Classical physics, which existed before the invention of quantum mechanics, describes nature on an ordinary (macroscopic) scale. Most theories in classical physics can be derived as approximations operating on scales that are familiar to us. The quantum physics(she is also quantum mechanics) differs from classical science the fact that energy, momentum, angular momentum and other quantities connected system limited to discrete values (quantization). Objects have special characteristics both in the form of particles and in the form of waves (wave particle duality). Also in this science there are limits to the accuracy with which quantities can be measured (the uncertainty principle).
We can say that after the emergence of quantum physics in exact sciences Ah, a kind of revolution took place, which made it possible to reconsider and analyze all the old laws that were previously considered immutable truths. Is it good or bad? Perhaps it’s good, because true science should never stand still.
However, the “quantum revolution” became a kind of blow for physicists old school who had to come to terms with the fact that what they previously believed in turned out to be just a set of erroneous and archaic theories that needed urgent revision and adaptation to new reality. Most physicists enthusiastically accepted these new ideas about a well-known science, making their contribution to its study, development and implementation. Today, quantum physics sets the dynamics for all science as a whole. Advanced experimental projects (like the Large Hadron Collider) arose precisely thanks to her.
Opening
What can be said about the foundations of quantum physics? It gradually emerged from various theories, designed to explain phenomena that could not be consistent with classical physics, for example, Max Planck's solution in 1900 and his approach to the problem of radiation of many scientific problems, as well as the correspondence between energy and frequency in Albert Einstein's 1905 paper explaining photoelectric effects. The early theory of quantum physics was thoroughly revised in the mid-1920s by Werner Heisenberg, Max Born and others. Modern theory formulated in various specially developed mathematical concepts. In one of them arithmetic function(or wave function) gives us comprehensive information about the probability amplitude of the pulse location.
Scientific research wave essence of light began more than 200 years ago, when the great and recognized scientists of that time they proposed, developed and proved the theory of light based on their own experimental observations. They called it wave.
In 1803, the famous English scientist Thomas Young conducted his famous double experiment, as a result of which he wrote the famous work “On the Nature of Light and Color,” which played a huge role in the formation modern ideas about these phenomena familiar to us all. This experiment played vital role in general acceptance of this theory.
Such experiments are often described in various books, for example, “Fundamentals of Quantum Physics for Dummies.” Modern experiments with overclocking elementary particles, for example, the search for the Higgs boson in the Large Hadron Collider (abbreviated LHC) is carried out precisely in order to find practical confirmation many purely theoretical quantum theories.
Story
In 1838, Michael Faraday discovered cathode rays to the delight of the whole world. These sensational studies were followed by a statement on the problem of so-called “black body” radiation (1859), made by Gustav Kirchhoff, as well as the famous assumption of Ludwig Boltzmann that the energy states of any physical system can also be discrete (1877). Only then did the quantum hypothesis appear, developed by Max Planck (1900). It is considered one of the foundations of quantum physics. The bold idea that energy can be both emitted and absorbed in discrete "quanta" (or packets of energy) matches exactly the observed patterns of black body radiation.
Albert Einstein, famous throughout the world, made a great contribution to quantum physics. Impressed by quantum theories, he developed his own. General theory relativity - that's what it's called. Discoveries in quantum physics also influenced the development special theory relativity. Many scientists in the first half of the last century began to study this science at the suggestion of Einstein. At that time she was advanced, everyone liked her, everyone was interested in her. Not surprising, since it covered so many “holes” in the classical physical science(although she also created new ones), offered a scientific basis for time travel, telekinesis, telepathy and parallel worlds.
The role of the observer
Any event or state depends directly on the observer. This is usually how the basics of quantum physics are briefly explained to people far from the exact sciences. However, in reality everything is much more complicated.
This fits perfectly with many occult and religious traditions, which from time immemorial have insisted on the ability of people to influence the events around them. In some ways, this is also the basis for scientific explanation extrasensory perception, because now the statement that a person (observer) is able to influence physical events with the power of thought does not seem absurd.
Each net worth of the observed event or object corresponds to the eigenvector of the observer. If the spectrum of the operator (observer) is discrete, the observed object can only achieve discrete eigenvalues. That is, the object of observation, as well as its characteristics, is completely determined by this very operator.
Unlike conventional classical mechanics (or physics), simultaneous predictions of conjugate variables such as position and momentum cannot be made. For example, electrons may (with a certain probability) be located approximately in a certain region of space, but their mathematically precise location is actually unknown.
Constant probability density contours, often called "clouds", can be drawn around the nucleus of an atom to conceptualize where an electron might be located with most likely. The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle proves the inability to accurately locate a particle given its conjugate momentum. Some models in this theory are of a purely abstract computational nature and do not imply practical significance. However, they are often used to calculate complex interactions at the level of other subtle matters. In addition, this branch of physics allowed scientists to assume the possibility of the real existence of many worlds. Perhaps we will be able to see them soon.
Wave functions
The laws of quantum physics are very extensive and varied. They overlap with the idea of wave functions. Some special ones create a spread of probabilities that is inherently constant or independent of time, for example, when in a stationary position of energy time seems to disappear in relation to the wave function. This is one of the effects of quantum physics, which is fundamental to it. An interesting fact is that the phenomenon of time has been radically revised in this unusual science.
Perturbation theory
However, there are several reliable ways to develop the solutions needed to work with the formulas and theories in quantum physics. One such method, commonly known as "perturbation theory", uses analytical result for an elementary quantum mechanical model. It was created to bring results from experimentation to develop even more complex model, which is related to a simpler model. This is how recursion turns out.
This approach is especially important in theory quantum chaos, which is extremely popular for interpreting various events in microscopic reality.
Rules and laws
The rules of quantum mechanics are fundamental. They argue that the deployment space of a system is absolutely fundamental (it has scalar product). Another statement is that the effects observed by this system are at the same time unique operators influencing vectors in this very environment. However, they do not tell us which Hilbert space or which operators exist in this moment. They can be selected accordingly to obtain quantitative description quantum system.
Meaning and influence
Since the inception of this unusual science, many counter-intuitive aspects and results of the study of quantum mechanics have provoked much philosophical debate and many interpretations. Even fundamental questions, such as the rules for calculating various amplitudes and probability distributions, deserve respect from the public and many leading scientists.
For example, he once sadly noted that he was not at all sure that any scientist even understood quantum mechanics. According to Steven Weinberg, at the moment there is no interpretation of quantum mechanics that would suit everyone. This suggests that scientists have created a “monster” whose existence they themselves are unable to fully understand and explain. However, this does not in any way harm the relevance and popularity of this science, but attracts young specialists to it who want to solve truly complex and incomprehensible problems.
In addition, quantum mechanics forced us to completely reconsider objective physical laws Universe, which cannot but rejoice.
Copenhagen interpretation
According to this interpretation, standard definition causality known to us from classical physics, do not need anymore. According to quantum theories, causality in our usual understanding does not exist at all. All physical phenomena are explained in them from the point of view of the interaction of the smallest elementary particles at the subatomic level. This area, despite its apparent improbability, is extremely promising.
Quantum psychology
What can be said about the relationship between quantum physics and human consciousness? This is beautifully written about in a book written by Robert Anton Wilson in 1990 called Quantum Psychology.
According to the theory outlined in the book, all processes occurring in our brain are determined by the laws described in this article. That is, this is a kind of attempt to adapt the theory of quantum physics to psychology. This theory is considered parascientific and is not recognized by the academic community.
Wilson's book is notable for the fact that he provides a set of various techniques and practitioners who, to one degree or another, prove his hypothesis. One way or another, the reader must decide for himself whether he believes or not the validity of such attempts to apply mathematical and physical models to the humanities.
Wilson's book was seen by some as an attempt to justify mystical thinking and tie it to scientifically proven newfangled physics formulations. This very non-trivial and brilliant work has remained in demand for more than 100 years. The book is published, translated and read all over the world. Who knows, perhaps with the development of quantum mechanics the attitude will change scientific community to quantum psychology.
Conclusion
Thanks to this wonderful theory, which soon became a separate science, we were able to explore surrounding reality at the level subatomic particles. This is the smallest level of all possible, completely inaccessible to our perception. What physicists previously knew about our world needs urgent revision. Absolutely everyone agrees with this. It became obvious that different particles can interact with each other at completely unimaginable distances, which we can only measure using complex mathematical formulas.
In addition, quantum mechanics (and quantum physics) has proven the possibility of the existence of a set parallel realities, time travel and other things that throughout history were considered only a destiny science fiction. This is undoubtedly a huge contribution not only to science, but also to the future of humanity.
For lovers scientific picture world, this science can be both a friend and an enemy. The fact is that quantum theory opens up wide opportunities for various speculations on parascientific topics, as has already been shown in the example of one of the alternative psychological theories. Some modern occultists, esotericists and supporters of alternative religious and spiritual movements (most often psychocults) turn to theoretical constructions this science in order to substantiate the rationality and truth of its mystical theories, beliefs and practices.
This is an unprecedented case when simple speculations of theorists and abstract mathematical formulas led to the real scientific revolution and created new science, which crossed out everything that was previously known. To some extent, quantum physics refuted the laws of Aristotelian logic, because it showed that when choosing “either-or” there is one more (and possibly several) alternative option.
If you suddenly realized that you have forgotten the basics and postulates of quantum mechanics or don’t even know what kind of mechanics it is, then it’s time to refresh your memory of this information. After all, no one knows when quantum mechanics may be useful in life.
It’s in vain that you grin and sneer, thinking that you will never have to deal with this subject in your life. After all, quantum mechanics can be useful to almost every person, even those infinitely far from it. For example, you have insomnia. For quantum mechanics this is not a problem! Read the textbook before going to bed - and you will fall into a deep sleep on the third page. Or you can call your cool rock band that. Why not?
Jokes aside, let's start a serious quantum conversation.
Where to begin? Of course, starting with what quantum is.
Quantum
Quantum (from the Latin quantum - “how much”) is an indivisible portion of some physical quantity. For example, they say - a quantum of light, a quantum of energy or a quantum of field.
What does it mean? This means that it simply cannot be less. When they say that some quantity is quantized, they understand that given value takes on a number of specific, discrete values. Thus, the energy of an electron in an atom is quantized, light is distributed in “portions”, that is, in quanta.
The term "quantum" itself has many uses. Quantum of light ( electromagnetic field) is a photon. By analogy, quanta are particles or quasiparticles corresponding to other interaction fields. Here we can recall the famous Higgs boson, which is a quantum of the Higgs field. But we are not going into these jungles yet.
Quantum mechanics for dummies How can mechanics be quantum?
As you have already noticed, in our conversation we mentioned particles many times. You may be accustomed to the fact that light is a wave that simply propagates at speed With . But if you look at everything from the point of view quantum world, that is, the world of particles, everything changes beyond recognition.
Quantum mechanics is a section theoretical physics, a component of quantum theory that describes physical phenomena in reality elementary level– particle level.
The effect of such phenomena is comparable in magnitude to Planck’s constant, and classical mechanics Newton and electrodynamics turned out to be completely unsuitable for their description. For example, according to classical theory An electron, rotating at high speed around the nucleus, must radiate energy and eventually fall onto the nucleus. This, as we know, does not happen. This is why quantum mechanics was invented - open phenomena it was necessary to explain it somehow, and it turned out to be exactly the theory within which the explanation was the most acceptable, and all the experimental data “converged.”
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A little history
The birth of quantum theory occurred in 1900, when Max Planck spoke at a meeting of the German Physical Society. What did Planck say then? And the fact that the radiation of atoms is discrete, and smallest portion the energy of this radiation is equal to
Where h - Planck's constant, nu - frequency.
Then Albert Einstein, introducing the concept of “quantum of light”, used Planck’s hypothesis to explain the photoelectric effect. Niels Bohr postulated the existence of stationary conditions in the atom energy levels, and Louis de Broglie developed the idea of wave-particle duality, that is, that a particle (corpuscle) also has wave properties. Schrödinger and Heisenberg joined the cause, and in 1925 the first formulation of quantum mechanics was published. Actually, quantum mechanics is far from a complete theory; it is actively developing at the present time. It should also be recognized that quantum mechanics, with its assumptions, does not have the ability to explain all the questions it faces. It is quite possible that it will be replaced by a more advanced theory.
During the transition from the quantum world to the world of things familiar to us, the laws of quantum mechanics are naturally transformed into the laws of classical mechanics. We can say that classical mechanics is special case quantum mechanics, when the action takes place in our familiar and familiar macroworld. Here bodies move calmly in non-inertial frames of reference at a speed much lower than the speed of light, and in general everything around is calm and clear. If you want to know the position of a body in a coordinate system, no problem; if you want to measure the impulse, you’re welcome.
Quantum mechanics has a completely different approach to the issue. It contains the measurement results physical quantities are probabilistic in nature. This means that when a certain value changes, several results are possible, each of which has a certain probability. Let's give an example: a coin is spinning on the table. While she is spinning, she is not in some kind of a certain state(heads-tails), but has only the probability of ending up in one of these states.
Here we are gradually approaching Schrödinger equation And Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
According to legend, Erwin Schrödinger, in 1926, speaking at a scientific seminar on the topic of wave-particle duality, was criticized by a certain senior scientist. Refusing to listen to his elders, after this incident Schrödinger actively began developing the wave equation to describe particles within the framework of quantum mechanics. And he did it brilliantly! The Schrödinger equation (the basic equation of quantum mechanics) is:
This type equations - the one-dimensional stationary Schrödinger equation - the simplest.
Here x is the distance or coordinate of the particle, m is the mass of the particle, E and U are its total and potential energy. The solution to this equation is the wave function (psi)
The wave function is another fundamental concept in quantum mechanics. So, any quantum system that is in some state has a wave function that describes this state.
For example, when solving the one-dimensional stationary Schrödinger equation, the wave function describes the position of the particle in space. More precisely, the probability of finding a particle at a certain point in space. In other words, Schrödinger showed that probability can be described by a wave equation! Agree, we should have thought of this before!
But why? Why do we have to deal with these strange probabilities and wave functions, when, it would seem, there is nothing simpler than just taking and measuring the distance to a particle or its speed.
Everything is very simple! Indeed, in the macrocosm this is indeed the case - we measure distances with a certain accuracy with a tape measure, and the measurement error is determined by the characteristics of the device. On the other hand, we can almost accurately determine by eye the distance to an object, for example, to a table. In any case, we accurately differentiate its position in the room relative to us and other objects. In the world of particles, the situation is fundamentally different - we simply physically do not have measurement tools to accurately measure the required quantities. After all, the measuring instrument comes into direct contact with the object being measured, and in our case, both the object and the instrument are particles. It is this imperfection, the fundamental impossibility of taking into account all the factors acting on the particle, as well as the very fact of changing the state of the system under the influence of measurement, that underlies the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
Let us give its simplest formulation. Let's imagine that there is a certain particle, and we want to know its speed and coordinate.
In this context, the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle states that it is impossible to accurately measure the position and velocity of a particle at the same time. . Mathematically it is written like this:
Here delta x is the error in determining the coordinate, delta v is the error in determining the speed. Let us emphasize – this principle suggests that the more accurately we determine the coordinate, the less accurately we will know the speed. And if we determine the speed, we will not have any the slightest idea about where the particle is located.
There are many jokes and anecdotes on the topic of the uncertainty principle. Here is one of them:
A policeman stops a quantum physicist.
- Sir, do you know how fast you were moving?
- No, but I know exactly where I am.
And, of course, we remind you! If suddenly, for some reason, solving the Schrödinger equation for a particle in a potential well does not allow you to sleep, contact professionals who were raised with quantum mechanics on the lips!
Physics is the most mysterious of all sciences. Physics gives us an understanding of the world around us. The laws of physics are absolute and apply to everyone without exception, regardless of person or social status.
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Fundamental discoveries in the field of quantum physics
Isaac Newton, Nikola Tesla, Albert Einstein and many others are the great guides of humanity in amazing world physicists who, like prophets, revealed to humanity the greatest secrets of the universe and the possibilities of controlling physical phenomena. Their bright heads cut through the darkness of ignorance of the unreasonable majority and, like a guiding star, showed the way to humanity in the darkness of the night. One of such guides in the world of physics was Max Planck, the father of quantum physics.
Max Planck is not only the founder of quantum physics, but also the author of the world famous quantum theory. Quantum theory is the most important component of quantum physics. In simple words, this theory describes the movement, behavior and interaction of microparticles. The founder of quantum physics also brought us many other scientific works, which became the cornerstones of modern physics:
- theory of thermal radiation;
- special theory of relativity;
- research in thermodynamics;
- research in the field of optics.
Quantum physics' theories about the behavior and interactions of microparticles became the basis for condensed matter physics, particle physics, and high energies. Quantum theory explains to us the essence of many phenomena in our world - from the functioning of electronic computers to the structure and behavior of celestial bodies. Max Planck, the creator of this theory, thanks to his discovery allowed us to comprehend true essence many things at the level of elementary particles. But the creation of this theory is far from the only merit of the scientist. He became the first to discover the fundamental law of the Universe - the law of conservation of energy. Max Planck's contribution to science is difficult to overestimate. In short, his discoveries are invaluable for physics, chemistry, history, methodology and philosophy.
Quantum field theory
In a nutshell, quantum field theory is a theory for describing microparticles, as well as their behavior in space, interaction with each other and interconversion. This theory studies the behavior of quantum systems within the so-called degrees of freedom. This beautiful and romantic name doesn’t really mean anything to many of us. For dummies, degrees of freedom are the number of independent coordinates that are needed to indicate motion mechanical system. In simple terms, degrees of freedom are characteristics of motion. Interesting discoveries in the field of interaction of elementary particles was accomplished by Steven Weinberg. He discovered the so-called neutral current - the principle of interaction between quarks and leptons, for which he received Nobel Prize in 1979.
Max Planck's quantum theory
In the nineties of the eighteenth century German physicist Max Planck began studying thermal radiation and eventually obtained a formula for the distribution of energy. The quantum hypothesis, which was born in the course of these studies, laid the foundation for quantum physics, as well as quantum field theory, discovered in 1900. Planck's quantum theory is that when thermal radiation the energy produced is emitted and absorbed not constantly, but episodically, quantumly. 1900, thanks this discovery, which Max Planck accomplished, became the year of the birth of quantum mechanics. It is also worth mentioning Planck's formula. In short, its essence is as follows - it is based on the relationship between body temperature and its radiation.
Quantum mechanical theory of atomic structure
The quantum mechanical theory of atomic structure is one of basic theories concepts in quantum physics, and in physics in general. This theory allows us to understand the structure of all material things and lifts the veil of secrecy over what things actually consist of. And the conclusions based on this theory are quite unexpected. Let us briefly consider the structure of the atom. So, what is an atom actually made of? An atom consists of a nucleus and a cloud of electrons. The basis of an atom, its nucleus, contains almost the entire mass of the atom itself - more than 99 percent. The kernel always has positive charge, and it defines chemical element, of which the atom is a part. The most interesting thing about the nucleus of an atom is that it contains almost the entire mass of the atom, but at the same time occupies only one ten-thousandth of its volume. What follows from this? And the conclusion that emerges is quite unexpected. This means that there is only one ten-thousandth of the dense substance in an atom. And what takes up everything else? And everything else in the atom is an electron cloud.
The electronic cloud is not a constant and, in fact, not even material substance. An electron cloud is just the probability of electrons appearing in an atom. That is, the nucleus occupies only one ten thousandth in the atom, and the rest is emptiness. And if you consider that all the objects around us, from specks of dust to celestial bodies, planets and stars are made of atoms, it turns out that everything material is actually more than 99 percent empty. This theory seems completely incredible, and its author, at the very least, a mistaken person, because the things that exist around have a solid consistency, have weight and can be touched. How can it consist of emptiness? Has an error crept into this theory of the structure of matter? But there is no mistake here.
All material things appear dense only due to the interaction between atoms. Things have a solid and dense consistency only due to attraction or repulsion between atoms. This provides density and hardness crystal lattice chemical substances, from which everything material consists. But, interesting point, when changing, for example, temperature conditions environment, the bonds between atoms, that is, their attraction and repulsion can weaken, which leads to a weakening of the crystal lattice and even to its destruction. This explains the change physical properties substances when heated. For example, when iron is heated, it becomes liquid and can be shaped into any shape. And when ice melts, the destruction of the crystal lattice leads to a change in the state of the substance, and from solid it turns into liquid. This vivid examples weakening the bonds between atoms and, as a result, weakening or destruction of the crystal lattice, and allow the substance to become amorphous. And the reason for such mysterious metamorphoses is precisely that substances consist of only one ten-thousandth of dense matter, and the rest is emptiness.
And substances seem solid only for a reason strong ties between atoms, when weakened, the substance changes. Thus, the quantum theory of atomic structure allows us to look at the world around us in a completely different way.
The founder of atomic theory, Niels Bohr, put forward an interesting concept that electrons in an atom do not emit energy constantly, but only at the moment of transition between the trajectories of their movement. Bohr's theory helped explain many intra-atomic processes, and also made breakthroughs in the field of science such as chemistry, explaining the boundaries of the table created by Mendeleev. According to, the last element capable of existing in time and space has serial number one hundred thirty-seven, and elements starting from one hundred and thirty-eight cannot exist, since their existence contradicts the theory of relativity. Also, Bohr's theory explained the nature of such physical phenomenon, like atomic spectra.
These are the interaction spectra of free atoms that arise when energy is emitted between them. Such phenomena are characteristic of gaseous, vaporous substances and substances in the plasma state. Thus, quantum theory made a revolution in the world of physics and allowed scientists to advance not only in the field of this science, but also in the field of many related sciences: chemistry, thermodynamics, optics and philosophy. And also allowed humanity to penetrate into the secrets of the nature of things.
There is still a lot that humanity needs to turn over in its consciousness in order to realize the nature of atoms and understand the principles of their behavior and interaction. Having understood this, we will be able to understand the nature of the world around us, because everything that surrounds us, from specks of dust to the sun itself, and we ourselves, all consists of atoms, the nature of which is mysterious and amazing and conceals a lot of secrets.
In this article we will give useful tips on studying quantum physics for dummies. Let us answer what should be the approach in learning quantum physics for beginners.
The quantum physics- This is a rather complex discipline that not everyone can easily master. Nevertheless, physics as a subject is interesting and useful, which is why quantum physics (http://www.cyberforum.ru/quantum-physics/) finds its fans who are ready to study it and ultimately get practical benefits. To make it easier to learn the material, you need to start from the very beginning, that is, with the simplest quantum physics textbooks for beginners. This will allow you to get good base for knowledge, and at the same time, it is good to structure your knowledge in your head.
Start off selfeducation you need good literature. It is literature that is decisive factor in the process of obtaining knowledge and ensures its quality. Special interest quantum mechanics evokes, and many begin their studies with it. Everyone should know physics, because it is the science of life, which explains many processes and makes them understandable to others.
Please note that when you start studying quantum physics, you must have knowledge of mathematics and physics, as without them you simply will not cope. It will be good if you have the opportunity to contact your teacher to find answers to your questions. If this is not possible, you can try to clarify the situation on specialized forums. Forums can also be very useful in learning.
When you decide on the choice of a textbook, you must be prepared for the fact that it is quite complex and you will have to not just read it, but delve into everything that is written in it. So that at the end of the training you do not have the idea that this is all unnecessary knowledge for anyone, try to connect theory with practice each time. It is also important to determine in advance the purpose for which you began to learn quantum physics, in order to prevent the emergence of thoughts about the uselessness of the knowledge acquired. People fall into two categories: people who think quantum physics is an interesting and useful subject and those who don't. Choose for yourself which category you belong to and accordingly determine whether quantum physics has a place in your life or not. You can always remain at the beginner level in studying quantum physics, or you can achieve real success, all in your hands.
First of all, choose really interesting and high-quality materials on physics. You can find some of them using the links below.
And that's all for now! Study quantum physics in an interesting way and don’t be a dummie!
To many people, physics seems so distant and confusing, and quantum physics even more so. But I want to open the veil of this for you great secret, because in reality everything turns out to be strange, but unraveling.
And also quantum physics is a great subject to talk to smart people about.
Quantum physics made easy
First you need to draw one in your head big line between the microworld and the macroworld, because these worlds are completely different. Everything you know about the space you are familiar with and the objects in it is false and unacceptable in quantum physics.
In fact, microparticles have neither speed nor a specific position until scientists look at them. This statement seems simply absurd to us, it seemed so to Albert Einstein, but even great physicist backed down.
The fact is that research has proven that if you look once at a particle that occupied a certain position, and then turn away and look again, you will see that this particle has already taken a completely different position.
These naughty particles
Everything seems simple, but when we look at the same particle, it stands still. That is, these particles move only when we cannot see it.
The essence is that each particle (according to probability theory) has a scale of probabilities of being in one position or another. And when we turn away and then turn again, we can catch the particle in any of its possible positions precisely according to the probability scale.
According to the study, the particle was looked for in different places, then stopped watching her, and then watched again as her position changed. The result was simply stunning. Summing up, scientists were really able to create a scale of probabilities where this or that particle could be located.
For example, a neutron has the ability to be in three positions. After conducting research, you may find that in the first position it will be with a probability of 15%, in the second - 60%, in the third - 25%.
No one has yet been able to refute this theory, so it is, oddly enough, the most correct.
Macroworld and microworld
If we take an object from the macrocosm, we will see that it also has a probability scale, but it is completely different. For example, the probability that you turn away and find your phone on the other side of the world is almost zero, but it still exists.
Then the question arises: how come such cases have not yet been recorded? This is explained by the fact that the probability is so small that humanity would have to wait as many years as our planet and the entire universe have not yet lived to see such an event. It turns out that your phone is almost 100% likely to end up exactly where you saw it.
Quantum tunneling
From here we can come to the concept of quantum tunneling. This is the concept of the gradual transition of one object (to put it very roughly) to a completely different place without any external influences.
That is, everything can start with one neutron, which at one point falls into that same almost zero probability of being in a completely different place, and the more neutrons are in a different place, the higher the probability becomes.
Of course, such a transition will take as many years as our planet has not yet lived, but, according to the theory of quantum physics, quantum tunneling takes place.
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