Spacecraft in all their diversity are both the pride and concern of humanity. Their creation was preceded by a centuries-old history of the development of science and technology. The space age, which allowed people to look at the world in which they live from the outside, has taken us to a new level of development. A rocket in space today is not a dream, but a matter of concern for highly qualified specialists who are faced with the task of improving existing technologies. About what types of spacecraft are distinguished and how they differ from each other, we'll talk in the article.
Definition
Spacecraft is a general name for any device designed to operate in space. There are several options for their classification. In the very simple case There are manned and automatic spacecraft. The former, in turn, are divided into spaceships and stations. Different in their capabilities and purpose, they are similar in many respects in structure and equipment used.
Flight Features
After launch, any spacecraft goes through three main stages: insertion into orbit, flight itself and landing. The first stage involves the device developing the speed necessary to enter outer space. In order to get into orbit, its value must be 7.9 km/s. Complete overcoming of gravity involves the development of a second equal to 11.2 km/s. This is exactly how a rocket moves in space when its target is remote areas of the Universe.
After liberation from attraction, the second stage follows. In progress orbital flight The movement of spacecraft occurs by inertia, due to the acceleration given to them. Finally, the landing stage involves reducing the speed of the ship, satellite or station to almost zero.
"Filling"
Each spacecraft is equipped with equipment that matches the tasks it is designed to solve. However, the main discrepancy is related to the so-called target equipment, which is necessary precisely for obtaining data and various scientific research. Otherwise, the equipment of the spacecraft is similar. It includes the following systems:
- energy supply - most often solar or radioisotope batteries, chemical batteries, and nuclear reactors supply spacecraft with the necessary energy;
- communication - carried out using a radio wave signal; at a significant distance from the Earth, accurate pointing of the antenna becomes especially important;
- life support - the system is typical for manned spacecraft, thanks to it it becomes possible for people to stay on board;
- orientation - like any other ships, spacecraft are equipped with equipment for permanent definition own position in space;
- movement - spacecraft engines allow changes in flight speed, as well as in its direction.
Classification
One of the main criteria for dividing spacecraft into types is the operating mode that determines their capabilities. Based on this feature, devices are distinguished:
- located in a geocentric orbit, or artificial earth satellites;
- those whose purpose is to study remote areas of space are automatic interplanetary stations;
- used to deliver people or necessary cargo into the orbit of our planet, they are called spaceships, can be automatic or manned;
- created for people to stay in space for long period, - This ;
- engaged in the delivery of people and cargo from orbit to the surface of the planet, they are called descent;
- those capable of exploring the planet, directly located on its surface, and moving around it are planetary rovers.
Let's take a closer look at some types.
AES (artificial earth satellites)
The first devices launched into space were artificial Earth satellites. Physics and its laws make launching any such device into orbit a difficult task. Any device must overcome the gravity of the planet and then not fall on it. To do this, the satellite needs to move at or slightly faster. Above our planet there is a conditional lower limit possible location of the satellite (passes at an altitude of 300 km). A closer placement will lead to a fairly rapid deceleration of the device in atmospheric conditions.
Initially, only launch vehicles could deliver artificial Earth satellites into orbit. Physics, however, does not stand still, and today new methods are being developed. Thus, one of the frequently used Lately methods - launching from another satellite. There are plans to use other options.
The orbits of spacecraft revolving around the Earth can lie on different heights. Naturally, the time required for one lap also depends on this. Satellites, whose orbital period is equal to a day, are placed on the so-called It is considered the most valuable, since the devices located on it appear motionless to an earthly observer, which means there is no need to create mechanisms for rotating antennas.
AMS (automatic interplanetary stations)
A huge amount of information about various objects solar system scientists receive it using spacecraft sent beyond geocentric orbit. AMS objects are planets, asteroids, comets, and even galaxies accessible for observation. The tasks posed to such devices require enormous knowledge and effort from engineers and researchers. AWS missions represent the embodiment of technological progress and are at the same time its stimulus.
Manned spacecraft
Devices created to deliver people to their intended destination and return them back are in no way inferior in technological terms to the described types. The Vostok-1, on which Yuri Gagarin made his flight, belongs to this type.
The most difficult task for the creators of a manned spacecraft - ensuring the safety of the crew during their return to Earth. Also significant part Such devices are an emergency rescue system, which may be necessary during the launch of a ship into space using a launch vehicle.
Spacecraft, like all astronautics, are constantly being improved. Recently, the media have often seen reports about the activities of the Rosetta probe and the Philae lander. They embody everything latest achievements in the field of space shipbuilding, calculation of vehicle motion, and so on. The landing of the Philae probe on the comet is considered an event comparable to Gagarin's flight. The most interesting thing is that this is not the crown of humanity’s capabilities. New discoveries and achievements still await us in terms of both space exploration and the structure
Vacuum, weightlessness, hard radiation, impacts of micrometeorites, lack of support and designated directions in space - all these are factors space flight, practically never found on Earth. To cope with them, spacecraft are equipped with many devices, which are described in everyday life no one even thinks about it. The driver, for example, usually does not need to worry about keeping the car in a horizontal position, and to turn it is enough to turn the steering wheel. In space, before any maneuver, you have to check the orientation of the device along three axes, and turns are performed by engines - after all, there is no road from which you can push off with your wheels. Or, for example, a propulsion system - it is simplified to represent tanks with fuel and a combustion chamber from which flames burst out. Meanwhile, it includes many devices, without which the engine in space will not work, or even explode. All this makes space technology unexpectedly complex compared to its terrestrial counterparts. Rocket engine parts
On Most modern spacecraft are powered by liquid rocket engines. However, in zero gravity it is not easy to provide them with a stable supply of fuel. In the absence of gravity, any liquid, under the influence of surface tension forces, tends to take the shape of a sphere. Usually, a lot of floating balls will form inside the tank. If the fuel components flow unevenly, alternating with gas filling the voids, combustion will be unstable. IN best case scenario the engine will stop - it will literally “choke” on a gas bubble, and in the worst case, an explosion. Therefore, to start the engine, you need to press the fuel against the intake devices, separating the liquid from the gas. One way to “precipitate” fuel is to turn on auxiliary engines, for example, solid fuel or compressed gas engines. For a short time they will create acceleration, and the liquid will be pressed against the fuel intake by inertia, simultaneously freeing itself from gas bubbles. Another way is to ensure that the first portion of liquid always remains in the intake. To do this, you can place a mesh screen next to it, which, due to capillary effect will hold part of the fuel to start the engine, and when it starts, the rest will “settle” by inertia, as in the first option.
But there is a more radical way: pour fuel into elastic bags placed inside the tank, and then pump gas into the tanks. For pressurization, nitrogen or helium is usually used, stored in cylinders high pressure. Of course it is excess weight, but with low engine power you can get rid of fuel pumps - gas pressure will ensure the supply of components through pipelines into the combustion chamber. For more powerful engines, pumps with an electric or even a gas turbine drive are indispensable. IN the latter case The turbine is spun by a gas generator - a small combustion chamber that burns the main components or special fuel.
Maneuvering in space requires high precision, which means a regulator is needed that constantly adjusts fuel consumption, providing the calculated thrust force. It is important to maintain the correct ratio of fuel and oxidizer. Otherwise, the efficiency of the engine will drop, and in addition, one of the fuel components will run out before the other. The flow of components is measured by placing small impellers in the pipelines, the rotation speed of which depends on the speed of fluid flow. And in low-power engines, the flow rate is rigidly set by calibrated washers installed in the pipelines.
For safety, the propulsion system is equipped with emergency protection that turns off a faulty engine before it explodes. It is controlled automatically, since in emergency situations the temperature and pressure in the combustion chamber can change very quickly. In general, engines and fuel and pipeline facilities are an object of increased attention in any spacecraft. In many cases, the fuel reserve determines the lifespan of modern communications satellites and scientific probes. Often a paradoxical situation is created: the device is fully operational, but cannot operate due to exhaustion of fuel or, for example, a gas leak to pressurize the tanks.
Modern spacecraft are becoming more technologically advanced and smaller, and launching such satellites with heavy rockets is unprofitable. This is where the light Soyuz comes in handy. The first launch and the start of flight tests will take place next year.
I turn on the hydraulics. We begin testing. Overload 0.2, frequency 11.
This platform is an imitation of a railway carriage, with a valuable cargo on it - a rocket. The fuel tank of the Soyuz 2-1V rocket is being tested for strength.
“It must withstand everything, all loads. Sensors must show that no emergency has occurred inside,” says Boris Baranov, deputy head of the research and testing complex at TsSKB Progress.
The rocket is shaken non-stop for 100 hours. The load level is constantly growing. In such tests, they create everything that can happen on the way from Samara to the launch site - the cosmodrome.
The tests are over, thanks everyone.
So, from test to test, a new rocket is born. The two-stage lightweight launch vehicle "Soyuz 2 1V" is at the finish line. This is the assembled first stage, the one that is responsible for lifting the rocket off the ground.
The NK-33 engine is powerful and very economical.
Engine with legendary history. In 1968, in a bundle of 34 pieces, it gave unimaginable power to the N-1 lunar rocket, the “Tsar Rocket,” which was supposed to fly to the Moon.
Even then, the jet thrust of the engine was 154 tons.
“The rocket didn’t take off, the engine remained, and now we are using it for new developments. It works great in all tests,” said the first deputy general director, general designer TsSKB "Progress" Ravil Akhmetov.
Interest in this engine was enormous even in those years. The Americans bought some of the NK-33s, tested them and even licensed them. There have already been several launches of carriers with this engine according to the American space program. Decades later, within the walls of the Russian TsSKB Progress, a new rocket with a well-developed heart is born. “After a while, the engine worked without any problems. We decided to implement our groundwork, our intellectual property in Soyuz 2-1V,” said Alexander Kirilin, General Director of TsSKB Progress. With such a familiar name “Soyuz”, with such complex encryption “ 2-1B." The designers claim that the Soyuz should be in all modifications, especially in a light one. Modern spacecraft are increasingly more technologically advanced and smaller, and launching such satellites with heavy rockets is unprofitable. "This is a project where there are virtually no side blocks, a rocket is a central block, but increased in size, all this allows for the possibility of removing lung devices class into orbit. The uniqueness of the light Soyuz is that we successfully integrated it into the existing launch facilities,” explains the first deputy general director, Chief Engineer TsSKB "Progress" Sergey Tyulevin. The lightweight Soyuz will deliver satellites weighing up to three tons into space. The first launch and the start of flight tests are already at the beginning of next year.
Interplanetary spacecraft "Mars"
“Mars” is the name of Soviet interplanetary spacecraft launched to the planet Mars since 1962.
Mars 1 was launched on November 1, 1962; weight 893.5 kg, length 3.3 m, diameter 1.1 m. “Mars-1” had 2 hermetic compartments: an orbital one with the main onboard equipment that ensures flight to Mars; planetary with scientific instruments designed to study Mars during a close flyby. Flight objectives: exploration of outer space, checking radio links at interplanetary distances, photographing Mars. The last stage of the launch vehicle with the spacecraft was launched into the intermediate orbit of an artificial Earth satellite and provided the launch and the necessary speed increase for the flight to Mars.
The active celestial orientation system had sensors for terrestrial, stellar and solar orientation, a system of actuators with control nozzles running on compressed gas, as well as gyroscopic devices and logical blocks. Most during flight, orientation to the Sun was maintained for illumination solar panels. To correct the flight path, the spacecraft was equipped with a liquid rocket engine and a control system. For communication there was on-board radio equipment (frequencies 186, 936, 3750 and 6000 MHz), which provided measurement of flight parameters, reception of commands from the Earth, and transmission of telemetric information in communication sessions. The thermal control system maintained a stable temperature of 15-30°C. During the flight, 61 radio communication sessions were carried out from Mars-1, and more than 3,000 radio commands were transmitted on board. For trajectory measurements, except radio technical means, a telescope with a diameter of 2.6 m was used Crimean Astrophysical Observatory. The Mars 1 flight provided new data about physical properties outer space between the orbits of the Earth and Mars (at a distance from the Sun of 1-1.24 AU), about the intensity of cosmic radiation, the strength of the magnetic fields of the Earth and the interplanetary medium, about the flows of ionized gas coming from the Sun, and about the distribution of meteoric matter (the spacecraft crossed 2 meteor shower). The last session took place on March 21, 1963, when the device was 106 million km away from the Earth. The approach to Mars occurred on June 19, 1963 (about 197 thousand km from Mars), after which Mars-1 entered a heliocentric orbit with perihelion ~148 million km and aphelion ~250 million km.
Mars 2 and Mars 3 were launched on May 19 and 28, 1971, and performed a joint flight and simultaneous exploration of Mars. The launch into the flight path to Mars was carried out from the intermediate orbit of an artificial Earth satellite by the last stages of the launch vehicle. The design and composition of the equipment of Mars-2 and Mars-3 differ significantly from Mars-1. The mass of “Mars-2” (“Mars-3”) is 4650 kg. Structurally, “Mars-2” and “Mars-3” are similar, they have an orbital compartment and a descent module. The main devices of the orbital compartment: an instrument compartment, a block of propulsion system tanks, a corrective rocket engine with automation units, solar panels, antenna-feeder devices and radiators of the thermal control system. The descent vehicle is equipped with systems and devices that ensure the separation of the vehicle from the orbital compartment, its transition to a trajectory of approach to the planet, braking, descent in the atmosphere and a soft landing on the surface of Mars. The descent vehicle was equipped with an instrument-parachute container, an aerodynamic braking cone and a connecting frame on which the rocket engine was placed. Before the flight, the descent module was sterilized. Spacecraft had a number of systems to support flight. The control system, unlike Mars-1, additionally included: a gyroscopic stabilized platform, an on-board digital computer and a space autonomous navigation system. In addition to orientation towards the Sun, with sufficient great distance from the Earth (~30 million km), simultaneous orientation was carried out towards the Sun, the star Canopus and the Earth. The operation of the on-board radio complex for communication with the Earth was carried out in the decimeter and centimeter ranges, and the connection of the descent vehicle with the orbital compartment was in the meter range. The power source was 2 solar panels and a buffer battery. An autonomous chemical battery was installed on the descent module. The thermal control system is active, with circulation of gas filling the instrument compartment. The descent vehicle had screen-vacuum thermal insulation, a radiation heater with an adjustable surface and an electric heater, and a reusable propulsion system.
The orbital compartment contained scientific equipment intended for measurements in interplanetary space, as well as for studying the environs of Mars and the planet itself from the orbit of an artificial satellite; fluxgate magnetometer; an infrared radiometer to obtain a map of temperature distribution on the surface of Mars; infrared photometer for studying surface relief by radiation absorption carbon dioxide; optical instrument for determination of water vapor content spectral method; visible photometer to study surface and atmospheric reflectivity; a device for determining the radio brightness temperature of a surface by radiation at a wavelength of 3.4 cm, determining its dielectric constant and the temperature of the surface layer at a depth of 30-50 cm; ultraviolet photometer for determining density upper atmosphere Mars, the content of atomic oxygen, hydrogen and argon in the atmosphere; cosmic ray particle counter; 
charged particle energy spectrometer; energy meter for electron and proton flow from 30 eV to 30 keV. On Mars-2 and Mars-3 there were 2 photo-television cameras with different focal lengths for photographing the surface of Mars, and on Mars-3 there was also Stereo equipment for conducting a joint Soviet-French experiment to study the radio emission of the Sun at the frequency 169 MHz. The descent module was equipped with equipment for measuring the temperature and pressure of the atmosphere, mass spectrometric determination of the chemical composition of the atmosphere, measuring wind speed, determining the chemical composition and physical and mechanical properties of the surface layer, as well as obtaining a panorama using TV cameras. The flight of the spacecraft to Mars lasted more than 6 months, 153 radio communication sessions were carried out with Mars-2, 159 radio communication sessions were carried out with Mars-3, and a large volume of scientific information. At a distance, the orbital compartment was installed, and the Mars-2 spacecraft moved into the orbit of the artificial satellite of Mars with an orbital period of 18 hours. On June 8, November 14 and December 2, 1971, corrections of the Mars-3 orbit were carried out. The separation of the descent module was carried out on December 2 at 12:14 Moscow time at a distance of 50 thousand km from Mars. After 15 minutes, when the distance between the orbital compartment and the descent vehicle was no more than 1 km, the device switched to the trajectory of meeting the planet. The descent module moved for 4.5 hours towards Mars and at 16 hours 44 minutes entered the planet’s atmosphere. The descent in the atmosphere to the surface lasted a little more than 3 minutes. The descent vehicle landed in southern hemisphere Mars in the area with coordinates 45° S. w. and 158° W. d. A pennant with the image was installed on board the device State emblem THE USSR. The orbital compartment of Mars-3, after separation of the descent module, moved along a trajectory passing at a distance of 1500 km from the surface of Mars. The braking propulsion system ensured its transition to the orbit of the Mars satellite with an orbital period of ~12 days. 19:00 On December 2, at 16:50:35, the transmission of a video signal from the surface of the planet began. The signal was received by the receiving devices of the orbital compartment and was transmitted to Earth in communication sessions on December 2-5.
For over 8 months, the orbital compartments of the spacecraft carried out a comprehensive program of exploration of Mars from the orbits of its satellites. During this time, the orbital compartment of Mars-2 made 362 revolutions, and Mars-3 - 20 revolutions around the planet. Studies of the properties of the surface and atmosphere of Mars based on the nature of radiation in the visible, infrared, ultraviolet spectral ranges and in the radio wave range made it possible to determine the temperature of the surface layer and establish its dependence on latitude and time of day; thermal anomalies were detected on the surface; thermal conductivity, thermal inertia, the dielectric constant and reflectivity of the soil; The temperature of the northern polar cap was measured (below -110 °C). Based on data on the absorption of infrared radiation by carbon dioxide, altitude profiles of the surface along the flight paths were obtained. The content of water vapor in various areas planets (about 5 thousand times less than in the earth’s atmosphere). Measurements of scattered ultraviolet radiation provided information about the structure of the Martian atmosphere (extent, composition, temperature). The pressure and temperature at the surface of the planet were determined by radio sounding. Based on changes in atmospheric transparency, data were obtained on the height of dust clouds (up to 10 km) and the size of dust particles (a large content was noted fine particles- about 1 micron). The photographs made it possible to clarify the optical compression of the planet, construct relief profiles based on the image of the edge of the disk and obtain color images of Mars, detect atmospheric glow 200 km beyond the terminator line, color changes near the terminator, and trace the layered structure of the Martian atmosphere.
Mars 4, Mars 5, Mars 6 and Mars 7 were launched on July 21, July 25, August 5 and 9, 1973. For the first time, four spacecraft simultaneously flew along an interplanetary route. "Mars-4" and "Mars-5" were intended to explore Mars from the orbit of an artificial satellite of Mars; "Mars-6" and "Mars-7" included descent modules. The spacecraft was launched onto the flight path to Mars from the intermediate orbit of an artificial Earth satellite. Radio communication sessions were regularly conducted along the flight route from the spacecraft to measure motion parameters, monitor the state of on-board systems and transmit scientific information. In addition to Soviet scientific equipment, French instruments were installed on board the Mars-6 and Mars-7 stations, designed to conduct joint Soviet-French experiments on the study of radio emission from the Sun (Stereo equipment), to study solar plasma and cosmic rays. To ensure the launch of the spacecraft to the calculated point of circumplanetary space during the flight, corrections were made to the trajectory of their movement. “Mars-4” and “Mars-5”, having covered a path of ~460 million km, reached the outskirts of Mars on February 10 and 12, 1974. Due to the fact that the braking propulsion system did not turn on, the Mars-4 spacecraft passed near the planet at a distance of 2200 km from its surface.
At the same time, photographs of Mars were obtained using a phototelevision device. On February 12, 1974, the corrective braking propulsion system (KTDU-425A) was turned on on the Mars-5 spacecraft, and as a result of the maneuver, the device entered the orbit of the artificial satellite of Mars. The Mars-6 and Mars-7 spacecraft reached the vicinity of the planet Mars on March 12 and March 9, 1974, respectively. When approaching the planet, the Mars-6 spacecraft autonomously, using the on-board celestial navigation system, carried out the final correction of its movement, and the descent module separated from the spacecraft. By turning on the propulsion system, the descent vehicle was transferred to the trajectory of the meeting with Mars. The descent vehicle entered the Martian atmosphere and began aerodynamic braking. When a given overload was reached, the aerodynamic cone was dropped and the parachute system was put into operation. Information from the descent module during its descent was received by the Mars-6 spacecraft, which continued to move in a heliocentric orbit with a minimum distance from the surface of Mars of ~1600 km, and was relayed to Earth. In order to study atmospheric parameters, instruments for measuring pressure, temperature, chemical composition and overload sensors were installed on the descent module. The descent module of the Mars-6 spacecraft reached the surface of the planet in the area with coordinates 24° S. w. and 25° W. d. The descent module of the Mars-7 spacecraft (after separation from the station) could not be transferred to the trajectory of the meeting with Mars, and it passed near the planet at a distance of 1300 km from its surface.
The launches of the Mars series spacecraft were carried out by the Molniya launch vehicle (Mars-1) and the Proton launch vehicle with an additional 4th stage (Mars-2 - Mars-7).
The unexplored depths of space have interested humanity for many centuries. Explorers and scientists have always taken steps towards understanding the constellations and outer space. These were the first, but significant achievements at that time, which served to further develop research in this industry.
An important achievement was the invention of the telescope, with the help of which humanity was able to look much further into outer space and get to know the space objects that surround our planet more closely. Nowadays, space exploration is much easier than in those years. Our portal site offers you a lot of interesting and fascinating facts about Space and its mysteries.
The first spacecraft and technology
Active exploration of outer space began with the launch of the first artificially created satellite of our planet. This event dates back to 1957, when it was launched into Earth orbit. As for the first device that appeared in orbit, it was extremely simple in its design. This device was equipped with a fairly simple radio transmitter. When creating it, the designers decided to make do with the most minimal technical set. Nevertheless, the first simple satellite served as a start to the development new era space technology and equipment. Today we can say that this device has become a huge achievement for humanity and the development of many scientific branches of research. In addition, putting a satellite into orbit was an achievement for the whole world, and not just for the USSR. This became possible due to the hard work of designers to create intercontinental ballistic missiles.
It was precisely the high achievements in rocket science that made it possible for designers to realize that by reducing the payload of the launch vehicle it is possible to achieve very high flight speeds that will exceed escape velocity at ~7.9 km/s. All this made it possible to launch the first satellite into Earth orbit. Spacecraft and technology are interesting because many different designs and concepts have been proposed.
In a broad concept, a spacecraft is a device that transports equipment or people to the border where it ends top part earth's atmosphere. But this is an exit only to near space. When solving various space tasks spacecraft are divided into the following categories:
Suborbital;
Orbital or near-Earth, which move in geocentric orbits;
Interplanetary;
On-planetary.
The creation of the first rocket to launch a satellite into space was carried out by USSR designers, and its creation itself took less time than the fine-tuning and debugging of all systems. Also, the time factor influenced the primitive configuration of the satellite, since it was the USSR that sought to achieve the first cosmic speed of its creation. Moreover, the very fact of launching a rocket beyond the planet was a more significant achievement at that time than the quantity and quality of equipment installed on the satellite. All the work done was crowned with triumph for all humanity.
As you know, the conquest of outer space had just begun, which is why designers achieved more and more in rocket science, which made it possible to create more advanced spacecraft and technology that helped make a huge leap in space exploration. Also, further development and modernization of rockets and their components made it possible to achieve a second escape velocity and increase the mass of payload on board. Due to all this, the first launch of a rocket with a person on board became possible in 1961.
The portal site can tell you a lot of interesting things about the development of spacecraft and technology over all years and in all countries of the world. Few people know that space research was actually started by scientists before 1957. The first scientific equipment for study was sent into outer space back in the late 40s. The first domestic rockets were able to lift scientific equipment to a height of 100 kilometers. In addition, this was not a single launch, they were carried out quite often, and the maximum height of their rise reached 500 kilometers, which means that the first ideas about outer space were already there before the launch space age. Nowadays, using the latest technologies, those achievements may seem primitive, but they are what made it possible to achieve what we have at the moment.
The created spacecraft and technology required solving a huge number of various tasks. The most important problems were:
- Selection of the correct flight trajectory of the spacecraft and further analysis of its movement. To solve this problem, it was necessary to more actively develop celestial mechanics, which became an applied science.
- The vacuum of space and weightlessness have posed their own challenges for scientists. And this is not only the creation of a reliable sealed housing that could withstand fairly harsh space conditions, but also the development of equipment that could perform its tasks in Space as effectively as on Earth. Since not all mechanisms could work perfectly in weightlessness and vacuum as well as in terrestrial conditions. The main problem was the exclusion of thermal convection in sealed volumes; all this disrupted the normal course of many processes.
- The operation of the equipment was also disrupted by thermal radiation from the Sun. To eliminate this influence, it was necessary to think through new calculation methods for devices. A lot of devices were also thought out to maintain normal temperature conditions inside the spacecraft itself.
- Power supply for space devices has become a big problem. The most optimal solution of the designers was the conversion of solar radiation exposure into electricity.
- It took quite a long time to solve the problem of radio communications and control of spacecraft, since ground-based radar devices could only operate at a distance of up to 20 thousand kilometers, and this is not enough for outer space. The evolution of ultra-long-range radio communications in our time makes it possible to maintain communication with probes and other devices at a distance of millions of kilometers.
- Yet biggest problem all that remained was the fine-tuning of the equipment with which they were equipped space devices. First of all, the equipment must be reliable, since repairs in space, as a rule, were impossible. New ways of duplicating and recording information were also thought out.
The problems that arose aroused the interest of researchers and scientists different areas knowledge. Joint cooperation made it possible to obtain positive results when solving assigned tasks. Due to all this, a new field of knowledge began to emerge, namely space technology. The emergence of this type of design was separated from aviation and other industries due to its uniqueness, special knowledge and work skills.
Immediately after the creation and successful launch of the first artificial Earth satellite, the development of space technology took place in three main directions, namely:
- Design and manufacture of Earth satellites to perform various tasks. In addition, the industry is modernizing and improving these devices, making it possible to use them more widely.
- Creation of devices for exploring interplanetary space and the surfaces of other planets. Typically, these devices carry out programmed tasks and can also be controlled remotely.
- Space technology is being worked on various models creation space stations, on which scientists can conduct research activities. This industry also designs and manufactures manned spacecraft.
Many areas of space technology and the achievement of escape velocity have allowed scientists to gain access to more distant space objects. That is why at the end of the 50s it was possible to launch a satellite towards the Moon; in addition, the technology of that time already made it possible to send research satellites to the nearest planets near the Earth. Thus, the first devices that were sent to study the Moon allowed humanity to learn for the first time about the parameters of outer space and see reverse side Moons. Nevertheless, the space technology of the beginning of the space age was still imperfect and uncontrollable, and after separation from the launch vehicle main part rotated quite chaotically around the center of its mass. Uncontrolled rotation did not allow scientists to carry out much research, which, in turn, stimulated designers to create more advanced spacecraft and technology.
It was the development of controlled vehicles that allowed scientists to conduct even more research and learn more about outer space and its properties. Also, the controlled and stable flight of satellites and other automatic devices launched into space allows for more accurate and high-quality transmission of information to Earth due to the orientation of antennas. Due to controlled control necessary maneuvers can be performed.
In the early 60s, satellite launches to the closest planets were actively carried out. These launches made it possible to become more familiar with the conditions on neighboring planets. But still, the greatest success of this time for all humanity on our planet is the flight of Yu.A. Gagarin. After the achievements of the USSR in the construction of space equipment, most countries of the world also paid special attention to rocket science and the creation of their own space technology. Nevertheless, the USSR was a leader in this industry, since it was the first to create a device that carried out a soft landing on the Moon. After the first successful landings on the Moon and other planets, the task was set for a more detailed study of surfaces cosmic bodies using automatic devices to study surfaces and transmit photos and videos to Earth.
The first spacecraft, as mentioned above, were uncontrollable and could not return to Earth. When creating controlled devices, designers were faced with the problem of safe landing of devices and crew. Since a very rapid entry of the device into the Earth’s atmosphere could simply burn it from the high temperature due to friction. In addition, upon return, the devices had to land and splash down safely in a wide variety of conditions.
Further development of space technology made it possible to manufacture orbital stations that can be used for many years, while changing the composition of researchers on board. The first orbital vehicle of this type became Soviet station"Firework". Its creation was another huge leap for humanity in the knowledge of outer space and phenomena.
Above is a very small part of all the events and achievements in the creation and use of spacecraft and technology that was created in the world for the study of Space. But still, the most significant year was 1957, from which the era of active rocketry and space exploration began. It was the launch of the first probe that gave rise to the explosive development of space technology throughout the world. And this became possible due to the creation in the USSR of a new generation launch vehicle, which was able to lift the probe to the height of the Earth’s orbit.
To learn about all this and much more, our portal website offers you a lot of fascinating articles, videos and photographs of space technology and objects.
Classification of spacecraft
The basis of the flight of all spacecraft is their acceleration to speeds equal to or exceeding the first cosmic speed, at which kinetic energy The spacecraft balances its attraction with the Earth's gravitational field. The spacecraft flies in an orbit, the shape of which depends on the acceleration rate and the distance to the attracting center. Spacecraft are accelerated using launch vehicles (LV) and other boosters Vehicle, including reusable ones.
Spacecraft are divided into two groups based on flight speeds:
near-Earth, having a speed less than the second cosmic speed, moving in geocentric orbits and not going beyond the scope of action gravitational field Earth;
interplanetary, the flight of which occurs at speeds above the second cosmic speed.
According to their purpose, spacecraft are divided into:
Artificial satellites Earth (satellite);
Artificial satellites of the Moon (ISL), Mars (ISM), Venus (ISV), Sun (ISS), etc.;
Automatic interplanetary stations (AIS);
Manned spacecraft (SC);
Orbital stations(OS).
A feature of most spacecraft is their ability to operate independently for a long time in outer space conditions. For this purpose, the spacecraft has power supply systems (solar batteries, fuel cells, isotope and nuclear power plants etc.), regulatory systems thermal regime, and on manned spacecraft - life support systems (LCS) with regulation of the atmosphere, temperature, humidity, water and food supply. Spacecraft usually have motion and spatial orientation control systems that operate in automatic mode, while manned ones operate in manual mode. The flight of automatic and manned spacecraft is ensured by constant radio communication with the Earth, transmission of telemetric and television information.
The design of the spacecraft differs in a number of features related to space flight conditions. The functioning of a spacecraft requires the existence of interconnected technical means that make up the space complex. The space complex usually includes: a cosmodrome with launch technical and measuring complexes, a flight control center, a long-range space communications, including ground and ship systems, search and rescue and other systems that ensure the functioning of the space complex and its infrastructure.
The design of spacecraft and the operation of their systems, assemblies and elements are significantly influenced by:
Weightlessness;
Deep vacuum;
Radiation, electromagnetic and meteor impacts;
Thermal loads;
Overloads during acceleration and entry into the dense layers of the atmosphere of planets (for descent vehicles), etc.
Weightlessness characterized by a state in which there is no mutual pressure of particles of the medium and objects on each other. As a result of weightlessness, normal functioning is disrupted human body: blood flow, breathing, digestion, activity of the vestibular apparatus; voltages decrease muscular system, leading to muscle atrophy, changes in mineral and protein metabolism in the bones, etc. Weightlessness also affects the design of the spacecraft: heat transfer deteriorates due to the lack of convective heat exchange, the operation of all systems with liquid and gas working fluids becomes more complicated, and the supply of propellant components into the chamber becomes more difficult engine and its start. This requires the use of special technical solutions for the normal functioning of spacecraft systems in zero-gravity conditions.
Effect of deep vacuum affects the characteristics of some materials during their long stay in outer space as a result of the evaporation of individual constituent elements, primarily coatings; due to the evaporation of lubricants and intense diffusion, the performance of rubbing pairs (in hinges and bearings) significantly deteriorates; clean joint surfaces are subject to cold welding. Therefore, most radio-electronic and electrical appliances and systems when operating in a vacuum should be placed in hermetically sealed compartments with a special atmosphere, which at the same time allows them to maintain a given thermal regime.
Radiation exposure, created by solar corpuscular radiation, radiation belts Earth and cosmic radiation, can have a significant impact on physicochemical characteristics, on the structure of materials and their strength, cause ionization of the environment in sealed compartments, and affect the safety of the crew. For long flights spaceships it is necessary to provide special radiation protection ship compartments or radiation shelters.
Electromagnetic influence affects accumulation static electricity on the surface of the spacecraft, which affects the accuracy of the operation of individual instruments and systems, as well as the fire safety of life support systems containing oxygen. The issue of electromagnetic compatibility in the operation of devices and systems is resolved when designing a spacecraft on the basis of special research.
Meteor danger associated with erosion of the spacecraft surface, as a result of which changes optical properties portholes, the efficiency of solar panels and the tightness of the compartments are reduced. To prevent it, various covers, protective shells and coatings are used.
Thermal effects, created solar radiation and the operation of spacecraft fuel systems affect the operation of instruments and crew. To regulate the thermal regime, thermal insulating coatings or protective covers are used on the surface of the spacecraft, thermal conditioning of the internal space is carried out, and special heat exchangers are installed.
Special heat-stressed regimes arise on descending spacecraft when they are decelerated in the planet’s atmosphere. In this case, the thermal and inertial loads on the spacecraft structure are extremely high, which requires the use of special thermal insulation coatings. The most common for the descent parts of the spacecraft are the so-called carried away coatings, made of materials that are carried away by the heat flow. "Carry away" of the material is accompanied by its phase transformation and destruction, for which it is spent a large number of heat entering the surface of the structure, and as a result significantly reduce heat flows. All this allows you to protect the structure of the device so that its temperature does not exceed the permissible one. To reduce the mass of thermal protection on descent vehicles, multilayer coatings are used, in which the top layer can withstand high temperatures and aerodynamic loads, and the inner layers have good heat-shielding properties. The protected surfaces of the SA can be coated with ceramic or glassy materials, graphites, plastics, etc.
For decreasing inertial loads The descent vehicles use planning descent trajectories, and the crew uses special anti-g suits and seats that limit the perception of g-forces by the human body.
Thus, the spacecraft must be equipped with appropriate systems to ensure high reliability operation of all units and structures, as well as the crew during the launch, landing and space flight. To do this, the design and layout of the spacecraft is carried out in a certain way, flight, maneuvering and descent modes are selected, appropriate systems and instruments are used, and redundancy of the most important systems and instruments for the operation of the spacecraft is applied.