything that a person learns can be stored for a long time in the “storerooms” of his brain.

Images of objects and phenomena that arise in the brain as a result of their influence on analyzers do not disappear without a trace after the cessation of this influence. Images are preserved even in the absence of these objects and phenomena in the form of so-called memory representations. Memory representations are images of those objects or phenomena that we perceived before, and now we reproduce mentally. Views can be visual And auditory(performance human voice, melodies, sparrow chirping, etc.), olfactory(we can imagine, i.e. remember, the smell of fresh hay, coffee, lily of the valley), taste(imagine the taste sensation of sugar, lemon). Representations can be tactile(we can remember the feeling of touching cold marble or soft, fleecy fur). Memory representations, unlike perceptual images, are, of course, paler, less stable and not as rich in detail (compare, for example, the image of a person when you look at him and the mental representation of his image), but they form an important element of our fixed past experience.

Memory is a reflection of a person's past experience, manifested in remembering, storing and subsequently recalling what he perceived, did, felt or thought about.

The importance of memory in human life is very great. Absolutely everything that we know and can do is a consequence of the brain’s ability to remember and retain in memory images, thoughts, experienced feelings, movements and their systems. A man without memory, as pointed out I. M. Sechenov, would forever be in the position of a newborn, would be a creature incapable of learning anything, mastering anything, and his actions would be determined only by instincts. Memory rewards, preserves and enriches our knowledge, skills, abilities, without which neither successful learning nor fruitful activity is unthinkable.

Memory and personality. Memory, like all other mental processes, is an activity. Whether a person remembers, remembers, recalls something, reproduces or learns - he always carries out a certain mental activity.

A person remembers most accurately those facts, events and phenomena that are especially important for him, for his activities. And vice versa, everything that is of little importance to a person is remembered much worse and forgotten more quickly. Stable interests that characterize a person are of great importance when remembering. Everything in surrounding life associated with these stable interests is remembered better than something that is not associated with them.

Strongly affects memory emotional attitude person to what is remembered. Everything that causes a strong emotional reaction in a person leaves a deep mark for a long time.

Memory productivity largely depends on strong-willed qualities person. People who are weak-willed, lazy and incapable of sustained volitional efforts always remember superficially and poorly. Thus, memory is associated with personality characteristics. A person consciously regulates the processes of his memory and manages them, based on the goals and objectives that he sets in his activities.

Associations. Memorization- This, usually, establishing a connection between the new and what is already in the human mind. To remember educational material means to connect it with previous knowledge, to remember a foreign word means to connect it with the corresponding concept.

The connection between individual events, facts, objects or phenomena reflected in our minds and fixed in your memory is called association(in translation With Greek - “connection”, “connection”). Without these connections, or associations, normal human mental activity, including memory activity, is impossible.

The essence of an associative connection is that the appearance in the consciousness of one element of this connection causes the appearance in the consciousness of another element of this connection. I hear a person’s name, and an image of him appears in my mind. I read the English word “the table”, and the concept “table” pops up in my mind. Associative processes ensure the memorization and reproduction of various phenomena of reality in a certain connection and sequence.

Associations, or connections, are various kinds. First of all, one should distinguish between simple and complex associations. Simple associations are the classical three types of associations (the concept of them has developed since the time Aristotle): associations by contiguity, associations by similarity And associations by contrast.

Associations and contiguity are based on spatial and temporal relationships between objects and phenomena. If a person perceived some objects as located close to each other in space or immediately following each other in time, then an association arises between them. Associations by contiguity arise, for example, when learning foreign words, the alphabet, multiplication tables (temporal association), and the arrangement of pieces on a chessboard (spatial association).

Associations by similarity arise in cases where objects and phenomena are somewhat similar to each other. The sight of a weeping willow can conjure up an image of a woman in grief; a story about the great commander Kutuzov can evoke the image of Suvorov.

By contrast, sharply different, opposite facts and phenomena are associated. Having received a bad mark, a student remembers how he previously received good marks in this subject. Reading in a book about a person’s courageous act, one can recall the cowardice shown by another person in a similar situation.

The specific content of the association is determined by a number of conditions, in particular, a person’s interests and profession play an important role. For example, it is not difficult to guess what kind of images the word “root” will evoke in a mathematician, botanist, dentist, and wordsmith.

Of course, all manifestations of memory cannot be reduced only to the indicated three types of associations, as idealistic psychology believed. The basis of our knowledge is made up of associations of a higher level, complex, or semantic, associations that reflect objective connections such as “causes and effects”, “genus and species”, “whole and part”. In other words, in this case, a connection between objects is established not because they were perceived at the same time or are similar to each other, but because one phenomenon is a consequence of another, or a part of another, or a type of another.

Physiological basis of memory

Memory is based on the property nerve tissue change under the influence of stimuli, retain traces of nervous excitement. Under the tracks in in this case understand certain electrochemical and biochemical changes in neurons (the strength of the traces depends on what changes, electrochemical or biochemical, took place). These traces can, under certain conditions, be revived (or, as they say, actualized), that is, a process of excitation occurs in them in the absence of the stimulus that caused these changes.

Memory mechanisms can be considered at different levels, from different points of view. Based on psychological concept associations, then the physiological mechanism of their formation is temporary nerve connections. Thus, the formation and preservation of temporary connections, their extinction and revival represent the physiological basis of associations.

Memory processes

Memory is a complex mental activity. In its composition, individual processes can be distinguished. The main ones are remembering, storing (and correspondingly forgetting), playback And recognition.

Memorization. The activity of memory begins with memorization, that is, with the consolidation of those images and impressions that arise in consciousness under the influence of objects and phenomena of reality in the process of sensation and perception. From a physiological point of view, memorization is the process of formation and consolidation of traces of excitation in the brain.

Achievement in a student’s educational activities largely depends on the success of memorizing educational material. Memorization can be involuntary when it is performed without a predetermined goal of remembering, it proceeds without volitional efforts, as if by itself. Of course, not everything that a person needs to remember is remembered involuntarily. More often, a person sets a special goal for himself - to remember, and makes certain efforts and special techniques for this.

The educational activities of schoolchildren - the assimilation of knowledge, the acquisition of skills and abilities - are based primarily on arbitrary memorization. Systematic, systematic, specially organized memorization using certain techniques is called by memorization.

Saving and Forgetting. Retention is the retention of what has been learned in memory, that is, the preservation of traces and connections in the brain. Forgetting is a disappearance, falling out of memory, i.e. the process of fading, elimination, “erasing” traces, inhibiting connections. These two processes, opposite in nature, essentially represent different characteristics one process: we talk about storing material in memory when there is no forgetting, and forgetting is poor preservation of memory material. Therefore, preservation is nothing more than a fight against forgetting.

Generally speaking, forgetting is a very expedient, natural and necessary process and should not always be assessed negatively. If we did not have the ability to forget, our memory would be filled with a mass of small and unnecessary information, facts, details, details. Our brain would be overloaded with information. And forgetting allows the brain to free itself from excess information. Many people with phenomenal (outstanding) memory complain that their brain is literally “clogged” with many unnecessary facts and this often prevents them from remembering the necessary and necessary information.

You may ask the question: why then are we talking about the need to combat forgetting? The fact is that a person, unfortunately, often forgets what he needs and is important to remember.

Therefore, we are not talking about the fight against forgetting in general, but about the fight against forgetting what is necessary, important, useful material. Forgetting is expressed either in the inability to remember or recognize, or in erroneous recollection and recognition. What is forgotten first of all is that which is not of vital importance to a person, does not arouse his interest, does not occupy a significant place in his activity and therefore does not receive sufficient reinforcement.

Recognition and reproduction. The results of memorization and preservation are manifested in recognition and reproduction.

You are undoubtedly familiar with such facts when you want and cannot remember a melody you heard, a person’s last name, the content of a story you read, or the material of a school subject. If you can’t remember, does that mean you forgot? But now you hear this melody or a person’s last name again, read a story or section of a textbook, and you have a peculiar feeling of familiarity, that is, you realize that you have already perceived all this before. This means that it was not completely forgotten, otherwise the feeling of familiarity would not have appeared.

So, reproduction is the process of the appearance in the mind of memory representations, previously perceived thoughts, the implementation of learned movements, which is based on the revival of traces, the emergence of excitement in them. Recognition is the appearance of a feeling of familiarity upon repeated perception (due to the presence of a weak, minimal trace that remains in the cerebral cortex after the previous perception).

Reproduction, in contrast to recognition, is characterized by the fact that images fixed in memory are updated (revived) without relying on the secondary perception of certain images. The actualization of images means the presence of various traces - persistent, strong (reproduction) or weak, unstable and fragile (recognition).

Recognition, of course, is a simpler process than reproduction. It's easier to learn than to reproduce. This is evidenced by simple experiments. The person was presented with 50 various objects(words, drawings). After a thorough acquaintance with them, the subject had to reproduce (name) all the remembered objects. After this, he was offered 100 objects (also words, drawings), among them 50 were the same ones that had been presented earlier, and 50 were new, unfamiliar. Among these 100 objects, it was necessary to find out those that were presented earlier. The average reproduction rate was 15 objects, recognition - 35 objects.

It follows that recognition cannot be an indicator of the strength of memorization, and when assessing the effectiveness of memorization, one must focus on reproduction. A lack of understanding of this explains the frequent cases of a student’s unsuccessful answer to material that he, as it seems to him, studied conscientiously. The fact is that, when deciding on mastering the material, the student was guided by recognition. He reads the material from the textbook again, and everything is familiar to him. Familiar means learned, the student believes. But the teacher demands from the child not recognition, but reproduction. Therefore, when memorizing, you need to test yourself for reproduction and consider the material learned only when, having closed the textbook, you can accurately tell the contents of the corresponding section, prove the theorem, and solve the problem.

Reproduction also happens involuntary and voluntary. With involuntary reproduction, images and feelings are reproduced without conscious intention; involuntary reproduction can arise on the basis of associations. In contrast to involuntary, voluntary reproduction arises as a result of active and conscious recollection.

When a student remembers well-known material, for example, a poem he has learned by heart, or a mathematical rule, he reproduces it easily, without any volitional effort. In cases where the student has not clearly mastered the educational material or has not repeated it for a long time, it is already difficult to reproduce it freely. Here they run to recollection.

Recall- the most active reproduction, associated with tension and requiring certain volitional efforts. The process of recall is successful when a forgotten fact is not reproduced in isolation, but in connection with other facts, events, circumstances and actions preserved in memory. When a student recalls one or another historical fact that he had forgotten, he more easily reproduces it in connection with other facts and events. The success of recall thus depends on understanding in what logical connection the forgotten material is found with the rest of the material preserved in memory. It is also important to try to evoke a chain of associations that indirectly help to remember what is needed. Remembering where he forgot the book, the boy tries to remember everything that happened to him during the day, where he last time was when the book was in his hands, with whom he was talking, what he was thinking about. Recalling all these circumstances, the boy actively reproduces those associations that recreate the sequence of events and facilitate the recall of forgotten things.

Types of memory

The forms of manifestation of memory are extremely diverse. This is explained by the fact that memory serves all types of diverse human activities.

The type classification of memory is based on three main criteria (features): 1) the object of memorization, i.e., what is remembered. What does a person remember? Objects and phenomena, thoughts, movements, feelings. Accordingly, there are such types of memory as figurative, verbal-logical, motor(motor) and emotional; 2) degree volitional regulation memory. From this point of view, there is a distinction voluntary and involuntary memory; 3) duration of storage in memory. In this case they have virus short-term, long-term and operational memory.

In short, types of memory are distinguished depending on whether - What memorable, How remembered and how long I remember.

Figurative memory.Figurative memory- This is the memorization, preservation and reproduction of images of previously perceived objects and phenomena of reality. There are subtypes of figurative memory- visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory And taste. Visual and auditory memory most clearly manifested in all people, and the development of tactile, olfactory and taste memory is associated mainly with various types professional activity(for example, among food industry tasters, perfume production specialists) or observed in people deprived of vision and hearing.

Reaches high development figurative memory among people involved in art: artists, musicians, writers. Some artists, for example, can paint portraits from memory without needing people to sit for them. Composers Mozart M. A. Balakirev, S. V. Rachmaninov could remember a complex piece of music after listening to it just once.

The accuracy of reproduction, i.e. the correspondence of the image to the original, significantly depends on the participation of speech in memorization. The most important role here is played by the correct explanation and understanding of what is perceived. Schoolchildren who perceive an object without a verbal explanation, as a rule, reproduce its image inaccurately, fragmentarily (fragmentarily).

Verbal-logical memory. Verbal-logical memory is expressed in memorizing, preserving and reproducing thoughts, concepts, and verbal formulations. Thoughts do not exist outside of speech, outside of certain words and expressions. Therefore, the type of memory is called not just logical, but verbal-logical.

This type of memory is specifically human. Animals have the other three types of memory, but they lack verbal-logical memory.

Reproduction of thoughts does not always occur in the same verbal expression in which they were originally expressed. In some cases, only the general meaning of the educational material, the essence of thoughts, is remembered and reproduced, and their literal verbal reproduction is not required. In other cases, it is necessary to remember and reproduce the exact, literal verbal expression of thoughts (rules, definitions, etc.). However, literal reproduction of verbal material can occur without understanding its meaning, then its memorization will no longer be logical, but mechanical memorization. The form of thought reproduction depends on the level speech development. The less developed a student’s speech is, the more difficult it is for him to express the meaning in his own words. But in this case, it is precisely important to encourage him to retell the educational material in his own words.

Memorizing the meaning is remembering the general and essential aspects of educational material and distracting from unimportant details and features. Isolating what is essential depends on understanding the material itself, what is most important and significant in it, and what is secondary. Consequently, memorizing and reproducing semantic material is closely connected with thinking processes, with the mental development of a person, with his stock of knowledge. Children, especially those of primary school age, independently identify significant signs with great difficulty; they need the help of a teacher. As for details, children often remember and reproduce them very well and attach disproportionate importance to them, especially when these details have vivid clarity, specificity and emotional impact.

Motor (motor) memory. Motor (motor) memory manifests itself in memorizing and reproducing movements and their systems. It underlies the development and formation of motor skills (walking, writing, labor and sports skills, etc.). Motor memory allows, for example, a pianist to play in complete darkness, or a gymnast to mentally “feel” the order of movements in a learned combination.

It has been established that the mental representation of any movement is always accompanied by barely noticeable, rudimentary movements of the corresponding muscles. By tensely imagining the movement, we carry it out unnoticed by ourselves. There is a well-known experience: if you hold a thread with a weight attached to the end in your hand and tensely imagine that the weight is swinging; then the load will gradually sway and sway. This means that when any movement is imagined in the corresponding motor centers of the cerebral cortex, weak process excitation leading to micromovements of the working organ

Motor memory develops earlier than other types of memory. In a child, it appears already in the first month of life. At first, children master a narrow range of simple movements.

Emotional memory. Emotional memory- memory of experienced feelings. Positive or negative feelings experienced by a person do not disappear without a trace, but are remembered and reproduced by him under certain conditions - a person rejoices again, remembering a joyful event, blushes when remembering an awkward act, turns pale, remembering a previously experienced fear...

Emotional memory is of great importance in the life of a person. It allows him to regulate behavior depending on previously experienced feelings. Feelings experienced and stored in memory act as motivating forces either to commit one or another action, deed, or to refuse an action if negative experiences in the past are associated with it.

Voluntary and involuntary memory. These types of memory differ depending on the degree of volitional regulation, the purpose and methods of memorization and reproduction. If they do not set a special goal to remember and recall this or that material and the latter is remembered as if by itself, without the use of special techniques, without volitional efforts, then this is involuntary memory. So, the student remembers interesting book, movie, events that made a great impression on him, interesting story teachers. However, not everything that a person needs to remember is remembered by itself. If they set a special goal to remember, they use appropriate mnemonic (from the Greek word “mnemos” - memory) techniques, produce strong-willed effort, then this is voluntary memory.

Involuntary memory precedes voluntary memory in development. Life experience The child's memory is initially built mainly on involuntary memory and is acquired by the child without a special intention to remember and without special efforts. However, in conscious, active activity, when the system of knowledge, skills and abilities becomes more complex, for example, in learning, voluntary memory takes a leading place.

Short-term, long-term and working memory. Research into these types of memory is currently becoming very important in connection with the problems of engineering psychology and the creation of technical devices that simulate human mental activity.

Short-term memory(KP) - process relatively short on duration (several seconds or minutes), but sufficient for accurate reproduction only What events that have just occurred, objects and phenomena that have just been perceived. After a short time, the impressions disappear, and the person usually finds himself unable to remember anything from what he perceived. Such is the memory of the typist who types the text; She remembers every word and phrase exactly, but only for a few seconds. The translator accurately remembers the phrase while translating it. When going to new phrase the exact wording of the previous one is immediately forgotten. Similar phenomena of short-term memory are observed in the work of a stenographer, operator, and representatives of other types of transient activities. This phenomenon apparently has its own purpose. If all the old information remained in memory, attention could not switch to the perception and retention of new information.

What is KP is easy to understand from the following simple experience. Imagine that I ask you to immediately repeat after me words that I will say in random order. You will do this without error for an hour or more. Then I will ask you to repeat the entire series of words again. Of course, no one will be able to do this. Why? Because, having repeated a word (and for this you had to remember it for at least a few seconds), you immediately forgot it. In other words, your activity was carried out according to the principle: perceived - reproduced - forgotten. This is a manifestation of CP.

Long-term memory(DP) is characterized by the relative duration and strength of preservation of the perceived material. In DP there is an accumulation of knowledge, which is usually stored in a transformed form - in a more generalized and systematized form. This is knowledge that a person needs in general, and not at the moment. Therefore, every moment a person is not aware of everything that is stored in his DP - a kind of “storehouse” of his knowledge. This is easy to understand using the following example. I will ask you questions for which the answers do not exist in your mind right now. You just don't think about it. So, the question is: “What is your last name?” Or: “What is the sum of the interior angles of a triangle?” You answered correctly. But where was this knowledge a minute ago? In the DP, from where you “extracted” them at the right moment.

In addition to these two types, there is also a third type of memory - RAM(OP).

Random access memory (RAM) is the memorization of some information given for the time required to perform an operation, a separate act of activity. For example, in the process of solving a problem or mathematical operation, it is necessary to retain in memory the initial data and intermediate operations, which may later be forgotten, until the result is obtained. The last circumstance is very important - it is irrational to remember used information that has lost its meaning - after all, the OP must be filled with new information necessary for current activities.

All types of memory considered (DP, CP and OP) play a certain role in the life and activities of a person, including the educational activities of a schoolchild. A student, having received an educational task, must remember well not only all the directions and instructions for its implementation. (OP). He must also consciously remember the previously acquired knowledge that is necessary to successfully solve the problem (DP). He must remember the specific words and expressions of the teacher for a short time (without this he simply will not understand the teacher’s speech), but only in order to understand the meaning of the task; there is no need to retain them in memory in the future (KP). The teacher, for his part, must carefully and thoughtfully select material that the student must remember for a long time. To transfer this material to the DP level, it is necessary, first of all, to specially organize the memorization process, to the analysis of which we now proceed.

Publication date: 2011-11-13 00:27:00

Physiological basis of memory

The physiological basis of memory are traces of previously former nervous processes that are preserved in the cortex due to the plasticity of the nervous system: any nervous process caused by external irritation, be it excitation or inhibition, does not pass without a trace for the nervous tissue, but leaves a “trace” in it in the form of certain functional changes that facilitate the course of the corresponding nervous processes when they are repeated, as well as their reoccurrence in the absence of the stimulus that caused them.

The physiological processes in the cerebral cortex that take place during memory are the same in content as during perception: memory requires the work of the same central nervous apparatus as perception caused by the direct influence of an external stimulus on the sense organs.

The only difference is that during perception, central physiological processes are continuously supported by irritation of receptors, and during memory they are only “traces” of previously former nervous processes.

The perception of external objects has its physiological basis on the complex activity of many nerve cells in various parts of the cerebral cortex, between which certain connections are established. These temporary connections are distinguished by a certain systematicity, since they are caused by the influence of external phenomena, which themselves constitute a system, and not a chaotic sum of irritations. Thanks to this, in the process of repeated stimulation and response reactions, more or less strong and permanent systems of connections are formed in the cerebral cortex.

The presence of these temporary connections makes the memory process possible: excitation that arose under the influence of some external stimulus in one or another part of the cerebral cortex passes along well-trodden paths to other areas of the cortex with which this area was connected in past activity, As a result, an image of an object once seen pops up in our minds.

The nervous processes underlying memory can be caused not only by stimuli of the first signaling system (sounds, touches, visual stimuli, etc.), but also by stimuli of the second signaling system, i.e. words signaling diverse and complex connections , formed in the process of previous perceptions. In his activities, a person more often has memories evoked precisely by words in the form of a reminder, order, explanation, rather than direct impacts external objects.

Temporary nerve connections established as a result of perception do not remain unchanged. In the process of diverse human activity, they change and become more complex, entering into new connections with other residual excitations and being reconstructed, that is, rebuilt under the influence of ever-expanding experience. At the same time, the nervous processes preserved as “traces” are not an exact repetition of those processes that occurred during direct perception, but are predominantly of a generalized nature.

When remembering, each time there is a new physiological process that is not an exact copy of the one that took place during perception; therefore, the representation reproduced in memory is not an exact copy of a previously former perception, but always turns out to be somewhat modified.

1.Processes of memorization, storage and reproduction.

2. Some patterns of the memorization process.

3.Rational ways learning educational material.

4.Types and types of memory.

Literature

1. Asmolov A.G.

“Principles of organizing human memory” Moscow 1983

2.Vein A.M. Kamenetskaya B.I.

“Memory of Man” Moscow 1973

3. Zinchenko P.I.

"Involuntary types of memorization"

"Memory in the process of development"

5.Rogovin

"Problems of psychology in development"

1) General concepts about memory.

The process of imprinting, storing, reproducing with knowledge of past experience is called memory. Reminiscence is the reproduction of memorized material delayed by two or three days. Memory, like perception and sensation, is a process of reflection, but what is reflected is not only what is happening at the moment, but also what happened in the past. Amnesia - forgetting. Hypoamnesia is general forgetting.

2) Physiological basis of memory.

The physiological basis of memory is the formation and consolidation of nerve connections in the cerebral cortex with their subsequent revitalization when exposed to various stimuli. There are 4 theories of memory.

Association theory. This theory states that connections or associations are formed in the cerebral cortex. How more connections the better your logical memory and thinking. There are simple and complex associations. Aristotle pointed to associations by contiguity and similarity by contrast.

Modern scientific classification associative

Classification by the nature of connections

a) type - type (table - furniture)

b) part whole (stern - ship)

c) by contrast (white - black)

d) by definition of the sacred object

d) by adequacy (cave - refuge)

e) by negation (generous - not generous)

Neurophysiological theory. Brain neurons form closed circuits along which the movement of nerve impulses occurs; information received and processed in these circuits is stored there.

Chemical theory. In certain associations of nerve cells there are so-called Nissl bodies, which contain DNA, which is the carrier of genetic memory.

Theory conditioned reflexes. The human nervous system stores two types of information. Information accumulated during evolution. It manifests itself in the form of unconditioned reflexes and instincts. Information gains influence in individual life.

3) Processes of memorization, preservation of reproduction. Memory includes the following mental processes - memorization, retention of what has been learned, recognition, reproduction. That is, establishing connections between objects and phenomena. The memorization process is characterized varying degrees conscious volitional activity. Depending on this, two types of memorization are identified. Involuntary and voluntary. Involuntary memorization occurs without setting a special goal and without using certain memorization techniques. What is especially well remembered is what arouses interest or is associated with a person’s feelings.

Voluntary memorization is characterized by purposefulness and involves the use of special techniques. Preparing for everyday profession requires special memorization. Depending on the degree of mental activity, memorization can be mechanical or logical. Rote memorization consists only of repetition. Sometimes repetition occurs without understanding the source material. This kind of memorization is difficult.

When remembering meaningfully, thinking processes are of great importance. A person tries to understand what needs to be remembered. Establish a connection between the new and the old. An important condition for clear and solid memorization is the methods of memorization.

Rational ways of learning educational material. To successfully memorize educational material, he uses meaningful memorization techniques.

Material grouping

Dividing it into parts

Establishing connections between parts

Identification of semantic reference points

Titles of parts of text

Mapping out a future response

Repetition of memorized material

What is important is not the plan itself, but the meaningful work that went into its preparation.

Recognition and reproduction. A simple form of reproduction is recognition that occurs when a familiar object is re-perceived. There are two types of reproduction. Unintentional and intentional. Unintentional reproduction occurs without a predetermined goal, when an image of the past, regardless of our desire, appears in the mind. But when performing any work, you often have to rely on deliberate reproduction, which is associated with thinking. An active thought process that requires volitional efforts during reproduction is called recollection. A vivid image of this process is given by Anton Palych Chekhov in the story Horse Surname.

Sometimes another form of unintentional reproduction occurs, which is called perseveration (obsession). To some extent, all people have it. The systematic occurrence of perseveration is a sign of the disease.

Preservation and forgetting. A prerequisite for reproduction is the preservation of the material. Preservation from a physiological point of view is explained by the plasticity of the neural system, which manifests itself in the ability to store previously formed neural connections. Pavlov emphasizes that new connections are well preserved if they are well fixed.

4) Types and types of memory. Depending on the material retained in memory, visual-figurative verbal-logical and emotional memory are distinguished.

Thinking.

1) General concepts about thinking.

3) Thinking operations.

4) Representation, concept and understanding.

Literature:

1.Engels

“The role of labor in the process of transformation of ape into man”

2.K.Marx and F.Engels Volume 20.

3. Rubinshtein S.L.

“On thinking and ways of its research” Moscow 1958

4. Matyushkin A.M.

“Psychology of thinking” Moscow 1965

5. Sokolov A.N.

“Inner speech and thinking” Moscow 1968

6. Vykhodsky L.S.

“Thinking and Speech” Moscow 1956

Complete collection works Volume 2. Moscow 1982

7. Tikhomirov O.K.

“Structure of human mental activity” Moscow MSU 1969

1) General concepts about thinking.

Cognition begins with sensations and perceptions, which themselves rely on memory, that is, on those traces that were formed in the process of previous activity.

But knowledge based on sensation and perception is superficial, since with sensation and perception a person reflects only external signs and properties of objects. In thinking, a person reflects such properties of an object, a phenomenon, that are not represented in visual reflection. Thinking is a mental process of reflecting natural connections and relationships between objects.

2) Physiological foundations of thinking.

Thinking, being a complex process, is based on sensation, perception, memory, emotions and includes the physiological mechanisms of these processes in its physiological basis. The essence of physiological processes lies in the formation of new connections in the cerebral cortex, as a result of the complex analytical and synthetic activity of the cortex as a whole. However, in the last years of the 20th century, research by scientists found that the temporal and frontal lobes of the cortex take a greater part in thinking. The physiological basis of thinking is temporary connections (associations).

3) Operations of thinking.

All thinking is carried out with the help of individual operations that act in pairs.

a) Comparison and contrast.

As a result of comparison and contrast, a person finds differences, and the connection between the old and the new is also made.

b) Analysis and synthesis. Analysis is the mental decomposition of the whole into parts on a unified basis. Synthesis is the combination of disparate elements into a whole on a single basis. Analysis and synthesis are carried out simultaneously.

c) Abstraction and concretization. Abstraction is a separation, a difference between the properties of an object and the object itself.

d) Generalization and systematization.

4) Representation is the concept of understanding; in the process of cognition, a person always operates with existing knowledge.

Memory is the mental process of imprinting, storing and reproducing past experiences. The perceptions, thoughts, feelings, aspirations, movements and actions that took place in a person’s past experience do not disappear without a trace, but remain in the form of certain memory images, called ideas and concepts, which are organically included in subsequent mental activity.

Memory representations- these are reproduced images of objects and phenomena obtained in past experience, in the process of perceiving these objects and phenomena. Ideas arise associatively, conditionally, reflexively, under the influence of immediate (objective) or verbal stimuli with which they are associated. Thus, the image of a familiar person can be caused by meeting people similar to him, mentioning his name, reading his letters, etc. Since ideas can be caused not only by direct (objective), but also by verbal stimuli, and the emerging images of objects are often designated In words, this means that the physiological basis of ideas is the work of both signaling systems (with the predominant participation of the first signaling system).

Like any conditioned reflex reaction, ideas include various motor reactions, even if barely noticeable. So. during visual representations, weak contractions of the eye muscles occur, which can be recorded using sensitive instruments (oscilloscopes). The idea of ​​hand movement is always accompanied by its imperceptible movements. Representations can be of a generalized nature, being a generalization of many impressions about objects that are inextricably linked with their verbal designation (name). When repeatedly perceiving similar objects in an image that arises as a result of their influence, individual characteristics each of them is obscured, and only the most general features of a given group of objects are highlighted in the presentation. These are, for example, general, or schematic, representations of a tree, a house, a person, etc., which usually appear in the form of contour images of objects, accompanied by their name. Ideas can arise both unintentionally (involuntarily) and intentionally (voluntarily). The deliberate reproduction of images is constantly used by painters when they draw pictures “from memory”, or by writers when, when depicting their heroes, they recreate the images of familiar people, etc. The need for deliberate representations very often arises when solving problems that make it difficult for a person. When solving, for example, problems in physics, attempts are made to imagine the type of mechanisms discussed in the problem, their movement, etc.

Physiological basis memory are traces of previously former nervous processes that are preserved in the cortex due to the plasticity of the nervous system: any nervous process caused by external irritation, be it excitation or inhibition, does not pass without a trace for the nervous tissue, but leaves a “trace” in it in the form of certain functional changes , which facilitate the course of the corresponding nervous processes when they are repeated, as well as their re-occurrence in the absence of the stimulus that caused them.

The nervous processes underlying memory can be caused not only by stimuli of the first signaling system (sounds, touches, visual stimuli, etc.), but also by stimuli of the second signaling system, i.e. words signaling diverse and complex connections , formed in the process of previous perceptions. In his activities, a person more often has memories evoked precisely by words in the form of a reminder, order, explanation, and not by the direct influence of external objects.

Temporary nerve connections established as a result of perception do not remain unchanged. In the process of diverse human activity, they change and become more complex, entering into new connections with other residual excitations and being reconstructed, that is, rebuilt under the influence of ever-expanding experience. At the same time, the nervous processes preserved as “traces” are not an exact repetition of those processes that occurred during direct perception, but are predominantly of a generalized nature.

When remembering, each time there is a new physiological process that is not an exact copy of the one that took place during perception; therefore, the representation reproduced in memory is not an exact copy of a previously former perception, but always turns out to be somewhat modified.