Autolyse, autolysis, self-digestion of tissues, cells or their parts under the action of enzymes in animals, plants and microorganisms.
Autotrophic organisms autotrophs, organisms that use carbon dioxide as the sole or main source of carbon to build their bodies and have both an enzyme system for assimilating carbon dioxide and the ability to synthesize all the components of the cell. Autotrophic organisms include terrestrial green plants, algae, phototrophic bacteria capable of photosynthesis, as well as some bacteria that use the oxidation of inorganic substances - chemoautotrophs.
Adenosine diphosphate, ADP, a nucleotide consisting of adenine, ribose and two phosphoric acid units. Being an acceptor of phosphoryl group in the processes of oxidative and photosynthetic phosphorylation, as well as phosphorylation at the substrate level and a biochemical precursor of ATP - a universal energy accumulator, adenosine diphosphate plays important role in the energy of a living cell.
Adenosine monophosphate, AMP, adenylic acid, a nucleotide consisting of adenine, ribose and one phosphoric acid residue. In the body, adenine monophosphate is found in RNA, coenzymes and in free form.
Adenosine triphosphate, ATP, adenylpyrophosphoric acid, a nucleotide containing adenine, ribose and three phosphoric acid residues; a universal carrier and main accumulator of chemical energy in living cells, released during the transfer of electrons in the respiratory chain after the oxidative breakdown of organic substances.
Aleurone grains(from the Greek aleuron - flour), grains of storage protein in the cells of the storage tissues of the seeds of legumes, buckwheat, cereals and other plants. Occurs as amorphous or crystalline deposits (0.2 to 20 µm) various shapes and buildings. They are formed during seed ripening from drying vacuoles and are surrounded by an elementary membrane-tonoplast. Large complex aleurone grains consist of a protein crystalloid and a non-protein part (phytin), some of them containing calcium oxalate crystals. When seeds germinate, aleurone grains swell and undergo enzymatic breakdown, the products of which are used by the growing parts of the embryo.
Allele(from the Greek allelon - each other, mutually), allelomorph, one of the possible structural states of a gene. Any change in the structure of a gene as a result of mutations or due to intragenic recombinations in heterozygotes for two mutant alleles leads to the appearance of new alleles of this gene (the number of alleles for each gene is almost incalculable). The term “allele” was proposed by V. Johansen (1909). Different alleles of the same gene can lead to the same or different phenotypic effects, which has given rise to the concept of multiple allelism.
Amyloplasts(from the Greek amylon - starch and plastos - fashioned), plastids (from the group of leucoplasts) plant cell, synthesizing and accumulating starch.
Amino acids, organic (carboxylic) acids, usually containing one or two amino groups (-NH 2). About twenty amino acids are usually involved in the construction of protein molecules. The specific sequence of alternation of amino acids in peptide chains, determined by the genetic code, determines the primary structure of the protein.
Amitosis, direct division of the interphase nucleus by constriction without the formation of chromosomes, outside the mitotic cycle. Amitosis can be accompanied by cell division, and can also be limited to nuclear division without division of the cytoplasm, which leads to the formation of bi- and multinucleated cells. Amitosis occurs in various fabrics, in specialized cells doomed to death.
Anabolism(from the Greek anabole - rise), assimilation, a set of chemical processes in a living organism aimed at the formation and renewal of the structural parts of cells and tissues. The opposite of catabolism (dissimilation), it involves the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones with the accumulation of energy. The energy required for biosynthesis (mainly in the form of ATP) is supplied by catabolic reactions of biological oxidation. Anabolism occurs very intensively during the growth period: in animals - in at a young age, in plants - during the growing season. The most important anabolic process of planetary significance is photosynthesis.
Anticodon, a section of a transfer RNA molecule consisting of three nucleotides and recognizing the corresponding section of three nucleotides (codon) in the messenger RNA molecule, with which it interacts complementarily. The specific codon-anticodon interaction that occurs on ribosomes during translation ensures the correct arrangement of amino acids in the synthesized polypeptide chain.
Outbreeding(from English out - outside and breeding - breeding), crossing or a system of crossing unrelated forms of the same species. On the basis of outbreeding, heterotic forms are obtained by conducting interline and interbreeding (intervarietal) crossings. Outbreeding is contrasted with inbreeding.
Autosomes, all chromosomes in the cells of dioecious animals, plants and fungi, with the exception of sex chromosomes.
Acidophilia, ability cellular structures stained with acidic dyes (eosomin, acid fuchsin, picric acid, etc.) due to the basic (alkaline) properties of the coloring structures.
Aerobic organisms aerobes (from the Greek aer - air and bios - life), organisms that can live and develop only in the presence of free oxygen in the environment, which they use as an oxidizing agent. All plants, most protozoa and multicellular animals, almost all fungi, i.e., belong to aerobic organisms. the vast majority of known species of living things.
basal body, kinetosome (corpusculum basale), an intracellular structure of eukaryotes that lies at the base of cilia and flagella and serves as a support for them. The ultrastructure of basal bodies is similar to the ultrastructure of centrioles.
Basophilia, the ability of cellular structures to be stained with basic (alkaline) dyes (azur, pyronine, etc.), due to the acidic properties of the staining components of the cell, mainly RNA. An increase in cell basophilia usually indicates intense protein synthesis occurring in it. Basophilia is characteristic of growing, regenerating, tumor tissues.
Basophils, cells containing granular structures in the protoplasm that are stained with basic dyes. The term “basophils” refers to one of the types of granular leukocytes (granulocytes) in the blood (normally, basophils in humans make up 0.5-1% of all leukocytes), as well as one of the types of cells of the anterior pituitary gland.
Backcross(from English back - back, back and cross - crossing), return crossing, crossing of a first-generation hybrid with one of the parent forms or a form similar in genotype.
Squirrels, proteins, high-molecular organic compounds built from amino acid residues. They play a primary role in life, performing numerous functions in their structure, development and metabolism. Molecular mass proteins from about 5000 to many millions. The infinite variety of protein molecules (proteins usually include 20 a-L-amino acids), due to the different sequence of amino acid residues and the length of the polypeptide chain, determines the differences in their spatial structure, chemical and physical properties. Depending on the shape of the protein molecule, fibrillar and globular proteins are distinguished, from the functions they perform - structural, catalytic (enzymes), transport (hemoglobin, ceruloplasmin), regulatory (some hormones), protective (antibodies, toxins), etc.; from the composition - simple proteins (proteins consisting only of amino acids) and complex (proteins, which, along with amino acids, include carbohydrates - glycoproteins, lipids - lipoproteins, nucleic acids - nucleoproteins, metals - metalloproteins, etc.); depending on solubility in water, solutions of neutral salts, alkalis, acids and organic solvents - albumins, globulins, glutelins, histones, protamines, prolamines. The biological activity of proteins is due to their unusually flexible, plastic and at the same time strictly ordered structure, which makes it possible to solve problems of recognition at the molecular level, as well as to carry out subtle regulatory effects. The following levels of structural organization of proteins are distinguished: primary structure (sequence of amino acid residues in the polypeptide chain); secondary (laying of the polypeptide chain into a-helical regions and structural formations); tertiary (three-dimensional spatial packaging of a polypeptide chain) and quaternary (association of several individual polypeptide chains into a single structure). The primary structure of the protein is the most stable; the rest are easily destroyed by increased temperature, sudden changes in the pH of the environment and other influences. This violation is called denaturation and, as a rule, is accompanied by a loss of biological properties. The primary structure of a protein determines the secondary and tertiary structure, i.e. self-assembly of a protein molecule. Proteins in the cells of organisms are constantly renewed. The need for their constant renewal underlies metabolism. A vital role in protein biosynthesis belongs to nucleic acids. Proteins are the primary products of genes. The sequence of amino acids in proteins reflects the sequence of nucleotides in nucleic acids Oh.
Bivalent(from Latin bi-, in compound words - double, double and valent - strong), a pair of homologous chromosomes connected (conjugated) to each other in meiosis. It is formed at the zygotene stage and persists until anaphase of the first division. In the bivalent between the chromosomes, X-shaped figures are formed - chiasmata, which hold the chromosomes in the complex. The number of bivalents is usually equal to the haploid number of chromosomes.
Bio…(from the Greek bios - life), part of complex words corresponding in meaning to the words “life”, “living organism” (biography, hydrobios) or the word “biological” (biocatalysis, biophysics).
biogenetic law a generalization in the field of relationships between ontogenesis and phylogeny of organisms, established by F. Muller (1864) and formulated by E. Haeckel (1866): the ontogeny of any organism is a brief and condensed repetition (recapitulation) of the phylogeny of a given species.
Nutrients, chemical elements that are constantly included in the composition of organisms and are necessary for their life. Living cells typically contain traces of almost all the chemical elements present in the environment, but about 20 are essential for life. nutrients- oxygen (accounts for about 70% of the mass of organisms), carbon (18%), hydrogen (10%), nitrogen, potassium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sulfur, chlorine, sodium. These so-called universal biogenic elements are present in the cells of all organisms. Some nutrients have important only for certain groups of living beings (for example, boron and other biogenic elements are necessary for plants, vanadium for ascidians, etc.).
Biological membranes(Latin membrana - skin, shell, membrane), structures limiting cells (cellular, or plasma membranes) and intracellular organelles (membranes of mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum and etc.). They contain lipids, proteins, heterogeneous macromolecules (glycoproteins, glycolipids) and, depending on the function performed, numerous minor components (coenzymes, nucleic acids, amino acids, carotenoids, inorganic ions, etc.). The main functions of biological membranes are barrier, transport, regulatory and catalytic.
Fermentation, anaerobic enzymatic redox process of transformation of organic substances, through which organisms obtain the energy necessary for life. Compared to processes occurring in the presence of oxygen, fermentation is an evolutionarily earlier and energetically less favorable form of extracting energy from nutrients. Animals, plants and many microorganisms are capable of fermentation (some bacteria, microscopic fungi, protozoa grow only due to the energy obtained during fermentation).
Vacuoles(French vacuole from Latin vacuus - empty), cavities in the cytoplasm of animal and plant cells, bounded by a membrane and filled with liquid. In the cytoplasm of protozoa there are digestive vacuoles containing enzymes and contractile vacuoles that perform the functions of osmoregulation and excretion. Multicellular animals are characterized by digestive and autophagy vacuoles, which are part of the group of secondary lysosomes and contain hydrolytic enzymes.
In plants, vacuoles, derivatives of the endoplasmic reticulum, are surrounded by a semi-permeable membrane - the tonoplast. The entire system of vacuoles in a plant cell is called a vacuome, which in a young cell is represented by a system of tubules and vesicles; As the cell grows and differentiates, they enlarge and merge into one large central vacuole, occupying 70-95% of the volume of the mature cell. Cell sap vacuoles are a watery liquid with a pH of 2-5, containing organic and inorganic salts(phosphates, oxalates, etc.), sugars, amino acids, proteins, final or toxic metabolic products (tannins, glycosides, alkaloids), some pigments (for example, anthocyanins). Functions of vacuoles: regulation of water-salt metabolism, maintenance of turgor pressure in the cell, accumulation of low molecular weight water-soluble metabolites, storage substances and removal of toxic substances from metabolism.
Spindle, achromatin spindle, a system of microtubules in a dividing cell that ensures the segregation of chromosomes in mitosis and meiosis. The spindle is formed in prometaphase and disintegrates in telophase.
Cell inclusions, components of the cytoplasm, which are deposits of substances temporarily removed from metabolism or its final products. The specificity of cell inclusions is associated with the specialization of the corresponding cells, tissues and organs. The most common trophic inclusions of cells are drops of fat, lumps of glycogen, and yolk in eggs. In plant cells, cell inclusions are mainly composed of starch and aleurone grains and lipid droplets. Cell inclusions also include secretory granules in the glandular cells of animals, crystals of certain salts (mainly calcium oxalates) in plant cells. A special type of cell inclusions - residual bodies - are products of lysosome activity.
Gas exchange, a set of gas exchange processes between the body and the environment; consists of the body consuming oxygen, releasing carbon dioxide, a small amount of other gaseous substances and water vapor. Biological significance gas exchange is determined by its direct participation in metabolism, the transformation of the chemical energy of absorbed nutritional products into the energy necessary for the life of the body.
Gamete(from the Greek gamete - wife, gametes - husband), sex cell, reproductive cell of animals and plants. The gamete ensures transmission hereditary information from parents to descendants. The gamete has a haploid set of chromosomes, which is ensured by the complex process of gametogenesis. Two gametes fuse during fertilization to form a zygote with a diploid set of chromosomes, which gives rise to a new organism.
Gametogenesis, development of germ cells (gametes).
Gametophyte, sexual generation in life cycle plants developing with alternating generations. Formed from a spore, has a haploid set of chromosomes; produces gametes either in ordinary vegetative cells of the thallus (some algae), or in specialized organs of sexual reproduction - gametangia, oogonia and antheridia (lower plants), archegonia and antheridia (higher plants with the exception of flowering plants).
Haploid(from the Greek haplos - single, simple and eidos - species), an organism (cell, nucleus) with a single (haploid) set of chromosomes, which is denoted by the Latin letter n. In many eukaryotic microorganisms and lower plants The haploid normally represents one of the stages of the life cycle (haplophase, gametophyte), and in some species of arthropods, males are haploid, developing from unfertilized or fertilized eggs, but in which one of the haploid sets of chromosomes is eliminated. In most animals (and humans), only the germ cells are haploid.
Haplont(from the Greek haplos - single, simple and on - being), an organism in which all cells contain a haploid set of chromosomes, and only the zygote is diploid. Some protozoa (for example, coccidia), fungi (oomycetes), many green algae.
Hemicelluloses, a group of polysaccharides from higher plants that, together with cellulose, make up the cell wall.
Gene(from the Greek genos - genus, origin), hereditary factor, functionally indivisible unit of genetic material; a section of a DNA molecule (in some RNA viruses) encoding the primary structure of a polypeptide, transport and ribosomal RNA molecules, or interacting with regulatory protein. The set of genes of a given cell or organism constitutes its genotype. The existence of hereditary discrete factors in germ cells was hypothetically postulated by G. Mendel in 1865 and in 1909. V. Johansen called them genes. Further ideas about genes are related to development chromosome theory heredity.
...genesis(from Greek genesis - origin, emergence), part of complex words meaning origin, process of formation, for example ontogenesis, oogenesis.
Genetic information, information about the properties of an organism that is inherited. Genetic information is recorded by the sequence of nucleotides of nucleic acid molecules (DNA, and in some viruses also RNA). Contains information about the structure of all (about 10,000) enzymes, structural proteins and RNA of the cell, as well as the regulation of their synthesis. Various enzymatic complexes of the cell read the genetic information.
Genetic map of a chromosome, diagram of the relative arrangement of genes located in the same linkage group. To compile a genetic map of chromosomes, it is necessary to identify many mutant genes and conduct numerous crosses. The distance between genes is genetic map chromosomes are determined by the frequency of crossing over between them. The unit of distance on the genetic map of chromosomes of meiotically dividing cells is the morganide, corresponding to 1% crossing over.
Genetic code, a unified system for recording hereditary information in nucleic acid molecules in the form of a sequence of nucleotides, characteristic of living organisms; determines the sequence of inclusion of amino acids in the synthesized polypeptide chain in accordance with the nucleotide sequence of the gene. Implementation of the genetic code in living cells, i.e. the synthesis of the protein encoded by the gene is carried out using two matrix processes - transcription and translation. General properties of the genetic code: triplicity (each amino acid is encoded by a triplet of nucleotides); non-overlap (codons of one gene do not overlap); degeneracy (many amino acid residues are encoded by several codons); unambiguity (each individual codon encodes only one amino acid residue); compactness (between codons and mRNA there are no “commas” - nucleotides not included in the codon sequence of a given gene); universality (the genetic code is the same for all living organisms).
Genetic material cell components, the structural and functional unity of which ensures the storage, implementation and transmission of hereditary information during vegetative and sexual reproduction.
Genome(German Genom), a set of genes characteristic of the haploid set of chromosomes of a given type of organism; basic haploid set of chromosomes.
Genotype, genetic (hereditary) constitution of an organism, the totality of all hereditary inclinations of a given cell or organism, including alleles of genes, the nature of their physical linkage in chromosomes and the presence of chromosomal structures.
Gene pool, a set of genes that are present in individuals of a given population, group of populations or species.
Heterogamy, 1) type of sexual process, male and female gametes that merge during fertilization are different in shape and size. Higher plants and multicellular animals, as well as some fungi, are characterized by oogamy; In relation to the copulating and conjugating individuals of a number of protozoa during the sexual process, the term “anisogamy” is used. 2) Change in the function of male and female flowers or their location on the plant (as an anomaly).
Heterozygote, an organism (cell) in which homologous chromosomes carry different alleles (alternative forms) of a particular gene. Heterozygosity, as a rule, determines the high viability of organisms and their good adaptability to changing environmental conditions and is therefore widespread in natural populations.
Heterotrophic organisms heterotrophs, organisms that use exogenous organic substances as a carbon source. As a rule, these same substances also serve as a source of energy for them (organotrophy). Heterotrophic organisms, as opposed to autotrophic organisms, include all animals, fungi, most bacteria, as well as non-chlorophyllous land plants and algae.
Heterochromatin, areas of chromatin that are in a condensed (tightly packed) state throughout the cell cycle. They are intensely stained with nuclear dyes and are clearly visible in a light microscope even during interphase. Heterochromatic regions of chromosomes, as a rule, replicate later than euchromatic ones and are not transcribed, i.e. genetically very inert.
Hyaloplasma, basic plasma, cytoplasmic matrix, complex colorless colloidal system in a cell, capable of reversible transitions from sol to gel.
Glycogen, a branched polysaccharide whose molecules are built from α-D-glucose residues. Molecular weight 10 5 -10 7 . The quickly mobilized energy reserve of many living organisms accumulates in vertebrates mainly in the liver and muscles.
Glycocalyx(from Greek glykys - sweet and Latin callum - thick skin), a glycoprotein complex associated with the outer surface of the plasma membrane in animal cells. The thickness is several tens of nanometers. Extracellular digestion occurs in the glycocalyx, many cell receptors are located in it, and cell adhesion apparently occurs with its help.
Glycolysis, Embden-Meyerhoff-Parnas pathway, enzymatic anaerobic process of non-hydrolytic breakdown of carbohydrates (mainly glucose) to lactic acid. Provides the cell with energy under conditions of insufficient oxygen supply (in obligate anaerobes, glycolysis is the only process that supplies energy), and under aerobic conditions, glycolysis is the stage preceding respiration - the oxidative breakdown of carbohydrates to carbon dioxide and water.
Glycolipids, lipids containing a carbohydrate moiety. Present in the tissues of plants and animals, as well as in some microorganisms. Glycosphingolipids and glycophospholipids are part of biological membranes, play an important role in the phenomena of intercellular adhesion, and have immune properties.
Glycoproteins, glycoproteins, complex proteins containing carbohydrates (from fractions of a percent to 80%). Molecular weight from 15,000 to 1,000,000. Present in all tissues of animals, plants and microorganisms. Glycoproteins included in the composition cell membrane, participate in cell ion exchange, immunological reactions, tissue differentiation, intercellular adhesion phenomena, etc.
Globular proteins proteins whose polypeptide chains are folded into compact spherical or ellipsoidal structures (globules). The most important representatives of globular proteins are albumins, globulins, protamines, histones, prolamins, glutelins. Unlike fibrillar proteins, which play mainly a supporting or protective role in the body, many globular proteins perform dynamic functions. Globular proteins include almost all known enzymes, antibodies, some hormones and many transport proteins.
Glucose, grape sugar, one of the most common monosaccharides of the hexose group, is the most important source of energy in living cells.
Homogamety, a characteristic of an organism (or group of organisms) that has a pair or several pairs of homologous sex chromosomes in its chromosome set and, as a result, forms gametes with the same set of chromosomes. The sex represented by such individuals is called homogametic. In mammals, fish and some plant species (hemp, hops, sorrel), homogamety is characteristic of the female sex, and in birds, butterflies and some types of strawberries - for the male sex.
Homozygote, a diploid or polyploid cell (individual), the homologous chromosomes of which carry identical alleles of a particular gene.
Homologous chromosomes contain the same set of genes, are similar in morphological characteristics, and conjugate in meiotic prophase. In a diploid set of chromosomes, each pair of chromosomes is represented by two homologous chromosomes, which can differ in the alleles of the genes they contain and exchange sections during the process of crossing over.
Gram-positive bacteria prokaryotes, whose cells stain positively using the Gram method (able to bind basic dyes - methylene blue, gentian violet, etc., and after treatment with iodine, then alcohol or acetone, retain the iodine-dye complex). In modern literature, gram-positive bacteria include bacteria from the division Firmicutes with the so-called gram-positive type of cell wall structure. Gram-positive bacteria are characterized by: sensitivity to certain antibiotics (not effective on gram-negative bacteria), some features of the composition and structure of the membrane apparatus, the composition of ribosomal proteins, RNA polymerase, the ability to form endospores, true mycelium, and other properties.
Deoxyribonucleic acids, DNA, nucleic acids containing deoxyribose as a carbohydrate component, and adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T) as nitrogen bases. They are present in the cells of any organism and are also part of the DNA molecule. The sequence of nucleotides in an unbranched polynucleotide chain is strictly individual and specific for each natural DNA and represents a code form for recording biological information (genetic code).
Division, a form of reproduction of some organisms and many cells that make up the body of multicellular organisms.
Denaturation(from the Latin de- prefix meaning removal, loss and natura - natural properties), loss of natural (native) configuration by molecules of proteins, nucleic acids and other biopolymers as a result of heating, chemical treatment, etc. is caused by the rupture of non-covalent (weak) bonds in biopolymer molecules (weak bonds maintain the spatial structure of biopolymers). Usually accompanied by a loss of biological activity - enzymatic, hormonal, etc. It can be complete or partial, reversible and irreversible. Denaturation does not break strong covalent chemical bonds, but due to the unfolding of the globular structure, it makes radicals located inside the molecule accessible to solvents and chemical reagents. In particular, denaturation facilitates the action of proteolytic enzymes, giving them access to all parts of the protein molecule. The reverse process is called renaturation.
Differentiation, the emergence of differences between homogeneous cells and tissues, their changes during the development of an individual, leading to the formation of specialized cells, organs and tissues.
Idioblasts(from the Greek idios - special, peculiar), single cells included in any tissue and differing from the cells of this tissue in size, function, shape or internal contents, for example, cells with calcium oxalate crystals or thick-walled supporting cells in the parenchyma of a leaf (sclereids ).
Idiogram(from the Greek idios - special, peculiar and gramma - drawing, line) a unique generalized image of a karyotype in compliance with average quantitative relationships between individual chromosomes and their parts. The idiogram depicts not only the morphological characteristics of chromosomes, but also their features primary structure, spiralization, regions of heterochromatin, etc. Comparative analysis of the idiogram is used in karyosystematics to identify and assess the degree of relationship various groups organisms based on the similarities and differences of their chromosome sets.
Isogamy, a type of sexual process in which the fused (copulating) gametes do not differ morphologically, but have different biochemical and physiological properties. Isogamy is widespread in unicellular algae, lower fungi and many protozoa (radiolaria rhizomes, lower gregarines), but is absent in multicellular organisms.
Interphase(from Latin inter -between and Greek phasis -appearance), in dividing cells, the part of the cell cycle between two successive mitoses; in cells that have lost the ability to divide (for example, neurons), the period from the last mitosis to the death of the cell. Interphase also includes the temporary exit of a cell from the cycle (resting state). In interphase, synthetic processes occur, both associated with the preparation of cells for division and ensuring the differentiation of cells and the performance of specific tissue functions. The duration of interphase, as a rule, is up to 90% of the time of the entire cell cycle. A distinctive feature of interphase cells is the despiralized state of chromatin (with the exception of polytene chromosomes of dipterans and some plants, which persist throughout the entire interphase).
Intron(English intron, from intervening sequence - literally intermediate sequence), a section of a gene (DNA) of eukaryotes, which, as a rule, does not carry genetic information related to the synthesis of the protein encoded by this gene; located between other structural gene fragments - exons. The regions corresponding to the intron are presented, along with exons, only in the primary transcript - the precursor of mRNA (pro-mRNA). They are removed from it by special enzymes during mRNA maturation (the exons remain). A structural gene can contain up to several dozen introns (for example, there are 50 introns in the chicken collagen gene) or not contain them at all.
ion channels, supramolecular systems of membranes of a living cell and its organelles, having a lipoprotein nature and ensuring the selective passage of various ions through the membrane. The most common channels are for Na +, K +, Ca 2+ ions; Proton-conducting systems of bioenergy complexes are often classified as ion channels.
Ion pumps, molecular structures built into biological membranes and carrying out the transfer of ions towards a higher electrochemical potential (active transport); function due to the energy of ATP hydrolysis or energy released during the transfer of electrons along the respiratory chain. Active transport of ions underlies the bioenergetics of the cell, the processes of cellular excitation, absorption, and removal of substances from the cell and the body as a whole.
Karyogamy, the fusion of the nuclei of male and female germ cells in the nucleus of the zygote during the process of fertilization. During karyogamy, the pairing of homologous chromosomes, carrying genetic information from the maternal and paternal gametes, is restored.
Mitosis(from karyo nucleus and Greek kinesis - movement), division of the cell nucleus.
Karyology, a branch of cytology that studies the cell nucleus, its evolution and individual structures, including sets of chromosomes in different cells - karyotypes (nuclear cytology). Karyology emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. after establishing the leading role of the cell nucleus in heredity. The ability to establish the degree of relatedness of organisms by comparing their karyotypes determined the development of karyosystematics.
Karyoplasm, karyolymph, nuclear juice, the contents of the cell nucleus in which the chromati are immersed, as well as various intranuclear granules. After extraction of chromatin by chemical agents, the so-called intranuclear matrix is preserved in the karyoplasm, consisting of protein fibrils 2-3 nm thick, which form a framework in the nucleus connecting the nucleoli, chromatin, pore complexes of the nuclear envelope and other structures.
Karyosystematics, a branch of systematics that studies the structures of the cell nucleus in different groups of organisms. Karyosystematics developed at the intersection of systematics with cytology and genetics and usually studies the structure and evolution of the chromosome set - the karyotype.
Karyotype, a set of characteristics of a chromosome set (number, size, shape of chromosomes) characteristic of a particular species. The constancy of the karyotype of each species is supported by the laws of mitosis and meiosis. Changes in karyotype can occur due to chromosomal and genomic mutations. Typically, a description of the chromosome set is made at the stage of metaphase or late prophase and is accompanied by counting the number of chromosomes, morph
Biological terms cytology
Homeostasis(homo - identical, stasis - state) - maintaining the constancy of the internal environment of a living system. One of the properties of all living things.
Phagocytosis(phago - devour, cytos - cell) - large solid particles. Many protozoans feed by phagocytosis. With the help of phagocytosis, immune cells destroy foreign microorganisms.
Pinocytosis(pino - drink, cytos - cell) - liquids (together with dissolved substances).
Prokaryotes, or prenuclear (pro - do, karyo - nucleus) - the most primitive structure. Prokaryotic cells do not have formalized, no, genetic information is represented by one circular (sometimes linear) chromosome. Prokaryotes do not have membrane organelles, with the exception of photosynthetic organelles in cyanobacteria. Prokaryotic organisms include Bacteria and Archaea.
Eukaryotes, or nuclear (eu - good, karyo - nucleus) - and multicellular organisms that have a formed nucleus. They have a more complex organization compared to prokaryotes.
Karyoplasm(karyo - nucleus, plasma - contents) - the liquid contents of the cell.
Cytoplasm(cytos - cell, plasma - contents) - internal environment cells. Consists of hyaloplasm (liquid part) and organoids.
Organoid, or organelle(organ - instrument, oid - similar) - a permanent structural formation of a cell that performs certain functions.
In prophase 1 of meiosis, each of the already twisted bichromatid chromosomes closely approaches its homologous one. This is called conjugation (well, confused with conjugation of ciliates).
A pair of homologous chromosomes that come together is called bivalent.
The chromatid then crosses over with a homologous (non-sister) chromatid on the neighboring chromosome (with which the bivalent is formed).
The place where chromatids intersect is called chiasmata. Chiasmus was discovered in 1909 by the Belgian scientist Frans Alphonse Janssens.
And then a piece of the chromatid breaks off at the site of the chiasm and jumps to another (homologous, i.e., non-sister) chromatid.
Gene recombination has occurred. Result: some genes migrated from one homologous chromosome to another.
Before crossing over, one homologous chromosome possessed genes from the maternal organism, and the second from the paternal one. And then both homologous chromosomes possess the genes of both the maternal and paternal organism.
The meaning of crossing over is this: as a result of this process, new combinations of genes are formed, therefore, there is more hereditary variability, therefore, more likely the emergence of new signs that may be useful.
Mitosis– indirect division of a eukaryotic cell.
The main type of cell division in eukaryotes. During mitosis, there is a uniform, equal distribution of genetic information.
Mitosis occurs in 4 phases (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase). Two identical cells are formed.
The term was coined by Walter Fleming.
Amitosis– direct, “incorrect” cell division. Robert Remak was the first to describe amitosis. Chromosomes do not spiral, DNA replication does not occur, spindle threads do not form, and the nuclear membrane does not disintegrate. The nucleus is constricted, with the formation of two defective nuclei, with, as a rule, unevenly distributed hereditary information. Sometimes even the cell does not divide, but simply forms a binuclear cell. After amitosis, the cell loses the ability to undergo mitosis. This term was coined by Walter Fleming.
- ectoderm (outer layer),
- endoderm (inner layer) and
- mesoderm (middle layer).
Common amoeba –
protozoan of the Sarcomastigophora type (Sarcoflagellates), class Rhizomes, order Amoeba.
The body has no permanent shape. They move with the help of pseudopods - pseudopodia.
They feed by phagocytosis.
Ciliate slipper- heterotrophic protozoan.
Type of ciliates. The organelles of movement are cilia. Food enters the cell through a special organoid - the cellular mouth opening.
There are two nuclei in a cell: large (macronucleus) and small (micronucleus).
Yeast- unicellular fungi. Used in cooking and alcohol production
Formed on wet soil or food. It looks like a fluffy white coating, which then turns black from the spores formed. Used to obtain fermentation products.
Consists of processes:
- synthesis (synonyms - anabolism, assimilation), comes with energy absorption.
- decay (synonyms - catabolism, dissimilation) —
Catabolism and dissimilation are reactions of breakdown and oxidation of complex organic substances with the release of energy in the form of heat and ATP.
Three stages:
- preparatory - the breakdown of the polymer components of food into monomers (in higher organisms occurs in the digestive tract, in protozoa - in lysosomes);
- oxygen-free (a name=”Glikoliz”>glycolysis, anaerobic respiration, fermentation); goes in the cytoplasm of the cell:
glucose → pyruvic acid (PVA) + 2ATP- oxygen breakdown (aerobic) - occurs on the cristae of mitochondria):
PVC → CO2 + H2O + 36ATPATP— Adenosine triphosphoric acid (adenosine triphosphoric acid is a universal biological energy accumulator. It consists of the nitrogenous base adenine, a five-atomic sugar - ribose and three phosphoric acid residues.
– the process of synthesis of glucose and other organic substances from carbon dioxide and water using the energy of sunlight.
Characteristic of plants and some autotrophic protozoa.
6CO 2 + 6H 2 O -> C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2
Consists of two successive phases:
- light (in the thylakoids of the chloroplast grana) and
- dark (in the stroma of the chloroplast).
Chemosynthesis– one of the methods of autotrophic nutrition.
In chemosynthesis, the energy for the formation of complex molecules is obtained from chemical reactions of oxidation of inorganics. This method is typical for prokaryotes.
<Раздел Биологические термины в разработке — т.е. он будет постоянно пополняться>
Abasia- Loss of the ability to walk, usually as a result of a disease of the nervous system.
Abbreviation- Loss by a species during evolution or by an individual in the process of ontogenesis of characteristics or phases of development that were present in its ancestors.
Abiogenesis- The emergence of living things from non-living things in the process of evolution.
Aborigine- An indigenous inhabitant of a certain area, who has lived in it since ancient times.
Avitaminosis- A disease caused by a long-term lack of vital vitamins in food.
Autogamy- Self-pollination and self-fertilization in flowering plants.
Autoduplication- The process of synthesis by living organisms or their parts of substances and structures that are completely identical to the original formations.
Autolysis- Self-dissolution, the breakdown of body tissues under the influence of enzymes contained in the same tissues.
Automixis- Fusion of germ cells belonging to the same individual; widely distributed among protozoa, fungi, and diatoms.
Autotomy- The ability of some animals to discard parts of their body; protective device.
Autotroph- An organism that synthesizes organic matter from inorganic compounds using the energy of the Sun or energy released during chemical reactions.
Agglutination- 1) Gluing and precipitation from a homogeneous suspension of bacteria, red blood cells and other cells. 2) Protein coagulation in a living cell, which occurs when exposed to high temperatures, toxic substances and other similar agents.
Agglutinins- Substances formed in the blood serum, under the influence of which proteins coagulate, microbes and blood cells stick together.
Agony- The final moment of life preceding clinical death.
Agranulocyte- Leukocyte that does not contain grains (granules) in the cytoplasm; in vertebrates these are lymphocytes and monocytes.
Agrocenosis- A biotic community of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms created to produce agricultural products and regularly maintained by humans.
Adaptation- A complex of morphophysiological and behavioral characteristics of an individual, population or species, ensuring success in competition with other species, populations and individuals, and resistance to the influence of abiotic environmental factors.
Adynamia- Muscle weakness, impotence.
Azotobacteria- A group of aerobic bacteria capable of fixing nitrogen from the air and thereby enriching the soil with it.
Acclimatization- A set of measures to introduce a species into new habitats, carried out in order to enrich natural or artificial communities organisms useful to humans.
Accommodation- Adaptation to something. 1) Accommodation of the eye - adaptation to viewing objects at different distances. 2) Physiological accommodation - adaptation of muscle and nerve tissue to the action of a stimulus that slowly increases in strength.
Accumulation- Accumulation in organisms chemical substances, found in the environment in lower concentrations.
Acromegaly- Excessive, disproportionate growth of the limbs and facial bones due to dysfunction of the pituitary gland.
Alkalosis- Increased content of alkalis in the blood and other tissues of the body.
Allele- Different forms of the same gene located in the same loci of homologous chromosomes.
Allogenesis
Albinism- Congenital absence of pigmentation that is normal for this type of organism.
Algology- The scientific branch of botany that studies algae.
Amensalism- Suppression of one organism by another without a reverse negative impact from the suppressed.
Amitosis- Direct cell division.
Anabiosis- A temporary state of the body in which life processes are so slow that all visible manifestations of life are almost completely absent.
Anabolism- Plastic exchange.
Analysis cross- Crossing the test organism with another that is a recessive homozygote for a given trait, which makes it possible to establish the genotype of the test subject.
Similar bodies- Organs that perform the same functions, but have different structures and origins, the result convergence.
Anatomy- A group of scientific branches that study the shape and structure of individual organs, their systems and the entire organism as a whole.
Anaerobe- An organism capable of living in an oxygen-free environment.
Angiology- Section of anatomy that studies the circulatory and lymphatic systems.
Anemia- A group of diseases characterized by a decrease in the number of red blood cells, their hemoglobin content or total blood mass.
Aneuploidy- Multiple changes in the number of chromosomes; an altered set of chromosomes in which one or more chromosomes from the normal set are either missing or are represented by additional copies.
Antheridium- Male reproductive organ.
Antigen- A complex organic substance capable of causing an immune response when entering the body of animals and humans - formation antibodies.
Anticodon- A section of a tRNA molecule consisting of 3 nucleotides that specifically binds to an mRNA codon.
Antibody- Immunoglobulin in the blood plasma of humans and warm-blooded animals, synthesized by lymphoid tissue cells under the influence of various antigens.
Anthropogenesis- The process of human origin.
Anthropology- An interdisciplinary discipline that studies the origin and evolution of man as a special sociobiological species.
Apomixis- Formation of an embryo from an unfertilized female reproductive cell or from cells of the germ or embryo sac; asexual reproduction.
Arachnology- Branch of zoology that studies arachnids.
Area- Area of distribution of the species.
Arogenesis
Aromorphosis - Evolutionary direction accompanied by the acquisition major changes buildings; increasing the complexity of the organization, raising it to a higher level high level, morphophysiological progress.
Arrhenotokia- Parthenogenetic birth of offspring consisting exclusively of males, for example, the development of drones from unfertilized eggs laid by the queen bee.
Archegonium- The female reproductive organ in mosses, ferns, horsetails, mosses, and some holos seed plants, algae and fungi containing an egg.
Assimilation- One of the aspects of metabolism, the consumption and transformation of substances entering the body or the deposition of reserves, due to which energy is accumulated.
Astasia- Loss of the ability to stand, usually as a result of a disease of the nervous system.
Astrobiology- A scientific branch that deals with the detection and study of signs of life in the Universe, in space and on planets.
Asphyxia- Cessation of breathing, suffocation, oxygen starvation. Occurs when there is a lack of aeration, including when plants get wet.
Atavism- The appearance in some individuals of a given species of characteristics that existed in distant ancestors, but were then lost in the process of evolution.
Atony- Intravital reduction in the size of organs and tissues, replacement of their functioning cells with connective tissue, fat, etc. Accompanied by disruption or even cessation of their functions.
Outbreeding- Crossing of individuals of the same species that are not directly related leads to the phenomenon of heterosis.
Autosome- Any non-sex chromosome; humans have 22 pairs of autosomes.
Acidosis- Accumulation of negatively charged ions (anions) of acids in the blood and other tissues of the body.
Aerobe- An organism capable of living only in an environment containing free molecular oxygen.
Aeroponics- Growing plants without soil in moist air thanks to periodic spraying of the roots with nutrient solutions. It is used in greenhouses, conservatories, on spaceships, etc.
Aerotaxis- Movement of unicellular and some multicellular lower organisms to a source of oxygen or, conversely, from it.
Aerotropism- The growth of plant stems or roots in the direction from which oxygen-rich air comes, for example, the growth of roots in mangroves towards the soil surface.
Bacteriology- The branch of microbiology that studies bacteria.
Bacterial carriage
Bacteriophage- A bacterial virus that can infect a bacterial cell, multiply in it and cause its dissolution.
Bacteriocide- Antibacterial substance (proteins) produced by bacteria of a certain type and suppressing the vital activity of bacteria of other types.
Baroreceptors- Sensitive nerve endings in the walls of blood vessels that sense changes in blood pressure and reflexively regulate its level.
Bacillus- Any bacteria that is rod-shaped.
Bivalent- Two homologous chromosomes formed during division of the cell nucleus.
Bilaterality- Bilateral symmetry in organisms.
Biogeography- Scientific branch that studies general geographical patterns organic world of the Earth: distribution of plant cover and animal population of various parts of the globe, their combinations, floristic and faunal divisions of land and ocean, as well as the distribution of biocenoses and the species of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms included in them.
Biogeochemistry- Scientific discipline that studies the role of living organisms in destruction rocks and minerals, circulation, migration, distribution and concentration of chemical elements in the biosphere.
Biogeocenosis- An evolutionarily established, spatially limited, long-term self-sustaining homogeneous natural system in which living organisms and their surrounding abiotic environment are functionally interconnected, characterized by relatively independent metabolism and special type using the flow of energy coming from the Sun.
Biology- A complex of knowledge about life and a set of scientific disciplines that study living nature.
Biometrics- A set of techniques for planning and processing biological research data using mathematical statistics methods.
Biomechanics- A branch of biophysics that studies the mechanical properties of living tissues, organs and the body as a whole, as well as the mechanical processes occurring in them.
Bionics- One of the areas of cybernetics that studies the structure and vital activity of organisms in order to use the identified patterns in solving engineering problems and construction technical systems, similar in characteristics to living organisms and their parts.
Biorhythm- Rhythmic-cyclic fluctuations in the intensity and nature of biological processes and phenomena, giving organisms the opportunity to adapt to environmental changes.
Biosphere- The shell of the Earth populated by living organisms.
Biotechnology- A section of game science that studies ways to increase the biological productivity and economic productivity of hunting lands.
Biotechnology- A scientific discipline and field of practice that borders biology and technology, studying the ways and methods of change surrounding a person natural environment according to his needs.
Biophysics- A scientific discipline that studies physical and physicochemical processes in living organisms, as well as physical structure biological systems at all levels of their organization - from molecular and subcellular to cells, organs and the organism as a whole.
Biochemistry- A scientific discipline that studies the chemical composition of living beings, chemical reactions in them and the natural order of these reactions, ensuring metabolism.
Biocenosis- An interconnected collection of microorganisms, plants, fungi and animals inhabiting a more or less homogeneous area of land or body of water.
Bifurcation- Dividing something into two branches.
Blastula- Single-layer embryo.
Botany- A complex of scientific disciplines exploring the kingdom of Plants.
Bryology- Scientific branch that studies mosses.
Vaccine- A preparation made from living or dead microorganisms used for immunization of humans and animals for prophylactic or therapeutic purposes.
Virology- Scientific discipline that studies viruses.
Virus carriage- Residence and reproduction of pathogens of infectious or invasive diseases in the body of humans and animals in the absence of signs of disease.
Gamete- Sexual, or reproductive, cell with a haploid set of chromosomes.
Gametogenesis- The process of formation and development of sex cells - gametes.
Gametophyte- Representative of the sexual generation or stage of the plant life cycle from spore to zygote.
Haploid- A cell or individual with a single set of unpaired chromosomes, formed as a result of reduction division.
Gastrula- Phase of embryonic development of multicellular animals, two-layer embryo.
Gastrulation- The process of gastrula formation.
Heliobiology- A branch of biophysics that studies the influence of solar activity on terrestrial organisms and their communities.
Hemizygote- A diploid organism that has only one allele of a given gene or one chromosome segment instead of the usual two. For organisms in which the heterogametic sex is male (as in humans and all other mammals), almost all genes associated with the X chromosome are hemizygous, since males normally have only one X chromosome. The hemizygous state of alleles or chromosomes is used in genetic analysis to find the location of genes responsible for a particular trait.
Hemolysis- Destruction of red blood cells with the release of hemoglobin into the environment.
Hemophilia- A hereditary disease characterized by increased bleeding, which is explained by a lack of blood clotting factors.
Hemocyanin- The respiratory pigment of the hemolymph of some invertebrate animals, which ensures the transport of oxygen in their bodies, is a copper-containing protein that gives the blood a blue color.
Hemerythrin- The respiratory pigment of the hemolymph of a number of invertebrate animals, this is an iron-containing protein that gives the blood a pink tint.
Genetics- A discipline that studies the mechanisms and patterns of heredity and variability of organisms, methods of controlling these processes.
Genome- A set of genes contained in a haploid (single) set of chromosomes.
Genotype- The totality of all genes received from parents.
Gene pool- A set of genes of a group of individuals of a population, a group of populations or a species, within which they are characterized by a certain frequency of occurrence.
Geobotany- A scientific branch that studies plant communities, their composition, development, classification, dependence on the environment and influence on it, features of the phynocoenotic environment.
Geotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of gravity.
Geotropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of gravity.
Geophilia- The ability of shoots or roots of some perennial plants to retract or grow into the soil to overwinter.
Hermaphroditism- The presence of male and female reproductive systems in one animal.
Herpetology- Branch of zoology that studies amphibians and reptiles.
Heterozygote- An individual that produces different types of gametes.
Heterosis- “hybrid vigor”, accelerated growth, increased size, increased vitality and fertility of first-generation hybrids compared to the parental forms of plants or animals.
Heteroploidy- Multiple changes in the number of chromosomes.
Gibberellin- A substance that stimulates plant growth.
Hybrid- An organism resulting from crossing.
Gigantism- The phenomenon of abnormal growth of a person, animal, plant, exceeding the norm characteristic of the species.
Hygiene- Science that studies the impact of living and working conditions on human health and develops disease prevention measures.
Hygrophiles- Terrestrial animals adapted to living in conditions of high humidity.
Hygrophytes- Terrestrial plants adapted to living in conditions of excess humidity.
Hygrophobes- Terrestrial animals that avoid excess moisture in specific habitats.
Hydrolysis- The third stage of energy metabolism, cellular respiration.
Hydroponics- Growing plants without soil on aqueous solutions minerals.
Hydrotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of humidity.
Hypertension- A disease caused by high blood pressure.
Physical inactivity- Lack of physical activity.
Hypoxia- Reduced oxygen content in the tissues of the body, observed with a lack of oxygen in the air, certain diseases and poisoning.
Hypotension- A disease caused by low blood pressure.
Histology- A branch of morphology that studies the tissues of multicellular organisms.
Glycolysis- An oxygen-free process of carbohydrate breakdown.
Holandric trait- A trait found only in men (XY).
Homozygote- An individual that produces one type of gametes.
Homeotherm- An animal with a constant body temperature, practically independent of the ambient temperature (warm-blooded animal).
Homologous organs- Organs that are similar to each other in structure and origin, but perform different functions, result divergence.
Hormone- A biologically active substance produced in the body by specialized cells or organs and having a targeted effect on the activity of other organs and tissues.
Granulocyte- A leukocyte containing grains (granules) in the cytoplasm protects the body from bacteria.
Colorblindness- Hereditary inability to distinguish between certain colors, most often red and green.
Degeneration
Deletion- Chromosomal mutation, as a result of which a section of the chromosome in its middle part is lost; a gene mutation that results in the loss of a section of a DNA molecule.
Demecology- A branch of ecology that studies the relationship of populations with their environment.
Dendrology- A branch of botany that studies woody and shrubby plants.
Depression- Decrease in the number of individuals of a population, species or group of species caused by intrapopulation, biocenotic or abiotic reasons associated with human activity; depressed, painful state of the individual; general decrease in vitality.
Definition- Chromosomal mutation, which results in the loss of the end sections of chromosomes (lack).
Divergence- Divergence of signs.
Dihybrid cross- Crossing individuals according to two pairs of traits.
Dissimilation
Dominant trait- Predominant sign.
Donor- A person who donates blood for transfusion or organs for transplantation.
Genetic drift- Change in the genetic structure of the population as a result of any random reasons; genetic-automatic process in a population.
Splitting up- The process of division of the zygote without the growth of blastomeres.
Duplication- Chromosomal mutation in which any part of the chromosome is repeated.
Eugenics- The doctrine of human hereditary health and ways of its preservation and improvement. The basic principles of the doctrine were formulated in 1869 by the English anthropologist and psychologist F. Galton. F. Galton proposed studying factors that improve the hereditary qualities of future generations (genetic prerequisites for mental and physiological health, mental abilities, talent). But some ideas of eugenics were distorted and used to justify racism, genocide; availability social inequality, mental and physiological inequality of people. In modern science, the problems of eugenics are considered within the framework of human genetics and ecology, especially the fight against hereditary diseases.
Reserve- A section of territory or water area within which certain forms of human economic activity are permanently or temporarily prohibited to ensure the protection of certain types of living beings.
Reserve- A specially protected area, completely excluded from any economic activity in order to preserve natural complexes intact, protect living species and monitor natural processes.
Zygote- Fertilized egg.
Zoogeography- A scientific branch that studies the patterns of geographical distribution of animals and their communities on the globe.
Zoology- Scientific discipline that studies animal world.
Idiomatic adaptation- The path of evolution without increasing the general level of organization, the emergence of adaptations to specific environmental conditions.
Insulation- A process that prevents individuals of different species from interbreeding and leads to divergence of characteristics within the same species.
Immunity- Immunity, resistance of the body to infectious agents and foreign substances. There are natural (congenital) or artificial (acquired), active or passive immunity.
Imprinting- Strong and quick fixation in the animal’s memory of the signs of an object.
Inbreeding- Inbreeding.
Inversion- Chromosomal mutation, as a result of which its part rotates 180°.
Insertion- A gene mutation that results in the insertion of a segment of a DNA molecule into the gene structure.
Interferon - Protective protein, produced by the cells of mammals and birds in response to infection by viruses.
Intoxication- Poisoning of the body.
Ichthyology- Branch of zoology that studies fish.
Carcinogen- A substance or physical agent capable of causing or contributing to the development of malignant neoplasms.
Karyotype- Diploid set of chromosomes in somatic (non-reproductive) cells of the body, a typical set of their characteristics for the species: a certain number, size, shape and structural features, constant for each species.
Carotenoids- Red, yellow and orange pigments found in plant and some animal tissues.
Catabolism- Energy metabolism, breakdown of substances, ATP synthesis.
Catagenesis- The path of evolution associated with the transition to a simpler habitat and leading to a simplification of the structure and lifestyle, morphophysiological regression, the disappearance of active life organs.
Tenancy- Close cohabitation (coexistence) of organisms of different species, in which one of the organisms benefits for itself (uses the organism as an “apartment”) without causing harm to the other.
Kyphosis- Curvature of the spine, convexity facing backwards.
Clone- Genetically homogeneous offspring of one cell.
Commensalism- Permanent or temporary cohabitation of individuals of different species, in which one of the partners derives unilateral benefit from the other without causing harm to the owner.
Complementarity- Spatial complementarity of molecules or their parts, leading to the formation of hydrogen bonds.
Convergence- Convergence of signs.
Competition- Rivalry, any antagonistic relationship determined by the desire to achieve a goal better and faster than other members of the community.
Consumer- Organism-consumer of finished organic substances.
Conjugation- Bringing chromosomes together during meiosis; a sexual process consisting of a partial exchange of hereditary information, for example, in ciliates.
Copulation- The process of fusion of sex cells (gametes) into a zygote; the union of individuals of the opposite sex during sexual intercourse.
Crossbreeding- Interbreeding of domestic animals.
Crossing over- Exchange of sections of homologous chromosomes.
Xanthophylls- A group of yellow coloring pigments contained in the buds, leaves, flowers and fruits of higher plants, as well as in many algae and microorganisms; in animals - in the liver of mammals, chicken yolk.
Xerophile- An organism adapted to life in dry habitats, in conditions of moisture deficiency.
Xerophyte- A plant of arid habitats, common in steppes, semi-deserts, and deserts.
Lability- Instability, variability, functional mobility; high adaptability or, conversely, instability of the body to environmental conditions.
Latent- Hidden, invisible.
Leukoplasts- Colorless plastids.
Lysis- Destruction of cells through their complete or partial dissolution, both under normal conditions and during the penetration of pathogenic organisms.
Lichenology- Branch of botany that studies lichens.
Locus- The region of the chromosome in which the gene is localized.
Lordosis- Curvature of the spine, convexity facing forward.
Macroevolution- Evolutionary transformations that occur at the supraspecific level and determine the formation of increasingly larger taxa (from genera to types and kingdoms of nature).
Mediator- A substance whose molecules are capable of reacting with specific receptors of the cell membrane and changing its permeability to certain ions, causing the occurrence of an action potential - an active electrical signal.
Mesoderm- Middle germ layer.
Metabolism- Metabolism and energy.
Metamorphosis- The process of transformation of a larva into an adult animal.
Mycology- Scientific branch that studies mushrooms.
Mycorrhiza- Mushroom root; symbiotic habitation of fungi on (or in) the roots of higher plants.
Microbiology- Biological discipline that studies microorganisms - their systematics, morphology, physiology, biochemistry, etc.
Microevolution- Evolutionary transformations within a species at the population level, leading to speciation.
Mimicry- Imitation of non-poisonous, edible and unprotected species by poisonous and well-protected animals from attack by predators.
Modeling- Research and demonstration method various structures, physiological and other functions, evolutionary, ecological processes through their simplified imitation.
Modification- Non-hereditary change in the characteristics of an organism that occurs under the influence of environmental conditions.
Monitoring- Tracking any objects or phenomena, including those of a biological nature; a multi-purpose information system, the main tasks of which are observation, assessment and forecast of the state of the natural environment under the influence of anthropogenic influence in order to warn about emerging critical situations that are harmful or dangerous to human health, the well-being of other living beings, their communities, natural and man-made objects, etc. d.
Monogamy- Monogamy, the mating of a male with one female for one or more seasons.
Monohybrid cross- Crossing individuals based on one pair of traits.
Monospermia- Penetration of only one sperm into the egg.
Morganida- A unit of distance between two genes in the same linkage group, characterized by the crossover frequency in %.
Morula- The early stage of embryo development, which is a cluster large number blastomere cells without a separate cavity; In most animals, the morula stage is followed by the blastula stage.
Morphology- A complex of scientific branches and their sections that studies the form and structure of animals and plants.
Mutagenesis- The process of mutation occurrence.
Mutation- Abrupt changes in genes under the influence of physical, chemical and biological factors.
Mutualism- A form of symbiosis in which one partner cannot exist without the other.
Heredity- The property of organisms to repeat similar characteristics and properties over a series of generations.
Freeloading- One of the forms of beneficial-neutral relationships between organisms, when one organism receives nutrients from another without causing harm to it.
Neyrula- Stage of development of the embryo of chordates, at which the formation of the neural tube plate (from the ectoderm) and axial organs occurs.
Neutralism- Lack of mutual influence of organisms.
Noosphere- Part of the biosphere in which human activity manifests itself, both positive and negative, the sphere of “mind”.
Nucleoprotein- Complex of proteins with nucleic acids.
Obligate- Required.
Metabolism- Consistent consumption, transformation, use, accumulation and loss of substances and energy in living organisms during life, allowing them to self-preserve, grow, develop and self-reproduce in environmental conditions, as well as adapt to it.
Ovulation- Release of eggs from the ovary into the body cavity.
Ontogenesis- Individual development of the body.
Fertilization- Fusion of germ cells.
Organogenesis- The process of formation and development of organs during ontogenesis.
Ornithology- Branch of zoology that studies birds.
Paleontology- A scientific discipline that studies fossil organisms, their living conditions and burial conditions.
Natural monument- An individual rare or interesting object, living or inanimate nature, due to its scientific, cultural, educational and historical and memorial significance, it deserves protection.
Parallelism- Independent acquisition by organisms during evolution similar features structures based on features (genome) inherited from common ancestors.
Parthenogenesis- Development of an embryo from an unfertilized egg, virgin reproduction.
Pedosphere- The shell of the Earth formed by the soil cover.
Pinocytosis- Absorption of substances in dissolved form.
Pleiotropy- Dependence of several traits on one gene.
Poikilotherm- An organism that is unable to maintain internal body temperature, and therefore changes it depending on the temperature of the environment, for example, fish, amphibians.
Polygamy- Polygamy; mating of a male with many females during the breeding season.
Polymerism- Dependence of the development of one and the same trait or property of an organism on several genes independent in action.
Polyploidy- Multiple increase in the number of chromosomes.
Breed- A set of domestic animals of the same species, artificially created by man and characterized by certain hereditary characteristics, productivity and appearance.
Protistology- The branch of biology that studies protozoa.
Processing- Chemical modification of substances (fermins and hormones) that are synthesized in the EPS channels in an inactive form.
Radiobiology- A branch of biology that studies the effects of all types of radiation on organisms and ways to protect them from radiation.
Regeneration- Restoration by the body of lost or damaged organs and tissues, as well as restoration of the whole organism from its parts.
Decomposer- An organism that converts organic substances into inorganic ones in the course of its life.
Rheotaxis- The movement of some lower plants, protozoa and individual cells towards the flow of liquid or the position of the body parallel to it.
Rheotropism- The property of the roots of multicellular plants, when they grow in a flow of water, to bend in the direction of this current or towards it.
Retrovirus- A virus whose genetic material is RNA. When a retrovirus enters a host cell, the process of reverse transcription occurs. As a result of this process, DNA is synthesized from viral RNA, which is then integrated into the host DNA.
Reflex- The body's response to external irritation through the nervous system.
Receptor- Sensitive nerve cell that perceives external stimuli.
Recipient- An organism that receives a blood transfusion or organ transplant.
Rudiments- Underdeveloped organs, tissues and characteristics that were present in a developed form among the evolutionary ancestors of a species, but lost their significance in the process phylogeny.
Selection- Breeding new and improving existing varieties of plants, animal breeds, strains of microorganisms through artificial mutagenesis and selection, hybridization, genetic and cellular engineering.
Symbiosis- Type of relationship between organisms of different systematic groups: coexistence, mutually beneficial, often obligatory, cohabitation of individuals of two or more species.
Synapse- The place where nerve cells come into contact with each other.
Synecology- A branch of ecology that studies biological communities and their relationships with their environment.
Taxonomy- A section of biology devoted to the description, designation and classification into groups of all existing and extinct organisms, establishing related relationships between individual species and groups of species.
Scoliosis- Curves of the spine, facing to the right or left.
Variety- A set of cultivated plants of the same species, artificially created by man and characterized by certain hereditary characteristics, productivity and structural characteristics.
Spermatogenesis- Formation of male reproductive cells.
Splicing- The process of editing mRNA, in which some labeled sections of mRNA are cut out, and the remaining ones are read into one strand; occurs in the nucleoli during transcription.
Succulent- A plant with succulent, fleshy leaves or stems, easily tolerates high temperatures, but does not withstand dehydration.
succession- Consistent change of biocenoses (ecosystems), expressed in changes in species composition and community structure.
Serum- The liquid part of the blood without formed elements and fibrin, formed during the process of their separation during blood clotting outside the body.
Taxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of a unilaterally acting stimulus.
Teratogen - Biological effects, chemical substances and physical factors that cause the development of deformities in organisms during the process of ontogenesis.
Thermoregulation- A set of physiological and biochemical processes that ensure the constancy of body temperature in warm-blooded animals and humans.
Thermotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of temperature.
Thermotropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of heat.
Textile- A collection of cells and intercellular substance that performs a specific role in the body.
Tolerance- The ability of organisms to tolerate deviations of environmental factors from optimal ones.
Transcription- Biosynthesis of mRNA on a DNA matrix is carried out in the cell nucleus.
Translocation- Chromosomal mutation, which results in the exchange of sections of non-homologous chromosomes or the transfer of a section of a chromosome to the other end of the same chromosome.
Broadcast- Synthesis of the polypeptide chain of protein is carried out in the cytoplasm on ribosomes.
Transpiration- Evaporation of water by the plant.
Tropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of some stimulus.
Turgor- Elasticity of plant cells, tissues and organs due to the pressure of the cell contents on their elastic walls.
Phagocyte- A cell of multicellular animals (humans), capable of capturing and digesting foreign bodies, in particular microbes.
Phagocytosis- Active capture and absorption of living cells and non-living particles by unicellular organisms or special cells of multicellular organisms - phagocytes. The phenomenon was discovered by I. I. Mechnikov.
Phenology- Body of knowledge about seasonal phenomena nature, the timing of their occurrence and the reasons that determine these timing.
Phenotype- The totality of all internal and external signs and properties of an individual.
Enzyme- A biological catalyst, by its chemical nature, is a protein that is necessarily present in all cells of a living organism.
Physiology- Biological discipline that studies the functions of a living organism, the processes occurring in it, metabolism, adaptation to the environment, etc.
Phylogenesis- Historical development of the species.
Photoperiodism- Reactions of organisms to the change of day and night, manifested in fluctuations in the intensity of physiological processes.
Phototaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of light.
Phototropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of light.
Chemosynthesis- The process of formation by some microorganisms of organic substances from inorganic ones due to the energy of chemical bonds.
Chemotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of chemicals.
Predation- Feeding on animals that were alive up to the moment of their transformation into a food object (with their capture and killing).
Chromatid- One of two nucleoprotein strands formed during the doubling of chromosomes during cell division.
Chromatin- A nucleoprotein that forms the basis of a chromosome.
Cellulose- A carbohydrate from the group of polysaccharides, consisting of residues of glucose molecules.
Centromere- A section of a chromosome that holds its two strands (chromatids) together.
Cyst- A form of existence of unicellular and some multicellular organisms, temporarily covered with a dense membrane that allows these organisms to survive unfavourable conditions environment.
Cytology- Cell science.
Schizogony- Asexual reproduction by dividing the body into a large number of daughter individuals; characteristic of sporozoans.
Strain- A pure single-species culture of microorganisms, isolated from a specific source and possessing specific physiological and biochemical characteristics.
Exocytosis- The release of substances from the cell by surrounding them with outgrowths of the plasma membrane with the formation of membrane-surrounded vesicles.
Ecology- A field of knowledge that studies the relationships of organisms and their communities with the environment.
Ectoderm- Outer germ layer.
Embryology- A scientific discipline that studies the embryonic development of an organism.
Endocytosis- Absorption of substances by surrounding them with outgrowths of the plasma membrane with the formation of membrane-surrounded vesicles.
Endoderm- Inner germ layer.
Ethology- The science of animal behavior in natural conditions.
Biology Glossary
Abiogenesis is the development of living things from non-living matter in the process of evolution (a hypothetical model of the origin of life).
Acarology is the science that studies mites.
Allele is one of the specific states of a gene (dominant allele, recessive allele).
Albinism is the lack of pigmentation of the skin and its derivatives, caused by a violation of the formation of the melanin pigment. The causes of albinism are varied.
The aminoacial center is the active center in the ribosome where contact between the codon and anticodon occurs.
Amitosis is a direct cell division in which there is no uniform distribution of hereditary material between daughter cells.
Amniotes are vertebrates in which a provisional organ, the amnion (water membrane), is formed during embryogenesis. The development of amniotes occurs on land - in the egg, or in utero (reptiles, birds, mammals, humans).
Amniocentesis is the collection of amniotic fluid containing the cells of the developing fetus. Used for prenatal diagnosis of hereditary diseases and sex determination.
Anabolia (Superstructure) - the appearance of new characteristics in the later stages of embryonic development, leading to an increase in the duration of ontogenesis.
Analogous organs are organs of animals of different taxonomic groups, similar in structure and the functions they perform, but developing from different embryonic rudiments.
Anamnia is the stage of mitosis (meiosis), in which chromatids separate to the poles of the cell. In anaphase I of meiosis, it is not the chromatids that separate, but the whole chromosomes, consisting of two chromatids, as a result of which each daughter cell ends up with a haploid set of chromosomes.
Developmental anomalies are a violation of the structure and function of organs in the process of individual development.
Antigens are protein substances that, when they enter the body, cause an immunological reaction with the formation of antibodies.
An anticodon is a triplet of nucleotides in a tRNA molecule that contacts an mRNA codon in the aminoacial center of the ribosome.
Antimutagens are substances of various natures that reduce the frequency of mutations (vitamins, enzymes, etc.).
Antibodies are immunoglobulin proteins produced in the body in response to the penetration of antigens.
Anthropogenesis is the evolutionary path of human origin and development.
Anthropogenetics is a science that studies issues of heredity and variability in humans.
Aneuploidy is a change in the number of chromosomes in the karyotype (heteroploidy).
Arachnology is the science that studies arachnids.
Aromorphosis is an evolutionary morphofunctional transformation of general biological significance that increases the level of organization of animals.
Archallaxis – changes that occur at different stages embryonic development and directing phylogeny along a new path.
Archanthropes – group ancient people, combined into one species - homo erectus (straightened man). This species includes Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, Heidelberg man and other related forms.
Atavism is the complete development of a rudimentary organ, not typical for a given species.
Autophagy is the process of digestion by a cell of irreversibly changed organelles and areas of the cytoplasm with the help of hydrolytic enzymes of lysosomes.
Twins:
Monozygotic - twins that develop from one egg fertilized by one sperm (polyembryony);
Dizygotic (polyzygotic) – twins that develop from two or more eggs fertilized by different sperm (polyovulation).
Hereditary - diseases caused by a violation of the structure and function of hereditary material. There are genetic and chromosomal diseases;
Molecular – diseases caused by gene mutations. In this case, the structure of structural proteins and enzyme proteins may change;
Chromosomal – diseases caused by a violation of the structure or number of chromosomes (autosomes or sex chromosomes) due to chromosomal or genomic mutations;
Wilson-Konovalov (hepatocerebral degeneration) is a molecular disease associated with impaired copper metabolism, which leads to damage to the liver and brain. Inherited in an autosomal recessive manner;
Galactosemia is a molecular disease associated with impaired carbohydrate metabolism. Inherited in an autosomal recessive manner;
Sickle cell anemia is a molecular disease based on a gene mutation that leads to a change in the amino acid composition of the hemoglobin B chain. Inherited by the type of incomplete dominance;
Phenylketonuria is a molecular disease caused by a disorder in the metabolism of amino acids and phenylalanine. Inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.
Basal body (kinetosome) - A structure at the base of a flagellum, or cilium, formed by microtubules.
Biogenesis – The origin and development of organisms from living matter.
Developmental biology is a science that arose at the intersection of embryology and molecular biology and studies the structural, functional and genetic foundations of individual development, mechanisms for regulating the vital functions of organisms.
Blastoderm is a collection of cells (blastomeres) that form the wall of the blastula.
Brachydactyly - short fingers. Inherited in an autosomal dominant manner.
Genetic vectors are DNA-containing structures (viruses, plasmids) used in genetic engineering to attach genes and introduce them into a cell.
Viruses are non-cellular life forms; capable of living cells and multiplying in them. They have their own genetic apparatus, represented by DNA or RNA.
Vital staining (intravital) is a method of staining other structures using dyes that do not have a toxic effect on them.
Inclusions are unstable components of the cytoplasm of cells, represented by secretory granules, reserve nutrients, and end products of metabolism.
Degeneracy of the genetic code (redundancy) is the presence in the genetic code of several codons corresponding to one amino acid.
Gametogenesis is the process of formation of mature germ cells (gametes): female gametes - oogenesis, male gametes - spermatogenesis.
Gametes are sex cells with a haploid set of chromosomes.
Haploid cells – cells containing a single set of chromosomes (n)
Gastrocoel is a cavity in a two- or three-layer embryo.
Gastrulation is a period of embryogenesis in which the formation of a two- or three-layer embryo occurs.
Biohelminths are helminths in the life cycle of which there is a change of hosts or the development of all stages occurs within one organism without exiting into the external environment;
Geohelminths are helminths whose larval stages develop in the external environment (roundworm, roundworm);
Contact-transmitted - helminths, the invasive stage of which can enter the host’s body through contact with a patient (dwarf tapeworm, pinworm).
Hemizygous organism is an organism that has a single allele of the gene being analyzed due to the absence of a homologous chromosome (44+XY).
Hemophilia is a molecular disease linked to the X chromosome (recessive type of inheritance). Manifests itself with a blood clotting disorder.
Gene – Structural unit of genetic information:
Allelic genes are genes localized in identical loci of homologous chromosomes and determining different manifestations of the same trait.
Non-allelic genes - localized in different loci of homologous chromosomes or in non-homologous chromosomes; determine the development of various characteristics;
Regulatory – controlling the work of structural genes, their function is manifested in interaction with enzyme proteins;
Structural – containing information about the polypeptide structure of the chain;
Mobile – capable of moving throughout the cell genome and inserting into new chromosomes; they can change the activity of other genes;
Mosaic - eukaryotic genes consisting of informative (exons) and non-informative (introns) sections;
Modulators are genes that enhance or weaken the action of basic genes;
Mandatory (“housekeeping” genes) – genes encoding proteins synthesized in all cells (histones, etc.);
Specialized (“luxury genes”) – encoding proteins synthesized in individual specialized cells (globins);
Holandric - localized in areas of the Y chromosome that are non-homologous to the X chromosome; determine the development of traits inherited only through the male line;
Pseudogenes – having similar nucleotide sequences to functioning genes, but due to the accumulation of mutations in them, are functionally inactive (part of the alpha and beta globin genes).
Genetics is the science of heredity and variability of organisms. The term was introduced into science in 1906. English geneticist V. Batson.
A genetic map is a conventional image of chromosomes in the form of lines with gene names printed on them and observing the distances between genes, expressed as a percentage of crossing over - morganids (1 morganid = 1% crossing over).
Genetic analysis is a set of methods aimed at studying the heredity and variability of organisms. Includes a hybridological method, a method of accounting for mutations, cytogenetic, population-statistical, etc.
Genetic load is the accumulation in the gene pool of a population of recessive alleles, which in the homozygous state lead to a decrease in the viability of individual individuals and the population as a whole.
The genetic code is a system for “recording” genetic information in the form of a sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule.
Genetic engineering is a targeted change in the hereditary program of a cell using molecular genetics methods.
Genocopies are the similarity of phenotypes that have different genetic natures (mental retardation in some molecular diseases).
Genome – the number of genes in a haploid cell, characteristic of a given type of organism.
Genotype is a system of interacting alleles of genes characteristic of a given individual.
Gene pool is the totality of genes of individuals that make up a population.
Geriatrics is a branch of medicine that deals with the development of treatments for older people.
Gerontology is a science that studies the aging processes of organisms.
Geroprotectors are antimutagenic substances that bind free radicals. Slow down the onset of old age and increase life expectancy.
Genetic heterogeneity of populations is the presence in individuals of a given population of several allelic variants (at least two) of one gene. Causes genetic polymorphism of populations.
A heterozygous organism is an organism whose somatic cells contain different alleles of a given gene.
Heteroplody is an increase or decrease in the number of individual chromosomes in a diploid set (monosomy, trisomy).
Heterotopy is a change in the process of evolution of the location of the anlage in the embryogenesis of a particular organ.
Heterochromatin - regions of chromosomes that maintain a spiral state in interphase, are not transcribed. Heterochronies are changes in the process of evolution of the time of formation in the embryogenesis of a particular organ.
A hybrid is a heterozygous organism formed by crossing genetically different forms.
Hypertrichosis – local – a trait linked to the Y chromosome; manifests itself in increased hair growth at the edges auricle; is inherited in a recessive manner.
Embryonic histogenesis is the formation of tissues from the material of the germ layers through cell division, their growth and differentiation, migration, integration and intercellular interactions.
The hominid triad is a combination of three characteristics unique to humans:
Morphological: absolute upright posture, development of a relatively large brain, development of a hand adapted for fine manipulation;
Psychosocial – abstract thinking, second signaling system (speech), conscious and purposeful work activity.
A homozygous organism is an organism whose somatic cells contain identical alleles of a given gene.
Homoothermic animals are organisms capable of maintaining a constant body temperature regardless of the ambient temperature (warm-blooded animals, humans).
Homologous organs are organs that develop from the same embryonic rudiments; their structure may be different depending on the function performed.
Homologous chromosomes are a pair of chromosomes of the same size and structure, one of which is paternal, the other is maternal.
The gonotrophic cycle is a biological phenomenon observed in blood-sucking arthropods, in which the maturation and laying of eggs is closely associated with blood feeding.
A linkage group is a set of genes located on the same chromosome and inherited by linkage. The number of linkage groups is equal to the haploid number of chromosomes. Loss of adhesion occurs during crossing over.
Color blindness is a molecular disease linked to the X chromosome (recessive type of inheritance). Manifested by impaired color vision.
Deviation (deviation) is the appearance of new characters in the middle stages of embryonic development, defining a new path of phylogenesis.
Degeneration – evolutionary changes, characterized by a simplification of the structure of the organism compared to ancestral forms.
Deletion is a chromosomal aberration in which a section of a chromosome is lost.
Determination is the genetically determined ability of embryonic cells only to a certain direction of differentiation.
Diakinesis is the final stage of prophase I of meiosis, during which the process of separation of homologous chromosomes after conjugation is completed.
Divergence is the formation in the process of evolution of several new groups from a common ancestor.
A diploid cell is a cell containing a double set of chromosomes (2n).
Diplotene - stage of prophase I of meiosis - the beginning of the divergence of homologous chromosomes after conjugation.
Sex differentiation is the process of development of sexual characteristics in ontogenesis.
A dominant trait is a trait that manifests itself in a homo- and heterozygous state.
Donor is an organism from which tissue or organs are taken for transplantation.
Tree of Life - schematic representation of paths evolutionary development in the form of a tree with branches.
Genetic drift (genetic-automatic processes) – changes in the genetic structure in small populations, expressed in a decrease in genetic polymorphism and an increase in the number of homozygotes.
Cleavage is a period of embryogenesis in which the formation of a multicellular embryo occurs through successive mitotic divisions of blastomeres without increasing their size.
Duplication is a chromosomal aberration in which a portion of a chromosome is duplicated.
Natural selection is a process in which, as a result of the struggle for existence, the fittest organisms survive.
Gill arches (arterial) are blood vessels passing through the gill septa and undergoing quantitative and qualitative changes during the evolution of the circulatory system of vertebrates.
Life cycle - the time of existence of a cell from the moment of its formation until death or division into two daughters as a result of the transition from the G 0 state to the mitotic cycle.
The embryonic period is, in relation to humans, the period of embryogenesis from the 1st to the 8th week of intrauterine development.
The embryonic organizer is a section of the zygote (gray sickle), which largely determines the course of embryogenesis. When the gray sickle is removed, development stops at the cleavage stage.
Zygotene is the stage of prophase I of meiosis, in which homologous chromosomes are combined (conjugated) into pairs (bivalents).
Idioadaptation (allomorphosis) is morphofunctional changes in organisms that do not increase the level of organization, but make a given species adapted to specific living conditions.
Variability is the property of organisms to change certain characteristics in the process of individual development:
Modification – phenotypic changes caused by the influence of environmental factors on the genotype;
Genotypic – variability associated with quantitative and qualitative changes hereditary material;
Combinative - a type of variability that depends on the recombination of genes and chromosomes in the genotype (meiosis and fertilization);
Mutational – a type of variability associated with a violation of the structure and function of hereditary material (mutations).
Immunosuppression is the suppression of the body’s protective immunological reactions.
Immunosuppressors are substances that suppress the response of the recipient’s immune system to the transplant, helping to overcome tissue incompatibility and engraftment of the transplanted tissue.
Inversion is a chromosomal aberration in which intrachromosomal breaks occur and the excised section is rotated by 180 0.
Embryonic induction is an interaction between parts of the embryo, during which one part (the inducer) determines the direction of development (differentiation) of the other part.
Initiation is a process that ensures the beginning of template synthesis reactions (translation initiation - binding of the AUG codon to tRNA-methionine in the peptide center of the small ribosomal subunit).
Inoculation is the introduction of a pathogen by a vector into a wound with saliva in the bite.
Interphase is the part of the cell cycle during which the cell prepares to divide.
Intron is an uninformative region of a mosaic gene in eukaryotes.
Karyotype is a diploid set of somatic cells, characterized by the number of chromosomes, their structure and size. Species-specific trait.
Housing is a form of symbiosis in which one organism uses another as a home.
Keylons are protein substances that inhibit the mitotic activity of cells. The kinetoplast is a specialized region of the mitochondrion that provides energy for the movement of the flagellum.
The kinetochore is a specialized region of the centromere, in the area of which short spindle microtubules are formed and connections between chromosomes and centrioles are formed.
Classification of chromosomes:
Denver - chromosomes are grouped based on their size and shape. To identify chromosomes, a solid staining method is used;
Parisian - based on the characteristics of the internal structure of chromosomes, which is revealed using differential staining. The same arrangement of segments is found only in homologous chromosomes.
Gene clusters are groups of different genes with related functions (globin genes).
Cell clone is a collection of cells formed from one parent cell through successive mitotic divisions.
Gene cloning is the production of a large number of homogeneous DNA fragments (genes).
Codominance is a type of interaction of allelic genes (in the presence of multiple alleles), when two dominant genes appear in the phenotype independently of each other (IU blood group).
A codon is a sequence of three nucleotides in a DNA (mRNA) molecule corresponding to an amino acid (sense codon). In addition to sense ones, there are stop and initiation codons.
Colinearity is the correspondence of the order of nucleotides in a DNA (mRNA) molecule to the order of amino acids in a protein molecule.
Colchicine is a substance that destroys spindle microtubules and stops mitosis at the metaphase stage.
Commensalism (freeloading) is one of the forms of symbiosis that is beneficial only for one organism.
Complementarity - strict correspondence of nitrogenous bases to each other (A-T; G-C)
The type of interaction of non-allelic genes, when the development of a trait is determined by two pairs of genes.
Consulting (medical-genetic) – counseling the applicant about the possible inheritance of a certain disease and a way to prevent it using the method of genetic analysis.
Contamination is a method of infection using a vector, in which the pathogen enters the body through microtraumas on the skin and mucous membranes or orally with contaminated products.
Conjugation - conjugation in bacteria is a process in which microorganisms exchange plasmids, and therefore cells acquire new properties:
Conjugation in ciliates is a special type of sexual process in which two individuals exchange haploid migrating nuclei;
Chromosome conjugation is the joining of homologous chromosomes into pairs (bivalents) in prophase I of meiosis.
Copulation is the process of fusion of germ cells (individuals) in protozoa.
Correlations are the interdependent, conjugate development of certain structures of the body:
Ontogenetic – consistency of development of individual organs and systems in individual development;
Phylogenetic (coordination) - stable interdependencies between organs or parts of the body, determined phylogenetically (combined development of teeth, intestinal length in carnivores and herbivores).
Crossing over is an exchange of sections of chromatids of homologous chromosomes, which occurs in prophase I of meiosis and leads to recombination of genetic material.
Cultivation of cells and tissues is a method that allows one to maintain the viability of structures when they are grown on artificial nutrient media outside the body to study the processes of proliferation, growth, and differentiation.
Leptotene is the initial stage of prophase I of meiosis, in which the chromosomes in the cell nucleus are visible in the form of thin threads.
Lethal equivalent is a coefficient that allows you to quantify the genetic load of a population. In humans, the equivalent is 3-8 recessive homozygous conditions, leading to the death of the body before the reproductive period.
Ligases are enzymes that connect (“crosslink”) individual fragments of nucleic acid molecules into a single whole (connection of exons during splicing).
Macroevolution – evolutionary processes, occurring in taxonomic units above the species level (order, class, phylum).
The marginotomy hypothesis is a hypothesis that explains the aging process by reducing the DNA molecule by 1% after each cell division (shorter DNA - shorter life).
Mesonerphosis (primary kidney) is a type of vertebrate kidney in which the structural and functional elements are the Bowman-Shumlyansky capsules that are beginning to form, associated with capillary glomeruli. It is located in the trunk region.
Meiosis is the division of oocytes (spermatocytes) during maturation (gametogenesis). The result of meiosis is recombination of genes and the formation of haploid cells.
Metagenesis is the alternation of sexual and asexual reproduction in the life cycle of organisms.
Metanephros (secondary kidney) is a type of vertebrate kidney, the structural and functional element of which is the nephron, consisting of specialized sections. It is laid in the phase department.
Metaphase is the stage of mitosis (meiosis), in which maximum spiralization of chromosomes located along the equator of the cell is achieved and the mitotic apparatus is formed.
Genetics methods:
Gemini is a method of studying twins by establishing intra-pair similarities (concordance) and differences (discordance) between them. Allows you to determine the relative role of heredity and the environment for the development of traits in descendants;
Genealogical - a method of compiling pedigrees; allows you to establish the type of inheritance and predict the probability of inheritance of traits in descendants;
Somatic cell hybridization is an experimental method that allows the fusion of somatic cells of different organisms in culture to obtain combined karyotypes;
Hybridological is a method that establishes the nature of inheritance of traits using a system of crossings. It consists in obtaining hybrids, analyzing them over a series of generations using quantitative data;
Modeling of hereditary diseases - the method is based on the law of homological series of hereditary variability. Allows the use of experimental data obtained on animals to study hereditary human diseases;
Ontogenetic (biochemical) method is based on the use of biochemical medicines to identify metabolic disorders caused by an abnormal gene in individual development;
Population-statistical method is based on the study of the genetic composition of populations (Hardy-Weinberg law). Allows you to analyze the number of individual genes and the ratio of genotypes in the population;
Cytogenetic is a method of microscopic study of the hereditary structures of a cell. Used for karyotyping and determination of sex chromatin.
Microevolution is elementary evolutionary processes occurring at the population level.
Mitotic (cellular) cycle is the time of cell existence during the period of preparation for mitosis (G 1, S, G 2) and mitosis itself. The G0 period is not included in the duration of the mitotic cycle.
Mimicry is a biological phenomenon expressed in the imitative similarity of unprotected organisms to unrelated protected or inedible species.
Mitosis – universal method somatic cell division, in which genetic material is evenly distributed between two daughter cells.
The mitotic apparatus is a division apparatus formed in metaphase and consisting of centrioles, microtubules and chromosomes.
Modification of mRNA is the final stage of processing that occurs after splicing. Modification of the 5' end occurs by attaching a cap structure represented by methylguanine, and a polyadenine tail is attached to the 3' end.
Sauropsid - a type of vertebrate brain in which the leading role belongs to the forebrain, where clusters of nerve cells in the form of islands first appear - the ancient cortex (reptiles, birds);
Ichthyopsid - a type of vertebrate brain in which the leading role belongs to the midbrain (cyclostomes, fish, amphibians);
Mammal - a type of vertebrate brain in which the integrating function is performed by the cerebral cortex, which completely covers the forebrain - neocortex(mammals, humans).
Genetic monitoring is an information system for recording the number of mutations in populations and comparing mutation rates over a number of generations.
Monomer – structural element(block) of a polymer chain (in protein - amino acid, in DNA - nucleotide).
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Dictionary of basic biological terms and concepts
A
ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENT - a set of inorganic conditions (factors) for the habitat of organisms. These include the composition of atmospheric air, the composition of sea and fresh water, soil, air and soil temperature, lighting and other factors.
AGROBIOCENOSIS - a set of organisms living on lands occupied by crops and plantings of agricultural crops. In Africa, the vegetation cover is created by man and usually consists of one or two cultivated plants and accompanying weeds.
AGROECOLOGY is a branch of ecology that studies the patterns of organization of artificial plant communities, their structure and functioning.
NITROGEN FIXING BACTERIA - bacteria capable of assimilating nitrogen from the air to form nitrogen compounds available for use by other organisms. Among A.b. there are both freely living in the soil and coexisting with mutual benefit with the roots of higher plants.
ANTIBIOTICS are specific chemical substances produced by microorganisms and capable, even in small quantities, of exerting a selective effect on other microorganisms and malignant tumor cells. In a broad sense, A. also includes antimicrobial substances in the tissues of higher plants (phytoncides). The first A. was obtained in 1929 by Fleming (although penicillium was used by Russian doctors much earlier). The term "A." proposed in 1942 by Z. Waksman.
ANTHROPOGENIC FACTORS - factors of human influence on the environment. Human influence on plants can be both positive (plant cultivation, pest control, protection of rare species and biocenoses) and negative. Bad influence human impact can be direct - deforestation, collection of flowering plants, trampling of vegetation in parks and forests, indirect - through environmental pollution, destruction of pollinating insects, etc.
B
BACTERIA is the kingdom of living organisms. They differ from organisms of other kingdoms in their cell structure. Single-celled or grouped microorganisms. Fixed or mobile - with flagella.
BACTERICIDALITY - the ability of plant juices, animal blood serum and some chemicals to kill bacteria.
BIOINDICATORS - organisms whose developmental features or quantity serve as indicators of natural processes or anthropogenic changes in the environment. Many organisms can exist only within certain, often narrow limits of changes in environmental factors ( chemical composition soil, water, atmosphere, climatic and weather conditions, presence of other organisms). For example, lichens and some conifers serve to maintain air purity. Aquatic plants, their species composition and numbers determine the degree of water pollution.
BIOMASS - the total mass of individuals of a species, group of species or community of organisms. It is usually expressed in units of mass (grams, kilograms) per unit area or volume of habitat (hectare, cubic meter). About 90% of the entire biosphere consists of terrestrial plants. The rest is accounted for by aquatic vegetation.
BIOSPHERE - the area of distribution of life on Earth, the composition, structure and energy of which are determined joint activities living organisms.
BIOCENOSIS - a set of plants and animals formed in the process of evolutionary development in the food chain, influencing each other during the struggle for existence and natural selection(plants, animals and microorganisms inhabiting a lake, river valley, pine forest).
IN
SPECIES is the basic unit in the taxonomy of living organisms. A set of individuals that have a number of common characteristics and are capable of interbreeding to form fertile offspring, inhabiting a certain territory.
GERMINATION - the ability of seeds to produce normal seedlings within a specified period under certain conditions. Germination is expressed as a percentage.
HIGHER PLANTS are complex multicellular organisms with well-defined vegetative organs, adapted, as a rule, to life in a terrestrial environment.
G
GAMETE - sex cell. Ensures the transmission of hereditary information from parents to descendants.
GAMETOPHYTE - the sexual generation in the life cycle of plants that develop with alternating generations. Formed from a spore, produces gametes. In higher plants, the plant is represented only by mosses as leaf-stemmed plants. In others it is poorly developed and short-lived. In mosses, horsetails, and ferns, G. is a prothallus that produces both male and female gametes. U angiosperms The female g. is the embryo sac, and the male g. is the pollen. They grow along river banks, in swamps and wet fields (reed, cattail).
GENERATIVE ORGANS - organs that perform the function of sexual reproduction. Flowering plants have flowers and fruits, or more precisely, a speck of dust and an embryo sac.
HYBRIDIZATION - combination of hereditary material different cells one. IN agriculture- crossing different varieties of plants. See also Selection.
HYGROPHYTES - plants of humid habitats. They grow in swamps, in water, in damp tropical forests. Their root system is poorly developed. Wood and mechanical tissues are poorly developed. Can absorb moisture over the entire surface of the body.
HYDROPHYTES - aquatic plants attached to the ground and immersed in water only with the lower part. Unlike hygrophytes, they have well-developed conductive and mechanical tissues, root system. But there are many intercellular spaces and air cavities.
GLYCOGEN - carbohydrate, polysaccharide. Its branched molecules are built from glucose residues. Energy reserve of many living organisms. When it breaks down, glucose (sugar) is formed and energy is released. Found in the liver and muscles of vertebrates, in fungi (yeast), in algae, and in the grain of some varieties of corn.
GLUCOSE - grape sugar, one of the most common simple sugars. In green plants, it is formed from carbon dioxide and water as a result of photosynthesis. Participates in many metabolic reactions.
Gynosperms are the most ancient of seed plants. Most are evergreen trees and shrubs. Representatives of gymnosperms are conifers (spruce, pine, cedar, fir, larch).
MUSHROOMS are the kingdom of living organisms. They combine the characteristics of both plants and animals, and also have special characteristics. There are both unicellular and multicellular fungi. The body (mycelium) consists of a system of branching threads.
HUMUS (HUMUS) is a complex of specific dark-colored organic soil substances. Obtained as a result of the transformation of organic residues. To a large extent determines soil fertility.
D
DIOECous PLANTS - plant species in which male (staminate) and female (pistillate) flowers are on different individuals (willow, poplar, sea buckthorn, actinidia).
DIFFERENTIATION - the occurrence of differences between homogeneous cells and tissues.
WOOD is the water-conducting tissue of plants. The main conducting element is vessels: dead lignified germ cells. It also includes fibers that perform a supporting function. It is characterized by annual growth: a distinction is made between early (spring) and late (summer) wood.
BREATHING is one of the main vital functions, a set of processes that ensure the supply of oxygen to the body, its use in chemical reactions, and also the removal of carbon dioxide and some other metabolic products from the body.
AND
ANIMALS are the kingdom of living organisms. Unlike most plants, animals feed on ready-made organic substances and have body growth limited in time. Their cells do not have a cellulose membrane. In the process of evolution, animals developed organ systems: digestive, respiratory, circulatory, etc.
LIFE FORM OF PLANT - general appearance plants. There are trees, shrubs, shrubs, and herbs.
LEAF VENATION - a system of conducting bundles in leaf blades through which substances are transported. There are parallel, arcuate, palmate, and feathery veins.
Z
RESERVES - small areas of temporarily protected territory with restrictions on economic activity and visiting people. They preserve in reserves individual species plants or animals.
RESERVES are large areas where the entire natural complex is preserved in its natural state. Any economic activity person.
embryo - an organism in early period development.
ZYGOTE - a cell formed as a result of the fusion of two gametes.
ZONAL VEGETATION - natural vegetation that characterizes natural zones and zones (tundra, taiga, steppe, desert, etc.).
AND
IMMUNITY - immunity, resistance, the ability of the body to protect its integrity. A particular manifestation of I. is immunity to infectious diseases.
INDICATORS - see indicator plants and Bioindicators.
INDICATOR PLANTS - plants or plant communities that are closely associated with certain environmental conditions and allow them to be assessed qualitatively and quantitatively by the presence of these plants or communities. I.r. are used in assessing the mechanical composition, degree of acidity and salinity of soils, when searching for fresh water in deserts and some minerals. For example, fescue and bentgrass species indicate lead content in the soil; zinc - types of violet and jurutka; copper and cobalt - resins, many grasses and mosses.
EVAPORATION - the transition of water into a gaseous state. The main organ that evaporates water in a plant through stomata is the leaf. Together with root pressure, it ensures a constant flow of water through the roots, stems and leaves. Evaporation prevents the plant from overheating.
TO
CALCEPHYLES - plants that live on alkaline soils rich in calcium. Alkaline soils can be identified by the vegetation: wood anemone, six-petalled meadowsweet, larch.
CALCEPHOBES - plants that avoid limestone soils. These plants are capable of binding heavy metals, the excess of which in acidic soils does not harm them. For example, peat mosses.
CAMBIUM - single layer of cells educational fabric, forming wood cells inward from itself, and bast cells outward.
CAROTENE - orange-yellow pigments. Synthesized by plants. Green leaves (especially spinach), carrot roots, rose hips, currants, and tomatoes are rich in potassium. K. - accompanying pigments of photosynthesis. Oxidized derivatives of K. are xanthophylls.
GLUTEN - proteins contained in wheat grain and, accordingly, in flour. Remains in the form of an elastic clot after removing the starch from the wheat dough. The baking qualities of wheat flour largely depend on the properties of wheat flour.
A CELL is the basic unit of all living organisms, an elementary living system. It can exist as a separate organism (bacteria, some algae and fungi, protozoa plants and animals) or as part of the tissues of multicellular organisms.
GROWTH CONE - the apical zone of a shoot or root, formed by cells of educational tissue. Ensures shoot and root growth in length. Ph.D. The shoot is protected by rudimentary leaves, and the tip of the root growth is protected by the root cap.
CONCENTRATION - the amount of a substance present in a unit of volume or mass.
ROOT SYSTEM - the totality of the roots of one plant. Degree of development of K.s. depends on the habitat. A person can influence the development of K.s. plants (hilling up, picking, tillage). There are core and fibrous K.s.
RHOZOME - a perennial underground shoot that allows the plant to survive unfavorable conditions.
STARCH-BEARING (STARCHY) CROPS - cultivated plants that are cultivated to produce starch (potatoes, corn). Starch accumulates in tubers or fruits.
STARCH GRAINS are inclusions in the plastids of plant cells. Growth K.z. occurs by applying new layers of starch to old ones, so the grains have a layered structure.
SILICA - silicon dioxide (quartz, quartz sand).
CROWN - aboveground (above the trunk) branched part of a tree.
XANTHOPHYLLS - natural pigments from the group of carotenes, their oxygen-containing derivatives. Contained in leaves, flowers, fruits and buds of higher plants, as well as in many algae and microorganisms. Participate in photosynthesis as additional pigments. In combination with other pigments they create autumn leaf color.
XEROPHYTES are plants of dry habitats that, thanks to a number of adaptive characteristics, can tolerate overheating and dehydration.
CUTICLE - a layer of fatty substance covering leaves, stems or fruits with a film. Low permeability to water and pathogens.
TILLERING - branching in which lateral shoots appear from buds located near the surface of the earth and underground.
L
LIGHTMUS is a coloring substance obtained from certain lichens. The aqueous infusion of L. is violet in color, turning blue from the action of alkalis and reddening from the action of acids. As an indicator in chemistry, “litmus paper” is used - filter paper colored with a solution of L. With the help of L., the acidity of an aqueous infusion of soil can be determined.
LANDSCAPE - 1) type of terrain, 2) geographic landscape - a territory within which the relief, climate, vegetation and wildlife form typical outlines that give the entire territory unity and distinguish it from neighboring territories.
LEUCOPLASTS - colorless plastids of a plant cell. May have different shapes. One of the main functions is the synthesis and supply of nutrients: starch, oils. Can transform into chloroplasts.
LEAF MOSAIC - arrangement of leaves that provides illumination of each leaf of the shoot. Perhaps due to the ability of the leaf petiole to grow for a long time and turn the leaf blade towards the light.
LEAF ARRANGEMENT - the order in which leaves are placed on the stem. There are alternate, opposite and whorled L.
LUB is plant tissue that provides transport of photosynthetic products from leaves to places of consumption and storage. The main conducting element is living sieve tubes. L. fibers perform a mechanical function. In the main cells of the lung, reserve nutrients are also deposited.
M
OIL CROPS - cultivated plants that are cultivated to produce fatty oils (sunflower, soybean, mustard, castor bean, oilseed flax, sesame, etc.). Most M.c. accumulate oil in seeds and fruits.
INTERNODE - the section of the stem between two adjacent nodes. In rosette plants (dandelion, daisy), short shoots of trees (apple tree, birch), and some inflorescences (umbrella, basket), the m. are very short or absent.
INTERCELLULARS - spaces between cells. Can be filled with air or water (less commonly).
INTERCELLULAR SUBSTANCE - a substance that connects cells to each other. The connection can be tight (in cover tissue) or loose (in storage tissue).
MESOPHYTES - plants that live in conditions with sufficient, but not excessive soil moisture. Most of the plants in central Russia are found in the tropics and subtropics.
MYCOLOGY is a branch of biology that studies fungi.
MICROBIOLOGY is a branch of biology that studies microorganisms. The main object of M. is bacteria. However, the term “bacteriology” is used primarily in medicine. Yeast (the kingdom of mushrooms) is also a traditional object of microbiology.
PERENNIAL PLANTS - trees, shrubs, shrubs and herbaceous plants that live for more than two years. They can bloom and bear fruit.
MOLECULE - the smallest particle of a substance that has basic chemical properties of this substance. Consists of identical or different atoms.
PLANT MORPHOLOGY is a science that studies the structure of a plant and its forms.
Fibrous ROOT SYSTEM - is formed with weak growth or death of the main root and intensive development of adventitious roots (buttercup, plantain, wheat).
Mosses (bryophytes) - a department of higher plants. Most often these are terrestrial perennial plants. The body consists of a stem and leaves.
MULCHING - covering the soil surface with various materials to control weeds and preserve soil moisture and structure. Organic materials are used for moss: peat chips, fine manure, straw, as well as paper, cardboard, etc. M. helps to increase the yield of agricultural crops.
N
ABOVE GROWTH OF SEEDS - a method of seed germination in which the cotyledons are brought to the surface (radish, buckwheat, beans, linden).
NATIONAL PARKS are large areas, usually located in picturesque places, where natural complexes of special value have been preserved. Unlike nature reserves, most of N.p. open to public visiting.
LOWER PLANTS - subkingdom of plants. Body N.r. (thallus or thallus) is not divided into roots, stems and leaves. Such organisms have a special cell structure and metabolism. To N.r. include only algae (see Thallus). Previously they included bacteria, lichens, algae, fungi, i.e. all organisms except higher plants and animals.
NUCLEIC ACIDS are complex organic compounds whose biological role is to store and transmit hereditary information.
