The unexplored depths of space have interested humanity for many centuries. Explorers and scientists have always taken steps towards understanding the constellations and outer space. These were the first, but significant achievements at that time, which served to further develop research in this industry.
An important achievement was the invention of the telescope, with the help of which humanity was able to look much further into the world. outer space and get to know the space objects that surround our planet more closely. Nowadays, space exploration is much easier than in those years. Our portal site offers you a lot of interesting and fascinating facts about Space and its mysteries.
The first spacecraft and technology
Active exploration of outer space began with the launch of the first artificially created satellite of our planet. This event dates back to 1957, when it was launched into Earth orbit. As for the first device that appeared in orbit, it was extremely simple in its design. This device was equipped with a fairly simple radio transmitter. When creating it, the designers decided to make do with the most minimal technical set. Nevertheless, the first simple satellite served as a start to the development new era space technology and equipment. Today we can say that this device has become a huge achievement for humanity and the development of many scientific industries research. In addition, putting a satellite into orbit was an achievement for the whole world, and not just for the USSR. This became possible due to the hard work of designers to create intercontinental ballistic missiles.
It was precisely the high achievements in rocket science that made it possible for designers to realize that by reducing the payload of the launch vehicle it is possible to achieve very high flight speeds that will exceed escape velocity at ~7.9 km/s. All this made it possible to launch the first satellite into Earth orbit. Spacecraft and technology are interesting because many different designs and concepts have been proposed.
In a broad concept, a spacecraft is a device that transports equipment or people to the border where the upper part of the earth's atmosphere ends. But this is an exit only to near space. When solving various space tasks spacecraft divided into the following categories:
Suborbital;
Orbital or near-Earth, which move in geocentric orbits;
Interplanetary;
On-planetary.
The creation of the first rocket to launch a satellite into space was carried out by USSR designers, and its creation itself took less time than the fine-tuning and debugging of all systems. Also, the time factor influenced the primitive configuration of the satellite, since it was the USSR that sought to achieve the first cosmic speed of its creation. Moreover, the very fact of launching a rocket beyond the planet was a more significant achievement at that time than the quantity and quality of equipment installed on the satellite. All the work done was crowned with triumph for all humanity.
As you know, the conquest of outer space had just begun, which is why designers achieved more and more in rocket science, which made it possible to create more advanced spacecraft and technology that helped make a huge leap in space exploration. Also, further development and modernization of rockets and their components made it possible to achieve a second escape velocity and increase the mass of payload on board. Due to all this, the first launch of a rocket with a person on board became possible in 1961.
The portal site can tell you a lot of interesting things about the development of spacecraft and technology over all years and in all countries of the world. Few people know that space research was actually started by scientists before 1957. The first scientific equipment for study was sent into outer space back in the late 40s. The first domestic rockets were able to lift scientific equipment to a height of 100 kilometers. In addition, this was not a single launch, they were carried out quite often, and the maximum altitude of their rise reached 500 kilometers, which means that the first ideas about outer space already existed before the beginning of the space age. Nowadays, using the latest technologies, those achievements may seem primitive, but they are what made it possible to achieve what we have at the moment.
The created spacecraft and technology required solving a huge number of different problems. The most important problems were:
- Selection of the correct flight trajectory of the spacecraft and further analysis of its movement. To solve this problem, it was necessary to more actively develop celestial mechanics, which became an applied science.
- The vacuum of space and weightlessness have posed their own challenges for scientists. And this is not only the creation of a reliable sealed housing that could withstand fairly harsh space conditions, but also the development of equipment that could perform its tasks in Space as effectively as on Earth. Since not all mechanisms could work perfectly in weightlessness and vacuum as well as in terrestrial conditions. The main problem was the exclusion of thermal convection in sealed volumes; all this disrupted the normal course of many processes.
- The operation of the equipment was also disrupted by thermal radiation from the Sun. To eliminate this influence, it was necessary to think through new calculation methods for devices. A lot of devices were also thought out to maintain normal temperature conditions inside the spacecraft itself.
- Power supply for space devices has become a big problem. The most optimal solution of the designers was the conversion of solar radiation into electricity.
- It took quite a long time to solve the problem of radio communications and control of spacecraft, since ground-based radar devices could only operate at a distance of up to 20 thousand kilometers, and this is not enough for outer space. The evolution of ultra-long-range radio communications in our time makes it possible to maintain communication with probes and other devices at a distance of millions of kilometers.
- Still, the biggest problem remained the fine-tuning of the equipment that equipped the space devices. First of all, the equipment must be reliable, since repairs in space, as a rule, were impossible. New ways of duplicating and recording information were also thought out.
The problems that arose aroused the interest of researchers and scientists different areas knowledge. Joint cooperation made it possible to obtain positive results in solving the assigned tasks. Due to all this, a new field of knowledge began to emerge, namely space technology. The emergence of this type of design was separated from aviation and other industries due to its uniqueness, special knowledge and work skills.
Immediately after the creation and successful launch of the first artificial Earth satellite, the development of space technology took place in three main directions, namely:
- Design and manufacture of Earth satellites to perform various tasks. In addition, the industry is modernizing and improving these devices, making it possible to use them more widely.
- Creation of devices for exploring interplanetary space and the surfaces of other planets. Typically, these devices carry out programmed tasks and can also be controlled remotely.
- Space technology is working on various models for creating space stations on which it is possible to conduct research activities scientists. This industry also designs and manufactures manned spacecraft.
Many areas of space technology and the achievement of escape velocity have allowed scientists to gain access to more distant space objects. That is why at the end of the 50s it was possible to launch a satellite towards the Moon; in addition, the technology of that time already made it possible to send research satellites to the nearest planets near the Earth. Thus, the first devices that were sent to study the Moon allowed humanity to learn for the first time about the parameters of outer space and see reverse side Moons. Still, the space technology of the beginning of the space era was still imperfect and uncontrollable, and after separation from the launch vehicle, the main part rotated quite chaotically around the center of its mass. Uncontrolled rotation did not allow scientists to carry out much research, which, in turn, stimulated designers to create more advanced spacecraft and technology.
It was the development of controlled vehicles that allowed scientists to conduct even more research and learn more about outer space and its properties. Also, the controlled and stable flight of satellites and other automatic devices launched into space allows for more accurate and high-quality transmission of information to Earth due to the orientation of antennas. Due to controlled control necessary maneuvers can be performed.
In the early 60s, satellite launches to the closest planets were actively carried out. These launches made it possible to become more familiar with the conditions on neighboring planets. But still, the greatest success of this time for all humanity on our planet is the flight of Yu.A. Gagarin. After the achievements of the USSR in the construction of space equipment, most countries of the world also paid special attention to rocket science and the creation of their own space technology. Nevertheless, the USSR was a leader in this industry, since it was the first to create a device that carried out a soft landing on the Moon. After the first successful landings on the Moon and other planets, the task was set for a more detailed study of surfaces cosmic bodies using automatic devices to study surfaces and transmit photos and videos to Earth.
The first spacecraft, as mentioned above, were uncontrollable and could not return to Earth. When creating controlled devices, designers were faced with the problem of safe landing of devices and crew. Since a very rapid entry of the device into the Earth’s atmosphere could simply burn it from the high temperature due to friction. In addition, upon return, the devices had to land and splash down safely in a wide variety of conditions.
Further development of space technology made it possible to manufacture orbital stations that can be used for many years, while changing the composition of researchers on board. The first orbital vehicle of this type became Soviet station"Firework". Its creation was another huge leap for humanity in the knowledge of outer space and phenomena.
Above is a very small part of all the events and achievements in the creation and use of spacecraft and technology that was created in the world for the study of Space. But still, the most significant year was 1957, from which the era of active rocketry and space exploration began. It was the launch of the first probe that gave rise to the explosive development of space technology throughout the world. And this became possible due to the creation in the USSR of a new generation launch vehicle, which was able to lift the probe to the height of the Earth’s orbit.
To learn about all this and much more, our portal website offers you a lot of fascinating articles, videos and photographs of space technology and objects.
Classification of spacecraft
The basis of the flight of all spacecraft is their acceleration to speeds equal to or exceeding the first cosmic speed, at which kinetic energy The spacecraft balances its attraction with the Earth's gravitational field. The spacecraft flies in an orbit, the shape of which depends on the acceleration rate and the distance to the attracting center. Spacecraft are accelerated using launch vehicles (LV) and other boosters Vehicle, including reusable ones.
Spacecraft are divided into two groups based on flight speeds:
near-Earth, having a speed less than the second cosmic speed, moving in geocentric orbits and not going beyond the scope of action gravitational field Earth;
interplanetary, the flight of which occurs at speeds above the second cosmic speed.
According to their purpose, spacecraft are divided into:
Artificial Earth satellites (AES);
Artificial satellites of the Moon (ISL), Mars (ISM), Venus (ISV), Sun (ISS), etc.;
Automatic interplanetary stations (AMS);
Manned spacecraft (SC);
Orbital stations (OS).
A feature of most spacecraft is their ability to operate independently for a long time in outer space conditions. For this purpose, the spacecraft has power supply systems (solar batteries, fuel cells, isotope and nuclear power plants etc.), thermal control systems, and on manned spacecraft - life support systems (LCS) with regulation of the atmosphere, temperature, humidity, water and food supply. Spacecraft usually have motion and spatial orientation control systems that operate in automatic mode, while manned ones operate in manual mode. The flight of automatic and manned spacecraft is ensured by constant radio communication with the Earth, transmission of telemetric and television information.
The design of the spacecraft differs in a number of features related to space flight conditions. The functioning of spacecraft requires the existence of interconnected technical means, making up the space complex. The space complex usually includes: a cosmodrome with launch technical and measuring complexes, a flight control center, a deep space communications center, including ground and ship systems, search and rescue and other systems that ensure the functioning of the space complex and its infrastructure.
The design of spacecraft and the operation of their systems, assemblies and elements are significantly influenced by:
Weightlessness;
Deep vacuum;
Radiation, electromagnetic and meteor impacts;
Thermal loads;
Overloads during acceleration and entry into the dense layers of the atmosphere of planets (for descent vehicles), etc.
Weightlessness characterized by a state in which there is no mutual pressure of particles of the medium and objects on each other. As a result of weightlessness, the normal functioning of the human body is disrupted: blood flow, breathing, digestion, activity of the vestibular apparatus; the tension of the muscular system is reduced, leading to muscle atrophy, mineral and protein metabolism in the bones changes, etc. Weightlessness also affects the design of the spacecraft: heat transfer deteriorates due to the lack of convective heat exchange, the operation of all systems with liquid and gas working fluids becomes more complicated, and the supply of fuel components into the engine chamber and its start. This requires the use of special technical solutions for the normal functioning of spacecraft systems in zero-gravity conditions.
Effect of deep vacuum affects the characteristics of some materials during their long stay in outer space as a result of the evaporation of individual constituent elements, primarily coatings; due to the evaporation of lubricants and intense diffusion, the performance of rubbing pairs (in hinges and bearings) significantly deteriorates; clean joint surfaces are subject to cold welding. Therefore, most radio-electronic and electrical appliances and systems when operating in a vacuum should be placed in hermetically sealed compartments with a special atmosphere, which at the same time allows them to maintain a given thermal regime.
Radiation exposure, created by solar corpuscular radiation, radiation belts Earth and cosmic radiation, can have a significant impact on the physical and chemical properties, the structure of materials and their strength, cause ionization of the environment in sealed compartments, and affect the safety of the crew. For long-term spacecraft flights, it is necessary to provide special radiation protection ship compartments or radiation shelters.
Electromagnetic influence affects accumulation static electricity on the surface of the spacecraft, which affects the accuracy of the operation of individual instruments and systems, as well as the fire safety of life support systems containing oxygen. The issue of electromagnetic compatibility in the operation of devices and systems is resolved when designing a spacecraft on the basis of special research.
Meteor danger is associated with erosion of the spacecraft surface, as a result of which the optical properties of the windows change, the efficiency of solar panels and the tightness of the compartments decrease. To prevent it, various covers, protective shells and coatings are used.
Thermal effects, created by solar radiation and the operation of spacecraft fuel systems, affect the operation of instruments and crew. To regulate the thermal regime, thermal insulating coatings or protective covers are used on the surface of the spacecraft, thermal conditioning of the internal space is carried out, and special heat exchangers are installed.
Special heat-stressed regimes arise on descending spacecraft when they are decelerated in the planet’s atmosphere. In this case, the thermal and inertial loads on the spacecraft structure are extremely high, which requires the use of special thermal insulation coatings. The most common for the descent parts of the spacecraft are the so-called carried away coatings, made of materials that are carried away by the heat flow. "Carry away" of the material is accompanied by its phase transformation and destruction, which consumes a large amount of heat supplied to the surface of the structure, and as a result, heat flows are significantly reduced. All this allows you to protect the structure of the device so that its temperature does not exceed the permissible one. To reduce the mass of thermal protection on descent vehicles, multilayer coatings are used, in which upper layer withstands high temperatures and aerodynamic loads, and the inner layers have good heat-shielding properties. The protected surfaces of the SA can be coated with ceramic or glassy materials, graphites, plastics, etc.
For decreasing inertial loads The descent vehicles use planning descent trajectories, and the crew uses special anti-g suits and seats that limit the perception of g-forces by the human body.
Thus, the spacecraft must be equipped with appropriate systems to ensure high reliability operation of all units and structures, as well as the crew during the launch, landing and space flight. To do this, the design and layout of the spacecraft is carried out in a certain way, flight, maneuvering and descent modes are selected, appropriate systems and instruments are used, and redundancy of the most important systems and instruments for the operation of the spacecraft is applied.
Brief summary of the meeting with Viktor Hartov, general designer Roscosmos on automatic space complexes and systems, in the past the general director of the NPO named after. S.A. Lavochkina. The meeting took place at the Museum of Cosmonautics in Moscow, as part of the project “ Space without formulas ”.
Full summary of the conversation.
My function is to carry out a unified scientific and technical policy. I devoted my whole life to automatic space. I have some thoughts, I’ll share them with you, and then I’m interested in your opinion.
Automatic space is multifaceted, and I would highlight 3 parts.
1st - applied, industrial space. These are communications, remote sensing of the Earth, meteorology, navigation. GLONASS, GPS is an artificial navigation field of the planet. The one who creates it does not receive any benefit; those who use it benefit.
Earth imaging is a very commercial field. Everyone operates in this area normal laws market. Satellites need to be made faster, cheaper and of better quality.
Part 2 - scientific space. The very cutting edge of humanity's knowledge of the Universe. Understand how it formed 14 billion years ago, the laws of its development. How did the processes go on on neighboring planets, how can we make sure that the Earth does not become like them?
The baryonic matter that is around us - the Earth, the Sun, nearby stars, galaxies - all this is only 4-5% of total mass Universe. There is dark energy dark matter. What kind of kings of nature are we, if all the known laws of physics are only 4%. Now they are “digging a tunnel” to this problem from two sides. On the one hand: the Large Hadron Collider, on the other - astrophysics, through the study of stars and galaxies.
My opinion is that now pushing the capabilities and resources of humanity towards the same flight to Mars, poisoning our planet with a cloud of launches, burning the ozone layer, is not the most correct action. It seems to me that we are in a hurry, trying with our locomotive forces to solve a problem that needs to be worked on without fuss, with a full understanding of the nature of the Universe. Find the next layer of physics, new laws to overcome all this.
How long will it last? It is unknown, but we need to accumulate data. And here the role of space is great. The same Hubble, which has been working for a lot of years, is beneficial; James Webb will soon be replaced. What is fundamentally different about scientific space is that it is something that a person can already do; there is no need to do it a second time. We need to do new and next things. Every time there is new virgin soil - new bumps, new problems. Rarely scientific projects are done on time as planned. The world is quite calm about this, except for us. We have law 44-FZ: if a project is not submitted on time, then there will be fines immediately, ruining the company.
But we already have Radioastron flying, which will be 6 years old in July. A unique companion. It has a 10 meter high precision antenna. Its main feature is that it works together with ground-based radio telescopes, in interferometer mode, and very synchronously. Scientists are simply crying with happiness, especially academician Nikolai Semenovich Kardashev, who in 1965 published an article where he substantiated the possibility of this experiment. They laughed at him, but now he happy man, who conceived this and now sees the results.
I would like our astronautics to make scientists happy more often and launch more such advanced projects.
The next "Spektr-RG" is in the workshop, work is underway. It will fly one and a half million kilometers from Earth to point L2, we will be working there for the first time, we are waiting with some trepidation.
Part 3 - “ new space" About new tasks in space for automata in low-Earth orbit.
On-orbit service. This includes inspection, modernization, repairs, and refueling. The task is very interesting from an engineering point of view, and it is interesting for the military, but it is economically very expensive, while the possibility of maintenance exceeds the cost of the serviced device, so this is advisable for unique missions.
When satellites fly as much as you want, two problems arise. The first is that the devices are becoming obsolete. The satellite is still alive, but on Earth the standards have already changed, new protocols, diagrams, and so on. The second problem is running out of fuel.
Fully digital payloads are being developed. By programming it can change modulation, protocols, and purpose. Instead of a communications satellite, the device can become a relay satellite. This topic is very interesting, I’m not talking about military use. It also reduces production costs. This is the first trend.
The second trend is refueling and service. Experiments are now being carried out. Projects involve servicing satellites that were made without taking this factor into account. In addition to refueling, delivery of an additional payload that is sufficiently autonomous will also be tested.
The next trend is multi-satellite. The flows are constantly growing. M2M is being added - this Internet of things, virtual presence systems, and much more. Everyone wants to use streams with mobile devices, with minimal delays. In low orbit, the satellite's power requirements are reduced and the volume of equipment is reduced.
SpaceX has submitted an application to the Federal Communications Commission to create a 4,000-spacecraft system for a global high-speed network. In 2018, OneWeb begins to deploy a system consisting initially of 648 satellites. The project was recently expanded to 2000 satellites.
Approximately the same picture is observed in the remote sensing region - you need to see any point on the planet at any time, in the maximum number of spectra, with maximum details. We need to put a damn cloud of small satellites into low orbit. And create a super-archive where information will be dumped. This is not even an archive, but an updated model of the Earth. And any number of clients can take what they need.
But pictures are the first stage. Everyone needs processed data. This is an area where there is scope for creativity - how to “collect” applied data from these pictures, in different spectra.
But what does a multi-satellite system mean? Satellites must be cheap. The satellite must be light. A factory with ideal logistics is tasked with producing 3 pieces per day. Now they make one satellite every year or every year and a half. You need to learn how to solve the target problem using the multi-satellite effect. When there are many satellites, they can solve a problem as one satellite, for example, create a synthetic aperture, like Radioastron.
Another trend is the transfer of any task to the plane of computational tasks. For example, radar is in sharp conflict with the idea small lung satellite, it needs power to send and receive a signal, and so on. There is only one way: the Earth is irradiated by a mass of devices - GLONASS, GPS, communication satellites. Everything shines on the Earth and something is reflected from it. And the one who learns to wash out useful data from this garbage will be the king of the hill in this matter. This is a very difficult computational problem. But she's worth it.
And then, imagine: now all the satellites are controlled like a Japanese toy [Tomagotchi]. Everyone is very fond of the tele-command management method. But in the case of multi-satellite constellations, complete autonomy and intelligence of the network are required.
Since the satellites are small, the question immediately arises: “is there already so much debris around the Earth”? Now there is an international garbage committee, which has adopted a recommendation stating that the satellite must definitely leave orbit within 25 years. This is normal for satellites at an altitude of 300-400 km; they are slowed down by the atmosphere. And OneWeb devices will fly at an altitude of 1200 km for hundreds of years.
The fight against garbage is a new application that humanity has created for itself. If the garbage is small, then it needs to be accumulated in some kind of large net or in a porous piece that flies and absorbs small debris. And if there is large garbage, then it is undeservedly called garbage. Humanity has spent money, the oxygen of the planet, and launched the most valuable materials into space. Half the happiness is that it has already been taken out, so you can use it there.
There is such a utopia that I run around with, a certain model of a predator. The device that reaches this valuable material turns it into a substance like dust in a certain reactor, and part of this dust is used in a giant 3D printer to create part of its own kind in the future. This is still a distant future, but this idea solves the problem, because any pursuit of garbage is the main curse - ballistics.
We do not always feel that humanity is very limited in terms of maneuvers near the Earth. Changing the orbital inclination and altitude is a colossal expenditure of energy. Our life was greatly spoiled by the vivid visualization of space. In films, in toys, in “Star Wars”, where people fly back and forth so easily and that’s it, the air doesn’t bother them. A disservice our industry has benefited from this “believable” visualization.
I am very interested to hear your opinion on the above. Because now we are holding a campaign at our institute. I gathered young people and said the same thing, and invited everyone to write an essay on this topic. Our space is flabby. We have gained experience, but our laws, like chains on our feet, sometimes get in the way. On the one hand, they are written in blood, everything is clear, but on the other: 11 years after the launch of the first satellite, man set foot on the Moon! From 2006 to 2017 nothing has changed.
Now there are objective reasons - all physical laws have been developed, all fuel, materials, basic laws and all technological advances based on them were applied in previous centuries, because new physics No. Besides this, there is another factor. When Gagarin was allowed in, the risk was enormous. When the Americans flew to the Moon, they themselves estimated that there was 70% risk, but then the system was such that...
Gave room for error
Yes. The system recognized that there was a risk, and there were people who put their future on the line. “I decide that the Moon is solid” and so on. There was no mechanism above them that would prevent them from making such decisions. Now NASA is complaining: “The bureaucracy has crushed everything.” The desire for 100% reliability has been elevated to a fetish, but this is an endless approximation. And no one can make a decision because: a) there are no such adventurers except Musk, b) mechanisms have been created that do not give the right to take risks. Everyone is constrained by previous experience, which is materialized in the form of regulations and laws. And in this web, space moves. A clear breakthrough that is behind last years- this is the same Elon Musk.
My guess based on some data: it was NASA’s decision to grow a company that would not be afraid to take risks. Elon Musk sometimes lies, but he gets the job done and moves forward.
From what you said, what is being developed in Russia now?
We have a Federal Space Program and it has two goals. The first is to meet the needs of federal executive authorities. The second part is scientific space. This is Spektr-RG. And in 40 years we must learn to return to the Moon again.
To the Moon why this renaissance? Yes, because some amount of water has been noticed on the Moon near the poles. Checking that there is water there - the most important task. There is a version that comets have trained it over millions of years, then this is especially interesting, because comets arrive from other star systems.
Together with the Europeans, we are implementing the ExoMars program. The first mission had started, we had already arrived, and the Schiaparelli safely crashed to smithereens. We are waiting for mission No. 2 to arrive there. 2020 start. When two civilizations collide in the cramped “kitchen” of one apparatus, there are many problems, but it has already become easier. Learned to work in a team.
In general, scientific space is a field where humanity needs to work together. It is very expensive, does not provide profit, and therefore it is extremely important to learn how to combine financial, technical and intellectual forces.
It turns out that all problems of the FKP are solved in modern paradigm production of space technology.
Yes. Absolutely right. And until 2025 - this is the validity period of this program. There are no specific projects for the new class. There is an agreement with the leadership of Roscosmos, if the project is brought to a plausible level, then we will raise the issue of inclusion in federal program. But what is the difference: we all have a desire to get our hands on budget money, but in the USA there are people who are ready to invest their money in such a thing. I understand that this is a voice crying in the desert: where are our oligarchs who invest in such systems? But without waiting for them, we are carrying out the starting work.
I believe that here you just need to click two calls. First, look for such breakthrough projects, teams that are ready to implement them and those who are ready to invest in them.
I know that there are such teams. We are consulting with them. Together we help them so that they can achieve their goals.
Is there a radio telescope planned for the Moon? And the second question about space debris and the Kesler effect. Is this task relevant, and are any measures planned to be taken in this regard?
I'll start with the last question. I told you that humanity takes this very seriously, because it has created a garbage committee. Satellites need to be able to be deorbited or taken to a safe place. And so you need to make reliable satellites so that they “don’t die.” And ahead are such futuristic projects that I spoke about earlier: the Big Sponge, the “predator”, etc.
The “mine” could work in the event of some kind of conflict, if military operations take place in space. Therefore, we must fight for peace in space.
The second part of the question is about the Moon and the radio telescope.
Yes. Luna - on the one hand it’s cool. It seems to be in a vacuum, but there is a kind of dusty exosphere around it. The dust there is extremely aggressive. What kind of problems can be solved from the Moon - this still needs to be figured out. It is not necessary to install a huge mirror. There is a project - the ship is lowered and people are running away from it. different sides"cockroaches" that drag the cables, resulting in a large radio antenna. A number of such lunar radio telescope projects are floating around, but first of all you need to study and understand it.
A couple of years ago, Rosatom announced that it was preparing almost a preliminary design of a nuclear propulsion system for flights, including to Mars. Is this topic being developed somehow or is it frozen?
Yes, she's coming. This is the creation of a transport and energy module, TEM. There is a reactor there and the system transforms it thermal energy into an electric one, and very powerful ion engines are involved. There are a dozen key technologies, and work is underway on them. Very significant progress has been made. The design of the reactor is almost completely clear; very powerful 30 kW ion engines have been practically created. I recently saw them in a cell; they are being worked on. But the main curse is the heat, we need to drop 600 kW - that’s quite a task! Radiators under 1000 sq. m. They are currently working on finding other approaches. These are drip refrigerators, but they are still in the early phase.
Do you have any tentative dates?
The demonstrator is going to be launched somewhere before 2025. This is a worthwhile task. But this depends on several key technologies that are lagging behind.
The question may be half-joking, but what are your thoughts about the famous electromagnetic bucket?
I know about this engine. I told you that since I learned that there is dark energy and dark matter, I have stopped relying entirely on the physics textbook for high school. The Germans carried out experiments, they are an accurate people, and they saw that there was an effect. And this completely contradicts my higher education. In Russia, they once did an experiment on the Yubileiny satellite with an engine without mass loss. There were for, there were against. After the tests, both sides received firm confirmation that they were right.
When the first Elektro-L was launched, there were complaints in the press, from the same meteorologists, that the satellite did not meet their needs, i.e. The satellite was scolded even before it broke.
It was supposed to work in 10 spectra. In terms of spectra, in 3, in my opinion, the quality of the picture was not the same as that coming from Western satellites. Our users are accustomed to completely commodity products. If there were no other pictures, meteorologists would be happy. The second satellite has been significantly improved, the mathematics has been improved, so now they seem to be satisfied.
Continuation of "Phobos-Grunt" "Boomerang" - will it be new project or will it be a repeat?
When Phobos-Grunt was being made, I was the director of the NPO named after. S.A. Lavochkina. This is an example when the amount of new exceeds a reasonable limit. Unfortunately, there was not enough intelligence to take everything into account. The mission should be repeated, in particular because it brings closer the return of soil from Mars. The groundwork will be applied, ideological, ballistic calculations, etc. And so, the technology must be different. Based on these backlogs that we will receive for the Moon, for something else... Where there will already be parts that will reduce the technical risks of a complete new one.
By the way, do you know that the Japanese are going to implement their “Phobos-Grunt”?
They do not yet know that Phobos is very scary place, everyone dies there.
They had an experience with Mars. And a lot of things died there too.
The same Mars. Before 2002, the States and Europe seemed to have 4 unsuccessful attempts get to Mars. But they showed American character, and every year they shot and learned. Now they make extremely beautiful things. I was at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory on landing of the Curiosity rover. By that time we had already destroyed Phobos. This is where I practically cried: their satellites have been flying around Mars for a long time. They structured this mission in such a way that they received a photo of the parachute that opened during the landing process. Those. They were able to obtain data from their satellite. But this path is not easy. They had several failed missions. But they continued and have now achieved some success.
The mission they crashed, Mars Polar Lander. Their reason for the failure of the mission was “underfunding.” Those. The government services looked at it and said, we didn’t give you money, it’s our fault. It seems to me that this is almost impossible in our realities.
Not that word. We need to find the specific culprit. On Mars we need to catch up. Of course, there is also Venus, which until now was considered a Russian or Soviet planet. Now serious negotiations are underway with the United States about jointly making a mission to Venus. The US wants landers with high-temperature electronics that will operate normally at high degrees, without thermal protection. You can make balloons or an airplane. Interesting project.
We express our gratitude
Spacecraft in all their diversity are both the pride and concern of humanity. Their creation was preceded by a centuries-old history of the development of science and technology. Space Age, which allowed people to look at the world in which they live from the outside, took us to a new level of development. A rocket in space today is not a dream, but a matter of concern for highly qualified specialists who are faced with the task of improving existing technologies. What types of spacecraft are distinguished and how they differ from each other will be discussed in the article.
Definition
Spacecraft is a general name for any device designed to operate in space. There are several options for their classification. In the simplest case, spacecraft are divided into manned and automatic. The former, in turn, are divided into spaceships and stations. Different in their capabilities and purpose, they are similar in many respects in structure and equipment used.
Flight Features
After launch, any spacecraft goes through three main stages: insertion into orbit, flight itself and landing. The first stage involves the device developing the speed necessary to enter outer space. In order to get into orbit, its value must be 7.9 km/s. Complete overcoming of gravity involves the development of a second equal to 11.2 km/s. This is exactly how a rocket moves in space when its target is remote areas of the Universe.
After liberation from attraction, the second stage follows. In progress orbital flight The movement of spacecraft occurs by inertia, due to the acceleration given to them. Finally, the landing stage involves reducing the speed of the ship, satellite or station to almost zero.
"Filling"
Each spacecraft is equipped with equipment that matches the tasks it is designed to solve. However, the main discrepancy is related to the so-called target equipment, which is necessary precisely for obtaining data and various scientific research. Otherwise, the equipment of the spacecraft is similar. It includes the following systems:
- energy supply - most often supplied to spacecraft necessary energy solar or radioisotope batteries, chemical batteries, nuclear reactors;
- communication - carried out using a radio wave signal; at a significant distance from the Earth, accurate pointing of the antenna becomes especially important;
- life support - the system is typical for manned spacecraft, thanks to it it becomes possible for people to stay on board;
- orientation - like any other ships, space ships are equipped with equipment to constantly determine their own position in space;
- movement - spacecraft engines allow changes in flight speed, as well as in its direction.
Classification
One of the main criteria for dividing spacecraft into types is the operating mode that determines their capabilities. Based on this feature, devices are distinguished:
- located in a geocentric orbit, or artificial satellites Earth;
- those whose purpose is to study remote areas of space - automatic interplanetary stations;
- used to deliver people or necessary cargo into the orbit of our planet, they are called spaceships, can be automatic or manned;
- created for people to stay in space for long period, - This ;
- engaged in the delivery of people and cargo from orbit to the surface of the planet, they are called descent;
- those capable of exploring the planet, directly located on its surface, and moving around it are planetary rovers.
Let's take a closer look at some types.
AES (artificial earth satellites)
The first devices launched into space were artificial Earth satellites. Physics and its laws make launching any such device into orbit a difficult task. Any device must overcome the gravity of the planet and then not fall on it. To do this, the satellite needs to move at or slightly faster. Above our planet, a conditional lower limit of the possible location of an artificial satellite is identified (passes at an altitude of 300 km). A closer placement will lead to a fairly rapid deceleration of the device in atmospheric conditions.
Initially, only launch vehicles could deliver artificial Earth satellites into orbit. Physics, however, does not stand still, and today new methods are being developed. Thus, one of the methods often used recently is launching from another satellite. There are plans to use other options.
The orbits of spacecraft revolving around the Earth can lie at different altitudes. Naturally, the time required for one lap also depends on this. Satellites, whose orbital period is equal to a day, are placed on the so-called It is considered the most valuable, since the devices located on it appear motionless to an earthly observer, which means there is no need to create mechanisms for rotating antennas.
AMS (automatic interplanetary stations)
A huge amount of information about various objects solar system scientists receive it using spacecraft sent beyond geocentric orbit. AMS objects are planets, asteroids, comets, and even galaxies accessible for observation. The tasks posed to such devices require enormous knowledge and effort from engineers and researchers. AWS missions represent the embodiment of technological progress and are at the same time its stimulus.
Manned spacecraft
Devices created to deliver people to their intended destination and return them back are in no way inferior in technological terms to the described types. The Vostok-1, on which Yuri Gagarin made his flight, belongs to this type.
The most difficult task for the creators of a manned spacecraft is ensuring the safety of the crew during the return to Earth. Also an important part of such devices is the emergency rescue system, which may be necessary when the ship is launched into space using a launch vehicle.
Spacecraft, like all astronautics, are constantly being improved. Recently, the media have often seen reports about the activities of the Rosetta probe and the Philae lander. They embody all the latest achievements in the field of space shipbuilding, calculation of vehicle motion, and so on. The landing of the Philae probe on the comet is considered an event comparable to Gagarin's flight. The most interesting thing is that this is not the crown of humanity’s capabilities. New discoveries and achievements still await us in terms of both space exploration and the structure
Imagine that you were offered to equip a space expedition. What devices, systems, supplies will be needed far from Earth? I immediately remember engines, fuel, spacesuits, oxygen. After thinking a little, you can remember solar panels and a communication system... Then the only thing that comes to mind is the combat phasers from the TV series “ Star Trek" Meanwhile, modern spacecraft, especially manned ones, are equipped with many systems, without which their successful work, but the general public knows almost nothing about them.
Vacuum, weightlessness, hard radiation, impacts of micrometeorites, lack of support and designated directions in space - all these are factors of space flight that are practically not found on Earth. To cope with them, spacecraft are equipped with many devices, which are described in everyday life no one even thinks about it. The driver, for example, usually does not need to worry about keeping the car in a horizontal position, and to turn it is enough to turn the steering wheel. In space, before any maneuver, you have to check the orientation of the device along three axes, and turns are performed by engines - after all, there is no road from which you can push off with your wheels. Or, for example, a propulsion system - it is simplified to represent tanks with fuel and a combustion chamber from which flames burst out. Meanwhile, it includes many devices, without which the engine in space will not work, or even explode. All this makes space technology unexpectedly complex compared to its terrestrial counterparts.
Rocket engine parts
Most modern spacecraft have liquid rocket engines. However, in zero gravity it is not easy to provide them with a stable supply of fuel. In the absence of gravity, any liquid, under the influence of surface tension forces, tends to take the shape of a sphere. Usually, a lot of floating balls will form inside the tank. If the fuel components flow unevenly, alternating with gas filling the voids, combustion will be unstable. In the best case, the engine will stop - it will literally “choke” on the gas bubble, and in the worst case, there will be an explosion. Therefore, to start the engine, you need to press the fuel against the intake devices, separating the liquid from the gas. One way to “precipitate” the fuel is to turn on auxiliary engines, for example, solid fuel or compressed gas engines. On a short time they will create acceleration, and the liquid will be pressed against the fuel intake by inertia, simultaneously freeing itself from gas bubbles. Another way is to ensure that the first portion of liquid always remains in the intake. To do this, you can place a mesh screen next to it, which, due to capillary effect will hold part of the fuel to start the engine, and when it starts, the rest will “settle” by inertia, as in the first option.
But there is a more radical way: pour fuel into elastic bags placed inside the tank, and then pump gas into the tanks. For pressurization, nitrogen or helium is usually used, stored in cylinders high pressure. Of course it is excess weight, but with low engine power you can get rid of fuel pumps - gas pressure will ensure the supply of components through pipelines into the combustion chamber. For more powerful engines, pumps with an electric or even a gas turbine drive are indispensable. In the latter case, the turbine is spun by a gas generator - a small combustion chamber that burns the main components or special fuel.
Maneuvering in space requires high precision, which means you need a regulator that constantly adjusts fuel consumption, ensuring design force traction. It is important to maintain the correct ratio of fuel and oxidizer. Otherwise, the efficiency of the engine will drop, and in addition, one of the fuel components will run out before the other. The flow of components is measured by placing small impellers in the pipelines, the rotation speed of which depends on the speed of fluid flow. And in low-power engines, the flow rate is rigidly set by calibrated washers installed in the pipelines.
For safety, the propulsion system is equipped with emergency protection that turns off a faulty engine before it explodes. It is controlled automatically, since in emergency situations the temperature and pressure in the combustion chamber can change very quickly. In general, engines and fuel and pipeline facilities are the object of increased attention in any spacecraft. In many cases, the fuel reserve determines the lifespan of modern communications satellites and scientific probes. Often a paradoxical situation is created: the device is fully operational, but cannot operate due to exhaustion of fuel or, for example, a gas leak to pressurize the tanks.
Light instead of a top
To observe the Earth and celestial bodies, operate solar panels and cooling radiators, conduct communication sessions and docking operations, the device must be oriented in a certain way in space and stabilized in this position. The most obvious way to determine orientation is to use star trackers, miniature telescopes that recognize several reference stars in the sky at once. For example, the sensor of the New Horizons probe flying towards Pluto ( New Horizons) It photographs a section of the starry sky 10 times per second, and each frame is compared with a map stored in the on-board computer. If the frame and the map match, then everything is in order with the orientation; if not, it’s easy to calculate the deviation from the desired position.
The turns of the spacecraft are also measured using gyroscopes - small and sometimes just miniature flywheels mounted in a gimbal and spun to a speed of about 100,000 rpm! Such gyroscopes are more compact than star sensors, but are not suitable for measuring rotations of more than 90 degrees: the gimbal frames fold. Laser gyroscopes - ring and fiber-optic - do not have this drawback. In the first, two light waves emitted by a laser circulate towards each other along a closed circuit, reflected from mirrors. Since the waves have the same frequency, they add up to form an interference pattern. But when the speed of rotation of the apparatus (together with the mirrors) changes, the frequencies of the reflected waves change due to the Doppler effect and the interference fringes begin to move. By counting them, you can accurately measure how much the angular velocity has changed. In a fiber-optic gyroscope, two laser beams travel towards each other along a circular path, and when they meet, the phase difference is proportional to the speed of rotation of the ring (this is the so-called Sagnac effect). The advantage of laser gyroscopes is the absence of mechanically moving parts - light is used instead. Such gyroscopes are cheaper and lighter than conventional mechanical ones, although they are practically not inferior to them in accuracy. But laser gyroscopes do not measure orientation, but only angular velocities. Knowing them, the on-board computer sums up the turns for every fraction of a second (this process is called integration) and calculates the angular position of the vehicle. This is a very simple way to monitor orientation, but of course such calculated data are always less reliable than direct measurements and require regular calibration and refinement.
By the way, changes in the forward speed of the apparatus are monitored in a similar way. To measure it directly, a heavy Doppler radar is needed. It is placed on Earth, and it measures only one component of velocity. But it is not a problem to measure its acceleration on board the device using high-precision accelerometers, for example, piezoelectric ones. They are specially cut quartz plates the size of a safety pin, which are deformed under the influence of acceleration, resulting in a static effect appearing on their surface. electric charge. By continuously measuring it, they monitor the acceleration of the device and, integrating it (again, you cannot do without an on-board computer), calculate changes in speed. True, such measurements do not take into account the influence of the gravitational attraction of celestial bodies on the speed of the apparatus.
Maneuver accuracy
So, the orientation of the device is determined. If it differs from the required one, commands are immediately issued to “executive bodies”, for example, micromotors running on compressed gas or liquid fuel. Typically, such engines operate in pulse mode: a short push to start a turn, and then a new one at once. opposite direction, so as not to “overshoot” the desired position. Theoretically, it is enough to have 8-12 such motors (two pairs for each axis of rotation), but for reliability they are installed more. The more accurately you need to maintain the orientation of the device, the more often you have to turn on the engines, which increases fuel consumption.
Another ability to control orientation is provided by power gyroscopes - gyrodynes. Their work is based on the law of conservation of angular momentum. If under the influence external factors the station began to turn in a certain direction, it is enough to “twist” the flywheel of the gyrodine in the same direction, it will “take over the rotation” and the unwanted rotation of the station will stop.
With the help of gyrodynes, you can not only stabilize a satellite, but also change its orientation, and sometimes even more accurately than using rocket engines. But for gyrodynes to be effective, they must have a large moment of inertia, which requires significant mass and size. For large satellites, the force gyroscopes can be very large. For example, three power gyroscopes of the American Skylab station weighed 110 kilograms each and made about 9000 rpm. At the International space station(ISS) gyrodynes are devices the size of a large washing machine, each weighing about 300 kilograms. Despite their severity, using them is still more profitable than constantly supplying the station with fuel.
However, a large gyrodyne cannot be accelerated faster than a few hundred or at most thousands of revolutions per minute. If external disturbances constantly spin the apparatus in the same direction, then over time the flywheel reaches its maximum speed and has to be “unloaded” by turning on the orientation engines.
To stabilize the apparatus, three gyrodynes with mutual perpendicular axes. But usually there are more of them: like any product that has moving parts, gyrodynes can break. Then they have to be repaired or replaced. In 2004, to repair the gyrodynes located “overboard” the ISS, its crew had to make several trips to open space. NASA astronauts replaced expired and failed gyrodynes when they visited the Hubble telescope in orbit. The next such operation is planned for the end of 2008. Without her space telescope, most likely, will fail next year.
In-flight meals
To operate the electronics, which any satellite is packed to the brim with, energy is needed. As a rule, the on-board electrical network is used D.C. voltage 27-30 V. An extensive cable network is used for power distribution. Microminiaturization of electronics makes it possible to reduce the cross-section of wires, since modern equipment does not require a large current, but it is not possible to significantly reduce their length - it depends mainly on the size of the device. For small satellites this is tens and hundreds of meters, and for spacecraft and orbital stations - tens and hundreds of kilometers!
On devices whose service life does not exceed several weeks, disposable chemical batteries are used as power sources. Long-lived telecommunications satellites or interplanetary stations are usually equipped with solar panels. Every square meter in Earth's orbit receives radiation from the Sun with a total power of 1.3 kW. This is the so-called solar constant. Modern solar cells convert 15-20% of this energy into electricity. Solar panels were first used on the American Avangard-1 satellite, launched in February 1958. They allowed this little one to live and work productively until the mid-1960s, while the Soviet Sputnik 1, which had only a battery on board, died within a few weeks.
It is important to note that solar panels normally only work in conjunction with buffer batteries, which are recharged on the sunny side of the orbit and release energy in the shade. These batteries are also vital in case of loss of orientation towards the Sun. But they are heavy, and therefore it is often necessary to reduce the weight of the device due to them. Sometimes this leads to serious trouble. For example, in 1985, during an unmanned flight of the Salyut-7 station, its solar panels stopped recharging the batteries due to a failure. Very quickly, the onboard systems squeezed all the juice out of them, and the station switched off. A special “Union” was able to save her, sent to the complex that was silent and not responding to commands from Earth. Having docked with the station, cosmonauts Vladimir Dzhanibekov and Viktor Savinykh reported to Earth: “It’s cold, you can’t work without gloves. Frost on metal surfaces. It smells like stale air. Nothing works at the station. Truly cosmic silence..." The skilful actions of the crew were able to breathe life into " ice house" But in a similar situation, it was not possible to save one of the two communications satellites during the first launch of the Yamalov-100 pair in 1999.
In the outer regions of the Solar System, beyond the orbit of Mars, solar panels are ineffective. Power for interplanetary probes is provided by radioisotope thermal power generators (RTGs). Typically these are non-removable, sealed metal cylinders from which a pair of live wires emerge. A rod made of radioactive and therefore hot material is placed along the axis of the cylinder. Thermocouple sticks out of it, like from a massage brush-comb. Their “hot” junctions are connected to the central rod, and their “cold” junctions are connected to the body, cooling through its surface. Temperature difference gives birth electricity. Unused heat can be “reclaimed” to heat the equipment. This was done, in particular, on the Soviet Lunokhods and on American stations Pioneer and Voyager.
The energy source used in RTGs is radioactive isotopes, both short-lived with a half-life from several months to a year (polonium-219, cerium-144, curium-242), and long-lived, which last for decades (plutonium-238, promethium-147, cobalt-60, strontium-90 ). For example, the generator of the already mentioned New Horizons probe is “charged” with 11 kilograms of plutonium-238 dioxide and gives an output power of 200-240 W. The RTG body is made very durable - in the event of an accident, it must withstand the explosion of the launch vehicle and entry into the Earth’s atmosphere; in addition, it serves as a screen to protect on-board equipment from radioactive radiation.
In general, an RTG is a simple and extremely reliable thing; there is simply nothing to break in it. Its two significant disadvantages are: terrible high cost, since the necessary fissile substances do not occur in nature, but are produced over the years in nuclear reactors, and relatively low output power per unit mass. If, along with long-term operation, more power is also needed, then all that remains is to use a nuclear reactor. They stood, for example, on radar satellites naval intelligence US-A developed by OKB V.N. Chelomeya. But in any case, the use of radioactive materials requires the most serious safety measures, especially in case of emergency situations during the process of launching into orbit.
Avoid heat stroke
Almost all energy consumed on board ultimately turns into heat. Added to this is heating by solar radiation. On small satellites, to prevent overheating, they use thermal screens that reflect sunlight, as well as screen-vacuum thermal insulation - multilayer bags made of alternating layers of very thin fiberglass and polymer film coated with aluminum, silver or even gold. From the outside, a sealed cover is put on this “layer cake”, from which the air is pumped out. To make solar heating more uniform, the satellite can be rotated slowly. But such passive methods are sufficient only in in rare cases, when the power of the onboard equipment is low.
On more or less large spacecraft, in order to avoid overheating, it is necessary to actively get rid of excess heat. In space conditions, there are only two ways to do this: by evaporation of liquid and thermal radiation from the surface of the device. Evaporators are rarely used, because for them you need to take a supply of “refrigerant” with you. Much more often, radiators are used to help “radiate” heat into space.
Heat transfer by radiation is proportional to the surface area and, according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law, to the fourth power of its temperature. The larger and more complex the device, the more difficult it is to cool it. The fact is that the energy release grows in proportion to its mass, that is, the cube of its size, and the surface area is proportional only to the square. Let's say that from series to series the satellite increased 10 times - the first ones were the size of a TV box, the subsequent ones became the size of a bus. At the same time, the mass and energy increased by 1000 times, but the surface area increased only by 100. This means that 10 times more radiation should escape per unit area. To ensure this, absolute temperature surface of the satellite (in Kelvin) should become 1.8 times higher (4√-10). For example, instead of 293 K (20 °C) - 527 K (254 °C). It is clear that the device cannot be heated this way. That's why modern satellites, having entered orbit, they bristle not only with solar panels and extendable antennas, but also with radiators, as a rule, protruding perpendicular to the surface of the device, aimed at the Sun.
But the radiator itself is only one element of the thermal control system. After all, the heat to be discharged still needs to be supplied to it. Active liquid and gas cooling systems of a closed type are most widespread. The coolant flows around the heating units of the equipment, then enters the radiator on the outer surface of the device, gives off heat and returns to its sources again (the cooling system in a car works in much the same way). The thermal control system thus includes a variety of internal heat exchangers, gas ducts and fans (in devices with a hermetic housing), thermal bridges and thermal boards (in non-hermetic architecture).
On manned spacecraft, especially a lot of heat has to be released, and the temperature must be maintained in a very narrow range - from 15 to 35 ° C. If radiators fail, power consumption on board will have to be drastically reduced. In addition, at a long-term plant, all critical elements of equipment are required to be maintainable. This means that it should be possible to turn off individual components and pipelines piece by piece, drain and replace the coolant. The complexity of the thermal control system increases incredibly due to the presence of many heterogeneous interacting modules. Currently, each module of the ISS operates own system thermal regulation, and large radiators of the station installed on the main farm perpendicularly solar panels, are used to work “under heavy load” during scientific experiments with high energy consumption.
Support and protection
When talking about the numerous systems of spacecraft, people often forget about the body in which they are all housed. The housing also takes on loads when the device is launched, retains air, provides protection from meteoric particles and cosmic radiation.
All housing designs are divided into two large groups - sealed and non-sealed. The very first satellites were made hermetically sealed to provide operating conditions for the equipment close to those on Earth. Their bodies usually had the shape of bodies of rotation: cylindrical, conical, spherical, or a combination of these. This form is retained in manned vehicles today.
With the advent of devices resistant to vacuum, non-hermetic structures began to be used, significantly reducing the weight of the device and allowing for more flexible configuration of the equipment. The basis of the structure is a spatial frame or truss, often made of composite materials. It is covered with “honeycomb panels” - three-layer flat structures made of two layers of carbon fiber and aluminum honeycomb core. Such panels have very high rigidity despite their low weight. Elements of systems and instrumentation of the device are attached to the frame and panels.
To reduce the cost of spacecraft, they are increasingly being built on the basis of unified platforms. As a rule, they are a service module that integrates power supply and control systems, as well as a propulsion system. The target equipment compartment is mounted on such a platform - and the device is ready. American and Western European telecommunications satellites are built on just a few such platforms. Promising Russian interplanetary probes - Phobos-Grunt, Luna-Glob - are being created on the basis of the Navigator platform, developed at the NPO named after. S.A. Lavochkina.
Even a device assembled on an unsealed platform rarely looks “leaky.” The gaps are covered with multi-layer anti-meteor and anti-radiation protection. During a collision, the first layer evaporates meteor particles, and subsequent layers disperse the gas flow. Of course, such screens are unlikely to protect against rare meteorites with a diameter of a centimeter, but against numerous grains of sand up to a millimeter in diameter, traces of which are visible, for example, on the windows of the ISS, protection is quite effective.
A protective lining based on polymers protects from cosmic radiation - hard radiation and flows of charged particles. However, electronics are protected from radiation in other ways. The most common is the use of radiation-resistant microcircuits on a sapphire substrate. However, the degree of integration of durable microcircuits is much lower than in conventional processors and memory desktop computers. Accordingly, the parameters of such electronics are not very high. For example, the Mongoose V processor that controls the flight of the New Horizons probe has a clock frequency of only 12 MHz, while the home desktop has long operated in gigahertz.
Proximity in orbit
The most powerful rockets are capable of launching about 100 tons of cargo into orbit. Larger and more flexible space structures are created by combining independently launched modules, which means it is necessary to solve the complex problem of “mooring” spacecraft. Far approaching, in order not to waste time, is carried out at the highest possible speed. For Americans, it lies entirely on the conscience of the “land.” In domestic programs, the “ground” and the ship, equipped with a complex of radio engineering and optical means for measuring the parameters of trajectories, relative position and movement of spacecraft, are equally responsible for the rendezvous. It is interesting that Soviet developers borrowed part of the rendezvous system equipment... from the radar homing heads of air-to-air and ground-to-air guided missiles.
At a distance of a kilometer, the docking guidance phase begins, and from 200 meters the mooring section begins. To increase reliability, a combination of automatic and manual approach methods is used. The docking itself occurs at a speed of about 30 cm/s: faster will be dangerous, less is also impossible - the locks of the docking mechanism may not work. When docking the Soyuz, the cosmonauts on the ISS do not feel the shock - it is absorbed by the entire rather flexible structure of the complex. You can notice it only by the shaking of the image in the video camera. But when the heavy modules of the space station approach each other, even such slow movement can pose a danger. Therefore, the objects approach each other at a minimum—almost zero—speed, and then, after coupling with the docking units, the joint is pressed by turning on the micromotors.
By design, docking units are divided into active (“father”), passive (“mother”) and androgynous (“genderless”). Active docking units are installed on devices that maneuver when approaching the docking object, and are carried out according to the “pin” scheme. Passive nodes are made according to the “cone” pattern, in the center of which there is a response hole of the “pin”. The “pin”, entering the hole of the passive node, ensures the tightening of the joining objects. Androgynous docking units, as the name suggests, are equally good for both passive and active apparatus. They were first used on the Soyuz-19 and Apollo spacecraft during the historic joint flight in 1975.
Diagnosis at a distance
As a rule, the purpose of space flight is to receive or relay information - scientific, commercial, military. However, spacecraft developers are much more concerned with completely different information: how well all systems work, whether their parameters are within specified limits, and whether there have been any failures. This information is called telemetry, or simply telemetry. It is needed by those who control the flight to know the condition of the expensive device, and is invaluable for designers improving space technology. Hundreds of sensors measure temperature, pressure, load on the spacecraft's supporting structures, voltage fluctuations in its electrical network, battery condition, fuel reserves and much more. Added to this are data from accelerometers and gyroscopes, gyrodynes and, of course, numerous performance indicators of target equipment - from scientific instruments to the life support system in manned flights.
Information received from telemetry sensors can be transmitted to Earth via radio channels in real time or cumulatively - in packets with a certain frequency. However modern devices are so complex that even very extensive telemetry information often does not allow us to understand what happened to the probe. This, for example, is the case with Kazakhstan’s first communications satellite, KazSat, launched in 2006. After two years of operation, it failed, and although the management team and developers know which systems are not functioning normally, they are trying to determine exact reason malfunctions and restoring the functionality of the device remain unsuccessful.
A special place in telemetry is occupied by information about the operation of on-board computers. They are designed so that it is possible to fully control the operation of programs from Earth. There are many known cases when, already during a flight, critical errors were corrected in the on-board computer programs by reprogramming it via deep space communication channels. Modification of programs may also be required to “work around” breakdowns and failures in equipment. New in long missions software can significantly expand the capabilities of the device, as was done in the summer of 2007, when the update significantly increased the “intelligence” of the Spirit and Opportunity rovers.
Of course, the systems considered do not exhaust the list of “space equipment.” Left outside the scope of the article is the most complex set of life support systems and numerous “little things”, for example, tools for working in zero gravity, and much more. But in space there are no trifles, and in a real flight nothing can be missed.