The influence of natural conditions and natural resources on the territorial organization of society. Questions at the end of the paragraph

TASK-RES

How is the total amount of energy emitted by 1 m 2 of surface in 1 second determined? ANSWER How the total amount of energy emitted by 1 m 2 of surface in 1 second is determined E (T) = aT 4

Where a = 5.67·10 -8 W/(m 2 K 4), T- the absolute temperature of an absolutely black body on the Kelvin scale. This pattern is called Stefan-Boltzmann radiation law. was established back in the last century on the basis of numerous experimental observations and Stefan, theoretically substantiated by L. Boltzmann, based on the classical laws of thermodynamics and electrodynamics of equilibrium radiation, and subsequently, at the beginning of our century, it was found that this pattern follows from the quantum law of energy distribution in spectrum of equilibrium radiation derived by M. Planck.

Calculation method for determining the wavelength λ m, which accounts for the maximum radiation energy of a black body. According to Wien's displacement law, the wavelength λ m, which accounts for the maximum radiation energy of a black body, is inversely proportional absolute temperature T:

The law of distribution of the spectral power of radiation by an absolutely black body was established by Planck, which is why it is called Planck's radiation law. This law establishes that the radiation power in a unit wavelength interval is determined by temperature T absolutely black body: Moreover, The derivation of this formula, in addition to the assumption of thermodynamic equilibrium of radiation, is based on its quantum nature, i.e. the radiation energy is summed up from the energy of individual quanta with the energy E h =hv. Note that it represents the total energy emitted by a unit surface of a black body into a solid angle of 2π in 1 sec, over the entire frequency range, and it coincides with the Stefan-Boltzmann law

Calculation method for determining the optical mass traveled by direct solar rays through the atmosphere The distance traveled by direct solar rays through the atmosphere depends on the angle of incidence (zenith angle) and the height of the observer above sea level. We assume the presence of a clear sky without clouds, dust or air pollution. Since the upper limit of the atmosphere is not precisely defined, a more important factor than the distance traveled is the interaction of radiation with atmospheric gases and vapors. A direct flow normally passing through the atmosphere at normal pressure interacts with a certain mass of air. Increasing the path length with an oblique beam incidence.

A direct flow normally passing through the atmosphere at normal pressure interacts with a certain mass of air. Increasing the path length with an oblique beam incidence.

Optical mass m = secθ z:1-run length increased by a factor T; 2-normal fallAt an angle θ z, compared to the path at normal fall, is called optical mass and is indicated by the symbol T. From the figure without taking into account curvature earth's surface we get m=secθ z .

Calculation method for determining the intensity of cosmic solar radiation (solar constant) S o, received from the SunIf radius of the Earth R, and the intensity of cosmic solar radiation (solar constant) S o, then the energy received from the Sun is π R 2 (1 - ρ 0)So. This energy is equal to the energy radiated into outer space by the Earth with emissivity ε = 1 and average temperature T e, Hence .

The spectral distribution of long-wave radiation from the Earth's surface, observed from space, approximately corresponds to the spectral distribution of a completely black body at a temperature of 250 K. Atmospheric radiation propagates both to the Earth's surface and to opposite direction. The effective temperature of the Earth's blackbody as an emitter is equivalent to the temperature at which the outer layers of the atmosphere, rather than the Earth's surface, radiate.

Calculation method for determining the flux and density of radiant energy from the sun. In meteorology, radiant energy fluxes are divided into short-wave radiation with wavelengths from 0.2 to 5.0 microns and long-wave radiation with wavelengths from 5.0 to 100 microns. Fluxes of short-wave solar radiation are divided into:- straight;

- scattered (diffuse); - total. Solar energy W- is the energy transferred by electromagnetic waves. Unit of radiation energy W in the international system of units SI is 1 joule. radiant flow F e - which is determined by the formula: F e =W/t,

Where W- radiation energy over time t.

Believing W=1 J, t=1 s, we get: 1 SI (F e) = 1 J/1 sec = 1 W. Radiant flux density radiation ( radiation flux I) which is determined by the formula: where F e is the radiation flux uniformly incident on the surface S.

Believing F e =1 W, S=1 m 2, we find: 1 SI (E e) = 1 W/ 1 m 2 = 1 W/m 2.

Calculation formula direct and total solar radiation

Straight solar radiation-I P represents the flux of radiation coming from solar disk and measured in a plane perpendicular to the sun's rays. Direct radiation arriving at a horizontal surface (S ") is calculated by the formula:

S " = I p sin h, Where h- the height of the sun above the horizon. To measure direct solar radiation, the Savinov-Yaniszewski actinometer is used. Scattered solar radiation (D)- called radiation arriving on a horizontal surface from all points of the celestial vault, with the exception of the solar disk and the circumsolar zone with a radius of 5 0, as a result of the scattering of solar radiation by molecules of atmospheric gases, water drops or ice crystals of clouds and solid particles suspended in the atmosphere. Total solar radiation Q- includes radiation incident on a horizontal plane of two types: direct and diffuse. Q = S " + D(4.7) The total radiation that reaches the earth’s surface is mostly absorbed in the upper, thin layer of soil or water and turns into heat, and is partially reflected.

Identify the main points of the celestial sphere Celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere arbitrary radius. Its center, depending on the problem being solved, is combined with one or another point in space. A plumb line intersects the surface of the celestial sphere at two points: at the top Z - zenith - and at the bottom Z" - nadir. Main points and circles on the celestial sphere

Determine the Celestial Coordinates of the SunBasically the circles relative to which the place of the Sun (luminary) is determined are the true horizon and the celestial meridian coordinates are the height of the Sun (h) and its azimuth (A) .The apparent position of the Sun at any point on the Earth is determined by these two angles Horizontal coordinate system Height h of the Sun above the horizon – the angle between the direction to the Sun from the observation point and the horizontal plane passing through this point. Azimuth A of the Sun - the angle between the meridian plane and the vertical plane drawn through the observation point and the Sun. Zenith angleZ - the angle between the direction to the zenith (Z) and the direction to the Sun. This angle is complementary to the solstice altitude h + z = 90. When the Earth faces the Sun south, the azimuth is zero and the altitude is maximum. This gives rise to the concept noon, which is taken as the beginning of the counting time of the day (or the second half of the day).

Calculation method for determining the angular solar time(hour angle of the Sun) Angular solar time (hour angle of the Sun) τ - represents the angular displacement of the Sun from noon (1 hour corresponds to π/12 glad, or 15° angular displacement). The offset to East from South (i.e., the morning value) is considered positive. The hour angle of the Sun τ varies between the planes of the local meridian and the Solar meridian. Once every 24 hours the Sun enters the meridional plane. Due to the daily rotation of the Earth, the hour angle τ changes during the day from 0 to 360 o or 2π rad (radians), in 24 hours, thus, the Earth, moving along the Orbit, rotates around its axis with angular velocity If we take solar time from true noon, corresponding to the moment the Sun passes through the plane of the local meridian, then we can write: hail or glad

Calculation method for determining the declination of the Sun Declension Sun - the angle between the direction towards the Sun and the equatorial plane is called declination δ and is a measure of seasonal changes. Declination is usually expressed in radians (or degrees) North or South of the equator. Measured from 0° to 90° (positive north of the equator, negative south). The Earth revolves around the Sun per year. The direction of the earth's axis remains fixed in space at an angle δ 0 = 23.5° to the normal to the plane of rotation. In the northern hemisphere, δ varies smoothly from δ 0 = + 23.5° during the summer solstice to δ 0 = -23.5° during the winter solstice. Analytically obtained hail

Where P- day of the year ( n= 1 corresponds to January 1).At equinox points δ = 0 , and the points of sunrise and sunset are located strictly on the E-W horizon line. Thus, the trajectory of the Sun along the celestial sphere is not a closed curve, but is a kind of spherical spiral, packed onto the side surface of the sphere within the band - .

During the summer half-year from March 21 to September 23, the Sun is above the equator plane in the northern celestial hemisphere. During the winter half-year from September 23 to March 21, the Sun is below the equator plane in the southern celestial hemisphere.

Solar radiation is the leading climate-forming factor and practically the only source of energy for all physical processes occurring on the earth's surface and in its atmosphere. It determines the life activity of organisms, creating one or another temperature regime; leads to the formation of clouds and precipitation; is the fundamental cause of the general circulation of the atmosphere, thereby having a huge impact on human life in all its manifestations. In construction and architecture, solar radiation is the most important environmental factor - the orientation of buildings, their structural, space-planning, coloristic, plastic solutions and many other features depend on it.

According to GOST R 55912-2013 “Construction Climatology” adopted following definitions and concepts related to solar radiation:

direct radiation - part of the total solar radiation arriving at the surface in the form of a beam of parallel rays coming directly from the visible disk of the sun;
diffuse solar radiation- part of the total solar radiation arriving on the surface from the entire sky after scattering in the atmosphere;
reflected radiation- part of the total solar radiation reflected from the underlying surface (including from facades, roofs of buildings);
solar radiation intensity- the amount of solar radiation passing per unit time through a single area located perpendicular to the rays.

All values of solar radiation in modern domestic GOSTs, SP (SNiPs) and other regulatory documents related to construction and architecture are measured in kilowatts per hour per 1 m2 (kW h/m2). The unit of time is usually taken to be a month. To obtain the instantaneous (second) value of the power of solar radiation flux (kW/m2), the value given for a month should be divided by the number of days in a month, the number of hours in a day and seconds in hours.

In many early editions of building codes and in many modern climatology reference books, solar radiation values are given in megajoules or kilocalories per m 2 (MJ / m 2, Kcal / m 2). The coefficients for converting these quantities from one to another are given in Appendix 1.

Physical entity. Solar radiation comes to the Earth from the Sun. The Sun is the closest star to us, which on average is 149,450,000 km from the Earth. At the beginning of July, when the Earth is farthest from the Sun (“aphelion”), this distance increases to 152 million km, and at the beginning of January it decreases to 147 million km (“perihelion”).

Inside the solar core, the temperature exceeds 5 million K, and the pressure is several billion times higher than on Earth, as a result of which hydrogen turns into helium. During this thermonuclear reaction, radiant energy is generated, which spreads from the Sun in all directions in the form electromagnetic waves. At the same time, a whole spectrum of wavelengths comes to the Earth, which in meteorology is usually divided into short-wave and long-wave sections. Shortwave are called radiation in the wavelength range from 0.1 to 4 µm (1 µm = 10~ 6 m). Radiation with long lengths (from 4 to 120 microns) is classified as long wave. Solar radiation is predominantly short-wavelength - the specified wavelength range accounts for 99% of all solar radiation energy, while the earth's surface and atmosphere emit long-wave radiation and can only reflect short-wave radiation.

The sun is a source of not only energy, but also light. Visible light occupies a narrow range of wavelengths, only from 0.40 to 0.76 microns, but this range contains 47% of all solar radiant energy. Light with a wavelength of about 0.40 microns is perceived as violet, with a wavelength of about 0.76 microns - as red. The human eye does not perceive all other wavelengths, i.e. they are invisible to us 1 . Infrared radiation (from 0.76 to 4 microns) accounts for 44%, and ultraviolet radiation (from 0.01 to 0.39 microns) accounts for 9% of the total energy. Maximum energy in the spectrum of solar radiation at upper limit The atmosphere lies in the blue-blue region of the spectrum, and at the surface of the earth - in the yellow-green region.

A quantitative measure of solar radiation arriving at a certain surface is energy illumination, or solar radiation flux - the amount of radiant energy falling per unit area per unit time. Maximum amount solar radiation enters the upper boundary of the atmosphere and is characterized by the value of the solar constant. Solar constant - this is the flux of solar radiation at the upper boundary earth's atmosphere through an area perpendicular to the sun's rays, at the average distance of the Earth from the Sun. According to the latest data approved by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 2007, this value is 1.366 kW/m2 (1366 W/m2).

A significantly smaller amount of solar radiation reaches the earth's surface, since as we move sun rays Through the atmosphere, radiation undergoes a number of significant changes. Part of it is absorbed by atmospheric gases and aerosols and turns into heat, i.e. goes to heat the atmosphere, and part of it dissipates and turns into a special form of scattered radiation.

Process takeovers Radiation in the atmosphere is selective - different gases absorb it in different parts of the spectrum and to varying degrees. The main gases that absorb solar radiation are water vapor (H 2 0), ozone (0 3) and carbon dioxide (C0 2). For example, as stated above, stratospheric ozone completely absorbs radiation harmful to living organisms with wavelengths shorter than 0.29 microns, which is why ozone layer is a natural shield for the existence of life on Earth. On average, ozone absorbs about 3% of solar radiation. In the red and infrared regions of the spectrum, water vapor absorbs solar radiation most significantly. In the same region of the spectrum there are absorption bands of carbon dioxide, however

Light and color are discussed in more detail in other sections of the discipline “Architectural Physics”.

in general, its absorption of direct radiation is low. Solar radiation is absorbed by both natural and anthropogenic origin, especially strongly - with soot particles. In total, about 15% of solar radiation is absorbed by water vapor and aerosols, and about 5% by clouds.

Scattering radiation is a physical process of interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter, during which molecules and atoms absorb part of the radiation and then re-radiate it in all directions. This is very important process, which depends on the ratio of the size of the scattering particles and the wavelength of the incident radiation. In absolutely clean air, where scattering is carried out only by gas molecules, it obeys Rayleigh's law, i.e. inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength of the scattered rays. Thus, the blue color of the sky is the color of the air itself, due to the scattering of solar rays in it, since violet and blue rays are scattered by air much better than orange and red ones.

If there are particles in the air whose sizes are comparable to the wavelength of radiation - aerosols, water droplets, ice crystals - then scattering will not obey Rayleigh's law, and the scattered radiation will not be so rich in short-wave rays. On particles with a diameter greater than 1-2 microns, not scattering will occur, but diffuse reflection, which determines the whitish color of the sky.

Scattering plays a huge role in the formation of natural light: in the absence of the Sun during the daytime, it creates scattered (diffuse) light. If there were no scattering, there would be light only where direct sunlight would fall. Twilight and dawn, the color of clouds at sunrise and sunset are also associated with this phenomenon.

So, solar radiation reaches the earth's surface in the form of two streams: direct and diffuse radiation.

Direct radiation(5) comes to the earth's surface directly from the solar disk. In this case, the maximum possible amount of radiation will be received by a single area located perpendicular to the sun’s rays (5). Per unit horizontal the surface will receive a smaller amount of radiant energy Y, also called insolation:

У = ?-8шА 0 , (1.1)

Where And 0 - the height of the Sun above the horizon, which determines the angle of incidence of the sun's rays on a horizontal surface.

Scattered radiation(/)) enters the earth's surface from all points of the celestial vault, with the exception of the solar disk.

All solar radiation arriving at the earth's surface is called total solar radiation (0:

(1.2)
0 = + /) = And 0 + /).

The arrival of these types of radiation significantly depends not only on astronomical reasons, but also on cloudiness. Therefore, in meteorology it is customary to distinguish possible amounts of radiation observed under cloudless conditions, and actual amounts of radiation, occurring under real cloud conditions.

Not all solar radiation falling on the earth's surface is absorbed by it and converted into heat. Part of it is reflected and, therefore, lost by the underlying surface. This part is called reflected radiation(/? k), and its value depends on albedo earth's surface (Lc):

A k = - 100%.

The albedo value is measured in fractions of unity or as a percentage. In construction and architecture, fractions of a unit are more often used. They also measure the reflectivity of building and finishing materials, the lightness of the color of facades, etc. In climatology, albedo is measured as a percentage.

Albedo has a significant impact on the processes of formation of the Earth's climate, since it is an integral indicator of the reflectivity of the underlying surface. It depends on the state of this surface (roughness, color, moisture content) and varies within very wide limits. The highest albedo values (up to 75%) are characteristic of freshly fallen snow, and the lowest are characteristic of the water surface with a steep incidence of sunlight (“3%). The albedo of the soil and vegetation surface varies on average from 10 to 30%.

If we consider the entire Earth as a whole, its albedo is 30%. This quantity is called Earth's planetary albedo and is the ratio of reflected and scattered solar radiation going into space to the total amount of radiation entering the atmosphere.

In urban areas, the albedo is usually lower than in natural, undisturbed landscapes. The characteristic albedo value for the territory of large cities with a temperate climate is 15-18%. In southern cities, the albedo is, as a rule, higher due to the use of lighter colors in the coloring of facades and roofs; in northern cities with dense buildings and dark color solutions for buildings, the albedo is lower. This allows in hot southern countries to reduce the amount of absorbed solar radiation, thereby reducing the thermal background of the building, and in northern cold regions, on the contrary, to increase the share of absorbed solar radiation, increasing the overall thermal background.

Absorbed Radiation(*U P0GL) also called shortwave radiation balance (VC) and is the difference between the total and reflected radiation (two short-wave fluxes):

^absorb = 5 k = 0~ I K- (1.4)

It heats the upper layers of the earth's surface and everything that is located on it (vegetation cover, roads, buildings, structures, etc.), as a result of which they emit long-wave radiation, invisible to the human eye. This radiation is more often called own radiation of the earth's surface(? 3). Its value, according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law, is proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature.

The atmosphere also emits long-wave radiation, most of which reaches the earth's surface and is almost completely absorbed by it. This radiation is called counter radiation from the atmosphere (E a). The counter-radiation of the atmosphere increases with increasing cloudiness and air humidity and is a very important source of heat for the earth's surface. Nevertheless, the long-wave radiation of the atmosphere is always slightly less than the earth's, due to which the earth's surface loses heat, and the difference between these values is called effective radiation of the Earth (E ef).

On average, in temperate latitudes, the earth's surface through effective radiation loses approximately half the amount of heat that it receives from absorbed solar radiation. By absorbing the earth's radiation and sending counter radiation to the earth's surface, the atmosphere reduces the cooling of this surface at night. During the day, it does little to prevent the heating of the Earth's surface. This influence of the earth's atmosphere on the thermal regime of the earth's surface is called greenhouse effect. Thus, the phenomenon of the greenhouse effect is the retention of heat near the surface of the Earth. A major role in this process is played by gases of technogenic origin, primarily carbon dioxide, the concentration of which is especially high in cities. But the main role still belongs to gases of natural origin.

The main substance in the atmosphere that absorbs long-wave radiation from the Earth and sends counter radiation is water vapor It absorbs almost all long-wave radiation with the exception of the wavelength range from 8.5 to 12 microns, which is called "transparency window" water vapor. Only in this interval does terrestrial radiation pass into outer space through the atmosphere. In addition to water vapor, carbon dioxide strongly absorbs long-wave radiation, and it is precisely in the window of transparency of water vapor; ozone, as well as methane, nitrogen oxide, chlorofluorocarbons (freons) and some other gas impurities, absorb much more weakly.

Heat retention near the earth's surface is a very important process for maintaining life. Without it, the average temperature of the Earth would be 33°C lower than the current one, and living organisms could hardly live on Earth. Therefore, the point is not in the greenhouse effect as such (after all, it arose from the moment the atmosphere was formed), but in the fact that, under the influence of anthropogenic activity, gain this effect. The reason is the rapid increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases of technogenic origin, mainly C0 2, emitted during the combustion of organic fuel. This can lead to the fact that, with the same incoming radiation, the proportion of heat remaining on the planet will increase, and consequently, the temperature of the earth’s surface and atmosphere will increase. Over the past 100 years, the air temperature of our planet has increased by an average of 0.6°C.

It is believed that when the concentration of CO 2 doubles relative to its pre-industrial value, global warming will be about 3°C (according to various estimates - from 1.5 to 5.5°C). Wherein biggest changes should occur in the troposphere of high latitudes in the autumn-winter period. As a result, ice in the Arctic and Antarctica will begin to melt and the level of the World Ocean will begin to rise. This increase can range from 25 to 165 cm, which means that many cities located in coastal areas seas and oceans will be flooded.

Thus, this is a very important issue affecting the lives of millions of people. Taking this into account, in 1988 the first International Conference on the problem of anthropogenic climate change was held in Toronto. Scientists have come to the conclusion that the consequences of an increase in the greenhouse effect due to an increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are second only to the consequences of a global nuclear war. At the same time, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was formed at the United Nations (UN). IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), which studies the impact of rising surface temperatures on the climate, the ecosystem of the World Ocean, the biosphere as a whole, including the life and health of the planet's population.

In 1992, the Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) was adopted in New York, the main goal of which was to ensure the stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at levels that would prevent dangerous consequences human intervention in climate system. For practical implementation convention in December 1997 in Kyoto (Japan) on international conference The Kyoto Protocol was adopted. It defines specific quotas for greenhouse gas emissions by participating countries, including Russia, which ratified this Protocol in 2005.

At the time of writing this book, one of the latest conferences, dedicated to climate change, is the Climate Conference in Paris, held from November 30 to December 12, 2015. The purpose of this conference is to sign an international agreement to limit the increase in the average temperature of the planet to no more than 2°C by 2100.

So, as a result of the interaction of various flows of short-wave and long-wave radiation, the earth's surface continuously receives and loses heat. The resulting value of radiation inflow and outflow is radiation balance (IN), which determines the thermal state of the earth’s surface and the ground layer of air, namely their heating or cooling:

IN = Q- «k - ?eff = 60 - A)-? ef =

= (5"sin/^ > + D)(l-A)-E^f = B k + B a. (

Data on the radiation balance are necessary for assessing the degree of heating and cooling of various surfaces both in natural conditions and in the architectural environment, calculating the thermal regime of buildings and structures, determining evaporation, heat reserves in the soil, rationing irrigation of agricultural fields and other national economic purposes .

Measurement methods. Research is key radiation balance Earth for understanding the patterns of climate and the formation of microclimatic conditions determines the fundamental role of observational data on its components - actinometric observations.

At meteorological stations in Russia it is used thermoelectric method measurements of radiation fluxes. The measured radiation is absorbed by the black receiving surface of the instruments, turns into heat and heats the active junctions of the thermopile, while the passive junctions are not heated by radiation and have a lower temperature. Due to the difference in the temperatures of the active and passive junctions, a thermoelectromotive force appears at the terminal of the thermopile, proportional to the intensity of the measured radiation. Thus, most actinometric instruments are relative- they measure not the radiation fluxes themselves, but quantities proportional to them - current or voltage. For this purpose, devices are connected, for example, to digital multimeters, and previously to pointer galvanometers. At the same time, the passport of each device contains the so-called "conversion factor" - division price of an electrical measuring device (W/m2). This multiplier is calculated by comparing the readings of a particular relative instrument with the readings absolute devices - pyrheliometers.

The principle of operation of absolute devices is different. Thus, in the Ångström compensation pyrheliometer, a blackened metal plate is exposed to the sun, while another similar plate remains in the shade. A temperature difference arises between them, which is transferred to the thermoelement junctions attached to the plates, and thus a thermoelectric current is excited. In this case, current from the battery is passed through the shaded plate until it heats up to the same temperature as the plate in the sun, after which the thermoelectric current disappears. Based on the strength of the passed “compensating” current, one can determine the amount of heat received by the blackened plate, which, in turn, will be equal to the amount of heat received from the Sun by the first plate. In this way, the amount of solar radiation can be determined.

At weather stations in Russia (and previously in the USSR), conducting observations of the components of the radiation balance, the homogeneity of actinometric data series is ensured by the use of the same type of instruments and their careful calibration, as well as the same measurement and data processing techniques. As receivers of integral solar radiation (

In the Savinov-Yanishevsky thermoelectric actinometer, the appearance of which is shown in Fig. 1.6, the receiving part is a thin metal blackened disk made of silver foil, to which the odd (active) junctions of the thermopile are glued through the insulation. During measurements, this disk absorbs solar radiation, as a result of which the temperature of the disk and active junctions increases. The even (passive) junctions are glued through insulation to a copper ring in the device body and have a temperature close to the outside air temperature. This temperature difference, when closing the external circuit of the thermopile, creates a thermoelectric current, the strength of which is proportional to the intensity of solar radiation.

Rice. 1.6.

In a pyranometer (Fig. 1.7), the receiving part most often represents a battery of thermoelements, for example, made of manganin and constantan, with blackened and white junctions, which are heated unequally under the influence of incoming radiation. The receiving part of the device must have a horizontal position in order to perceive scattered radiation from the entire vault of heaven. The pyranometer is shaded from direct radiation by a screen, and protected from counter radiation from the atmosphere by a glass cover. When measuring total radiation, the pyranometer is not shaded from direct rays.

Rice. 1.7.

A special device (folding plate) allows the pyranometer head to be placed in two positions: receiver up and receiver down. In the latter case, the pyranometer measures short-wave radiation reflected from the earth's surface. In route observations, the so-called hiking albe-dometer, which is a pyranometer head connected to a tilting gimbal with a handle.

The thermoelectric balance meter consists of a body with a thermopile, two receiving plates and a handle (Fig. 1.8). The disk-shaped body (/) has a square cutout where the thermopile is mounted (2). Handle ( 3 ), soldered to the body, serves to install the balance meter on a stand.

Rice. 1.8.

One blackened receiving plate of the balance meter is directed upward, the other - downward, towards the earth's surface. The principle of operation of an unshaded balance meter is based on the fact that all types of radiation arriving at the active surface (U, /) and E a), are absorbed by the blackened receiving surface of the device, facing upward, and all types of radiation escaping from the active surface (/? k, /? l and E 3), are absorbed by the plate pointing downwards. Each receiving plate itself also emits long-wave radiation; in addition, heat exchange occurs with the surrounding air and the body of the device. However, due to the high thermal conductivity of the housing, greater heat transfer occurs, which does not allow the formation of a significant temperature difference between the receiving plates. For this reason, the intrinsic radiation of both plates can be neglected, and from the difference in their heating, the value of the radiation balance of any surface in the plane of which the balance meter is located can be determined.

Since the receiving surfaces of the balance meter are not covered by a glass cover (otherwise it would be impossible to measure long-wave radiation), the readings of this device depend on the wind speed, which reduces the temperature difference of the receiving surfaces. For this reason, the readings of the balance meter lead to calm conditions, having previously measured the wind speed at the level of the device.

For automatic registration measurements, the thermoelectric current arising in the devices described above is supplied to a recording electronic potentiometer. Changes in current strength are recorded on a moving paper tape, while the actinometer must automatically rotate so that its receiving part follows the Sun, and the pyranometer must always be shaded from direct radiation by a special ring protection.

Actinometric observations, in contrast to basic meteorological observations, are carried out six times a day at the following times: 00:30, 06:30, 09:30, 12:30, 15:30 and 18:30. Since the intensity of all types of short-wave radiation depends on the height of the Sun above the horizon, the observation periods are set according to mean solar time stations.

Characteristic values. The magnitudes of direct and total radiation fluxes play one of the most important roles in architectural and climatic analysis. It is with their consideration that the orientation of buildings on the sides of the horizon, their space-planning and color solutions, internal layout, the size of light openings and a number of other architectural features are associated. Therefore, the daily and annual cycle characteristic values will be considered specifically for these values of solar radiation.

Energy illuminance direct solar radiation under cloudless skies depends on the height of the sun, the properties of the atmosphere in the path of the sun's ray, characterized by transparency coefficient(a value showing what fraction of solar radiation reaches the earth's surface when the sun's rays fall vertically) and the length of this path.

Direct solar radiation under cloudless skies has a fairly simple diurnal cycle with a maximum at around noon (Fig. 1.9). As follows from the figure, during the day the flux of solar radiation first quickly, then slowly increases from sunrise to noon and first slowly, then quickly decreases from noon to sunset. Differences in irradiance at midday when clear sky in January and July are primarily due to differences in the midday height of the Sun, which is lower in winter than in summer. At the same time, in continental regions, an asymmetry of the diurnal cycle is often observed, due to the difference in atmospheric transparency in the morning and afternoon hours. The transparency of the atmosphere also affects the annual course of average monthly values of direct solar radiation. The maximum radiation under cloudless skies may shift to the spring months, since in spring the dust content and moisture content of the atmosphere is lower than in autumn.

5 1, kW/m 2

b", kW/m2

Rice. 1.9.

and under average cloudy conditions (b):

7 - on a surface perpendicular to the rays in July; 2 - on a horizontal surface in July; 3 - on a perpendicular surface in January; 4 - on a horizontal surface in January

Cloudiness reduces the arrival of solar radiation and can significantly change its diurnal cycle, which is manifested in the ratio of the pre- and afternoon hourly sums. Thus, in most of the continental regions of Russia in the spring- summer months hourly amounts of direct radiation in the pre-noon hours are greater than in the afternoon (Fig. 1.9, b). This is mainly determined by the diurnal variation of cloudiness, which begins to develop at 9-10 am and reaches a maximum in the afternoon hours, thus reducing radiation. The overall reduction in the influx of direct solar radiation under actual cloudy conditions can be very significant. For example, in Vladivostok, with its monsoon climate, these losses in summer amount to 75%, and in St. Petersburg, even on an average year, clouds prevent 65% of direct radiation from reaching the earth’s surface, in Moscow - about half.

Distribution annual amounts direct solar radiation under average cloudy conditions over the territory of Russia is shown in Fig. 1.10. To a large extent, this factor, which reduces the amount of solar radiation, depends on atmospheric circulation, which leads to disruption latitudinal distribution radiation.

As can be seen from the figure, in general, the annual amounts of direct radiation arriving at a horizontal surface increase from high to lower latitudes from 800 to almost 3000 MJ/m2. A large number of clouds in the European part of Russia leads to a decrease in annual amounts compared to the regions of Eastern Siberia, where, mainly due to the influence of the Asian anticyclone in winter, annual amounts increase. At the same time, the summer monsoon leads to a decrease in the annual influx of radiation in coastal areas in the Far East. The range of changes in the midday intensity of direct solar radiation on the territory of Russia varies from 0.54-0.91 kW/m 2 in summer to 0.02-0.43 kW/m 2 in winter.

Scattered radiation entering the horizontal surface also changes during the day, increasing until noon and decreasing after it (Fig. 1.11).

As in the case of direct solar radiation, the arrival of diffuse radiation is influenced not only by the height of the sun and the length of the day, but also by the transparency of the atmosphere. However, a decrease in the latter leads to an increase in scattered radiation (as opposed to direct radiation). In addition, scattered radiation depends on cloud cover to a very wide extent: under average cloudy conditions its arrival is more than twice as high as the values observed under clear skies. On some days, cloudiness increases this figure by 3-4 times. Thus, scattered radiation can significantly complement direct radiation, especially at a low position of the Sun.

Rice. 1.10. Direct solar radiation arriving on a horizontal surface under average cloudy conditions, MJ/m2 per year (1 MJ/m2 = 0.278 kW? h/m2)

/), kW/m 2 0.3 g

0,2 -
0,1 -

4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 Hours

Rice. 1.11.

and under average cloudy conditions (b)

The amount of diffuse solar radiation in the tropics ranges from 50 to 75% of direct radiation; at 50-60° latitude it is close to direct solar radiation, and at high latitudes it exceeds direct solar radiation almost the entire year.

A very important factor influencing the flux of scattered radiation is albedo underlying surface. If the albedo is large enough, then the radiation reflected from the underlying surface, scattered back by the atmosphere, can cause a significant increase in the arrival of scattered radiation. The effect is most pronounced in the presence of snow cover, which has the greatest reflectivity.

Total radiation under cloudless skies (possible radiation) depends on the latitude of the place, the height of the sun, the optical properties of the atmosphere and the nature of the underlying surface. Under clear sky conditions it has a simple diurnal cycle with a maximum at noon. The asymmetry of the diurnal cycle, characteristic of direct radiation, shows up little in the total radiation, since the decrease in direct radiation due to an increase in atmospheric turbidity in the second half of the day is compensated by an increase in scattered radiation due to the same factor. In the annual course, the maximum intensity of total radiation under cloudless skies over most of the territory

territory of Russia is observed in June due to the maximum midday height of the sun. However, in some areas this influence is overlapped by the influence of atmospheric transparency, and the maximum shifts to May (for example, in Transbaikalia, Primorye, Sakhalin and in a number of regions of Eastern Siberia). The distribution of monthly and annual amounts of total solar radiation under cloudless skies is given in Table. 1.9 and in Fig. 1.12 in the form of latitude-averaged values.

From the given table and figure it is clear that in all seasons of the year both the intensity and the amount of radiation increase from north to south in accordance with the change in the altitude of the sun. The exception is the period from May to July, when the combination of long day length and sun altitude provides fairly high values of total radiation in the north and in Russia as a whole, the radiation field is blurred, i.e. has no pronounced gradients.

Table 1.9

Total solar radiation on a horizontal surface

with a cloudless sky (kW h/m 2)

	Geographic latitude, °N









September

Rice. 1.12. Total solar radiation on a horizontal surface with a cloudless sky at various latitudes (1 MJ/m2 = 0.278 kWh/m2)

If there is cloudiness total solar radiation is determined not only by the number and shape of clouds, but also by the state of the solar disk. When the solar disk shines through the clouds, the total radiation compared to cloudless conditions may even increase due to an increase in scattered radiation.

For average cloudy conditions, a completely natural daily variation of total radiation is observed: a gradual increase from sunrise to noon and a decrease from noon to sunset. At the same time, the diurnal variation of cloudiness breaks the symmetry of the variation relative to noon, characteristic of a cloudless sky. Thus, in most regions of Russia during the warm period, the before-noon values of total radiation are 3-8% higher than the afternoon values, with the exception of the monsoon regions of the Far East, where the ratio is the opposite. In the annual course of the average long-term monthly sums of total radiation, along with the determining astronomical factor, a circulation factor appears (through the influence of cloudiness), so the maximum can shift from June to July and even to May (Fig. 1.13).

600 -
500 -
400 -
300 -
200 -

m. Chelyuskin

Salekhard

Arkhangelsk

St. Petersburg

Petropavlovsk

Kamchatsky

Khabarovsk

Astrakhan

Rice. 1.13. Total solar radiation on a horizontal surface in individual cities of Russia under real cloudy conditions (1 MJ/m 2 = 0.278 kWh/m 2)

5", MJ/m 2 700

So, the actual monthly and annual arrival of total radiation is only part of what is possible. The largest deviations of real amounts from possible summer are observed in the Far East, where cloudiness reduces total radiation by 40-60%. In general, the total annual influx of total radiation varies across the territory of Russia in the latitudinal direction, increasing from 2800 MJ/m2 on the coasts of the northern seas to 4800-5000 MJ/m2 in southern regions Russia - the Northern Caucasus, the Lower Volga region, Transbaikalia and the Primorsky Territory (Fig. 1.14).

Rice. 1.14. Total radiation arriving at a horizontal surface, MJ/m2 per year

In summer, differences in total solar radiation under real cloud conditions between cities located at different latitudes are not as “dramatic” as it might seem at first glance. For the European part of Russia from Astrakhan to Cape Chelyuskin, these values lie in the range of 550-650 MJ/m2. In winter, in most cities, with the exception of the Arctic, where the polar night sets in, the total radiation is 50-150 MJ/m2 per month.

For comparison: the average January heat indicators for urban development (calculated based on actual data for Moscow) range from 220 MJ/m2 per month in urban urban centers to 120-150 MJ/m2 in interhighway areas with low-density residential development. In the territories of production and utility-warehouse zones, heat indicators in January are 140 MJ/m 2 . The total solar radiation in Moscow in January is 62 MJ/m 2. Thus, in winter, through the use of solar radiation, it is possible to cover no more than 10-15% (taking into account the efficiency of solar panels of 40%) of the design heat of the building medium density even in Irkutsk and Yakutsk, famous for their sunny winter weather, even if their territory is completely covered with photovoltaic panels.

In summer, total solar radiation increases by 6-9 times, and heat consumption is reduced by 5-7 times compared to winter. Heat indices in July decrease to values of 35 MJ/m2 and less - in residential areas and 15 MJ/m2 and less - in territories industrial purposes, i.e. to values constituting no more than 3-5% of the total solar radiation. Therefore, in the summer, when heating and lighting needs are minimal, throughout Russia there is an excess of this renewable natural resource that cannot be recycled, which once again calls into question the feasibility of using photovoltaic panels, at least in cities and apartment buildings.

Electricity consumption (without heating and hot water supply), also associated with the uneven distribution of the total building area, population density and functional purpose of various territories, is in

Heat density is the average indicator of consumption of all types of energy (electricity, heating, hot water supply) per 1 m 2 of the building area.

cases from 37 MJ/m 2 per month (calculated as 1/12 of the annual amount) in densely built-up areas and up to 10-15 MJ/m 2 per month in areas with low building density. During the daytime and in summer, electricity consumption naturally drops. The density of electricity consumption in July in most residential and mixed-use areas is 8-12 MJ/m2, with total solar radiation under real cloudy conditions in Moscow about 600 MJ/m2. Thus, to cover the power supply needs of urban areas (using the example of Moscow), it is necessary to utilize only about 1.5-2% of solar radiation. The remaining radiation, if disposed of, will be excess. At the same time, the issue of accumulating and preserving daytime solar radiation for lighting in the evening and at night, when the load on power supply systems is maximum, and the sun hardly or does not shine at all, has yet to be resolved. This will require transmitting electricity over long distances between areas where the Sun is still quite high and those where the Sun has already set below the horizon. At the same time, electricity losses in networks will be comparable to its savings through the use of photovoltaic panels. Or it will be necessary to use high-capacity batteries, the production, installation and subsequent disposal of which will require energy costs that are unlikely to be covered by energy savings accumulated over the entire period of their operation.

Another, no less important factor that makes questionable the feasibility of switching to solar panels as an alternative source of power supply on a city scale is that ultimately the operation of photovoltaic cells will lead to a significant increase in solar radiation absorbed in the city, and consequently to an increase in air temperature in the city. city in summer. Thus, simultaneously with cooling due to photo panels and air conditioners powered from them internal environment there will be a general increase in air temperature in the city, which will ultimately reduce to zero all the economic and environmental benefits from saving electricity through the use of still very expensive photovoltaic panels.

It follows that the installation of equipment for converting solar radiation into electricity is justified in a very limited list of cases: only in summer, only in climatic regions with dry, hot, partly cloudy weather, only in small towns or individual cottage villages, and only if this electricity is used to operate the installations on air conditioning and ventilation of the internal environment of buildings. In other cases - other areas, other urban conditions and at other times of the year - the use of photovoltaic panels and solar collectors for the needs of electricity and heat supply to ordinary buildings in medium and large cities located in a temperate climate is ineffective.

Bioclimatic significance of solar radiation. The determining role of the impact of solar radiation on living organisms comes down to participation in the formation of their radiation and heat balances due to thermal energy in the visible and infrared parts of the solar spectrum.

Visible rays are especially important for organisms. Most animals, like humans, are good at distinguishing the spectral composition of light, and some insects even see in the ultraviolet range. Having light vision and light orientation is an important survival factor. For example, in a person, the presence of color vision is one of the most psycho-emotional and optimizing factors in life. Being in the dark has the opposite effect.

As you know, green plants synthesize organic matter and, therefore, produce food for all other organisms, including humans. This process, essential for life, occurs during the assimilation of solar radiation, and plants use a certain range of the spectrum in the wavelength range 0.38-0.71 microns. This radiation is called photosynthetically active radiation(PAR) and is very important for plant productivity.

The visible part of the light creates natural illumination. In relation to it, all plants are divided into light-loving and shade-tolerant. Insufficient light causes stem weakness, weakens the formation of ears and ears on plants, reduces the sugar content and the amount of oils in cultivated plants, and makes it difficult for them to use mineral nutrition and fertilizers.

Biological effect infrared rays consists of thermal effect when they are absorbed by the tissues of plants and animals. In this case, the kinetic energy of molecules changes, and electrical and chemical processes accelerate. Due to infrared radiation, the lack of heat (especially in high mountain areas and high latitudes) received by plants and animals from the surrounding space is compensated.

Ultraviolet radiation according to biological properties and effects on humans, they are usually divided into three regions: region A - with wavelengths from 0.32 to 0.39 microns; region B - from 0.28 to 0.32 μm and region C - from 0.01 to 0.28 μm. Region A is characterized by a relatively weakly expressed biological effect. It only causes fluorescence of a number of organic substances; in humans it promotes the formation of pigment in the skin and mild erythema (redness of the skin).

The rays of area B are much more active. Various reactions of organisms to ultraviolet irradiation, changes in the skin, blood, etc. mainly due to them. The known vitamin-forming effect of ultraviolet radiation is that ergosterone nutrients are converted into vitamin O, which has a strong stimulating effect on growth and metabolism.

The most powerful biological effect on living cells is exerted by the rays of area C. Bactericidal effect sunlight mainly due to them. In small doses, ultraviolet rays are necessary for plants, animals and humans, especially children. However, in large quantities, region C rays are destructive to all living things, and life on Earth is possible only because this short-wave radiation is almost completely blocked by the ozone layer of the atmosphere. The solution to the issue of the impact of excessive doses of ultraviolet radiation on the biosphere and humans has become especially urgent in recent decades due to the depletion of the ozone layer of the Earth’s atmosphere.

The effect of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) reaching the earth's surface on a living organism is very diverse. As mentioned above, in moderate doses it has a beneficial effect: it increases vitality and increases the body’s resistance to infectious diseases. A lack of UVR leads to pathological phenomena called UV deficiency or UV starvation and manifests itself in a lack of vitamin E, which leads to a disruption of phosphorus-calcium metabolism in the body.

Excess UVR can lead to very serious consequences: the formation of skin cancer, the development of other oncological formations, the appearance of photokeratitis (“snow blindness”), photoconjunctivitis and even cataracts; disruption of the immune system of living organisms, as well as mutagenic processes in plants; changes in properties and destruction polymer materials, widely used in construction and architecture. For example, UV radiation can discolor facade paints or lead to mechanical destruction of polymer finishing and structural building products.

Architectural and construction significance of solar radiation. Data on solar energy are used in calculating the thermal balance of buildings and heating and air conditioning systems, in analyzing the aging processes of various materials, taking into account the effect of radiation on the thermal state of a person, choosing the optimal species composition of green spaces for landscaping a particular area and many other purposes. Solar radiation determines the regime of natural illumination of the earth's surface, knowledge of which is necessary when planning energy consumption, designing various structures and organizing transport. Thus, the radiation regime is one of the leading urban planning and architectural and construction factors.

Insolation of buildings is one of the most important conditions hygiene of the building, therefore, special attention is paid to irradiation of surfaces with direct sunlight as an important environmental factor. At the same time, the Sun not only has a hygienic effect on the internal environment, killing pathogenic organisms, but also has a psychological effect on a person. The effect of such irradiation depends on the duration of the process of exposure to sunlight, so insolation is measured in hours, and its duration is standardized by the relevant documents of the Russian Ministry of Health.

The required minimum solar radiation to ensure comfortable conditions the internal environment of buildings, conditions for human work and rest, consists of the required illumination of living and working premises, the amount of ultraviolet radiation required for the human body, the amount of heat absorbed by external fences and transferred inside buildings, ensuring thermal comfort of the internal environment. Based on these requirements, architectural and planning decisions are made, and the orientation of living rooms, kitchens, utility and work spaces is determined. If there is an excess of solar radiation, it is necessary to install loggias, blinds, shutters and other sun protection devices.

Analysis of the amounts of solar radiation (direct and diffuse) arriving at differently oriented surfaces (vertical and horizontal) is recommended to be carried out on the following scale:

less than 50 kW h/m 2 per month - insignificant radiation;
50-100 kW h/m 2 per month - average radiation;
100-200 kW h/m 2 per month - high radiation;
more than 200 kW h/m 2 per month - excess radiation.

With insignificant radiation observed in temperate latitudes mainly in the winter months, its contribution to the thermal balance of buildings is so small that it can be neglected. With average radiation in temperate latitudes, a transition occurs to the region negative values radiation balance of the earth's surface and buildings, structures, artificial coatings, etc. located on it. In this regard, they begin to lose more thermal energy during the daily cycle than they receive heat from the sun during the day. These losses in heat balance buildings are not covered by internal sources heat (electrical appliances, hot water pipes, metabolic heat generation of people, etc.), and they must be compensated by the operation of heating systems - the heating period begins.

With high radiation and real cloudy conditions, the thermal background of the urban area and the internal environment of buildings is in the comfort zone without using artificial systems heating and cooling.

With excess radiation in cities of temperate latitudes, especially those located in temperate continental and sharply continental climates, overheating of buildings and their internal and external environments can be observed in summer. In this regard, architects are faced with the task of protecting architectural environment from excessive insolation. Appropriate space-planning solutions are used, the optimal orientation of buildings along the horizon, architectural sun protection elements of facades and light openings are selected. If architectural means to protect against overheating are not enough, then the need arises for artificial conditioning of the internal environment of buildings.

The radiation regime also affects the choice of orientation and size of light openings. At low radiation, the size of light openings can be increased to any size, provided that heat loss through external fences is maintained at a level not higher than the standard one. In case of excess radiation, light openings are made minimal in size, ensuring the requirements for insolation and natural illumination of the premises.

The lightness of facades, which determines their reflectivity (albedo), is also selected based on sun protection requirements or, conversely, taking into account the possibility of maximum absorption of solar radiation in areas with cool and cold weather. humid climate and with moderate to negligible solar radiation during the summer months. To select facing materials based on their reflective ability, it is necessary to know how much solar radiation reaches the walls of buildings of various orientations and what is the ability of various materials to absorb this radiation. Since the arrival of radiation to the wall depends on the latitude of the place and how the wall is oriented in relation to the sides of the horizon, the heating of the wall and the temperature inside the rooms adjacent to it will depend on this.

The absorption capacity of various facade finishing materials depends on their color and condition (Table 1.10). If the monthly amounts of solar radiation arriving at walls of various orientations 1 and the albedo of these walls are known, then the amount of heat absorbed by them can be determined.

Table 1.10

Absorption capacity of building materials

Data on the amount of incoming solar radiation (direct and diffuse) under a cloudless sky on vertical surfaces of various orientations are given in the joint venture “Building Climatology”.

Name of material and processing	Characteristic surfaces	surfaces	Absorbed radiation,%
Concrete plastered	Rough
		Light blue
		Dark grey
		Bluish
	Hewn
		Yellowish brown


	Polished
	Clean cut	Light gray
	Hewn
Roof
Ruberoid		brown
Cink Steel		Light gray
Roof tiles

By selecting appropriate materials and colors for building envelopes, i.e. By changing the albedo of the walls, you can change the amount of radiation absorbed by the wall and, thus, reduce or increase the heating of the walls by solar heat. This technique is actively used in the traditional architecture of various countries. Everyone knows that southern cities are distinguished by the overall light (white with colored decor) coloring of most residential buildings, while, for example, Scandinavian cities are mainly cities built of dark brick or using dark-colored planks for cladding buildings.

It is estimated that 100 kWh/m2 of absorbed radiation increases the external surface temperature by approximately 4°C. The walls of buildings in most regions of Russia receive this amount of radiation on average per hour if they are oriented to the south and east, as well as to the west, southwest and southeast if they are made of dark brick and are not plastered or have dark-colored plaster.

To move from the monthly average wall temperature without taking into account radiation to the most frequently used characteristic in thermal engineering calculations - the outside air temperature - an additional temperature additive is introduced At, depending on the monthly amount of solar radiation absorbed by the wall VC(Fig. 1.15). Thus, knowing the intensity of the total solar radiation coming to the wall and the albedo of the surface of this wall, it is possible to calculate its temperature by introducing an appropriate correction to the air temperature.

VC, kW h/m 2

Rice. 1.15. Increase in temperature of the outer surface of the wall due to absorption of solar radiation

IN general case the temperature addition due to absorbed radiation is determined ceteris paribus, i.e. at the same air temperature, humidity and thermal resistance of the enclosing structure, regardless of wind speed.

In clear weather, at midday the southern, before noon - southeastern and in the afternoon - southwestern walls can absorb up to 350-400 kWh/m 2 of solar heat and heat up so that their temperature can be 15-20 ° C higher outside air temperature. This creates large temperature con-

trusts between the walls of the same building. These contrasts in some areas turn out to be significant not only in summer, but also in the cold season in sunny, low-wind weather, even at very low air temperatures. Metal structures are especially susceptible to overheating. Thus, according to available observations, in Yakutia, located in a temperate sharply continental climate, characterized by partly cloudy weather in winter and summer, at midday with a clear sky, the aluminum parts of the enclosing structures and the roof of the Yakut hydroelectric power station are heated 40-50 ° C above the air temperature, even at low values of the latter.

Overheating of insulated walls due to the absorption of solar radiation must be provided for already at the architectural design stage. This effect requires not only the protection of walls from excessive insolation by architectural methods, but also appropriate planning solutions for buildings, the use of heating systems of different power for differently oriented facades, the inclusion of seams in the design to relieve stress in structures and violation of the tightness of joints due to their temperature deformations etc.

In table 1.11 shows as an example the monthly amounts of absorbed solar radiation in June for several geographical objects former USSR at given albedo values. From this table it can be seen that if the albedo of the northern wall of the building is 30%, and the southern one is 50%, then in Odessa, Tbilisi and Tashkent they will heat up to the same extent. If in northern regions If the albedo of the northern wall is reduced to 10%, then it will receive almost 1.5 times more heat than a wall with an albedo of 30%.

Table 1.11

Monthly amounts of solar radiation absorbed by the walls of buildings in June at various albedo values (kW h/m2)

In the above examples, based on data on total (direct and diffuse) solar radiation contained in the joint venture "Building Climatology" and climate reference books, solar radiation reflected from the earth's surface and surrounding objects (for example, existing buildings) arriving at various walls of buildings. It depends less on their orientation, which is why it is not given in regulatory documents for construction. However, this reflected radiation can be quite intense and comparable in power to direct or scattered radiation. Therefore, during architectural design it must be taken into account, calculating for each specific case.

Solar radiation - radiation characteristic of our luminary planetary system. The Sun is the main star around which the Earth and its neighboring planets revolve. In fact, it is a huge hot ball of gas, constantly emitting streams of energy into the space around it. This is what is called radiation. Deadly, at the same time, this energy is one of the main factors that makes life possible on our planet. Like everything in this world, the benefits and harms of solar radiation for organic life are closely interrelated.

General overview

To understand what solar radiation is, you must first understand what the Sun is. The main source of heat that provides the conditions for organic existence on our planet, in the universal expanses, is only a small star on the galactic outskirts Milky Way. But for earthlings, the Sun is the center of the mini-universe. After all, it is around this gas clump that our planet revolves. The sun gives us warmth and light, that is, it supplies forms of energy without which our existence would be impossible.

In ancient times, the source of solar radiation - the Sun - was a deity, an object worthy of worship. The solar trajectory across the sky seemed to people obvious proof of God's will. Attempts to understand the essence of the phenomenon, to explain what this star is, have been made for a long time, and Copernicus made a particularly significant contribution to them, forming the idea of heliocentrism, which was strikingly different from the generally accepted geocentrism of that era. However, it is known for certain that even in ancient times, scientists more than once thought about what the Sun is, why it is so important for any forms of life on our planet, why the movement of this luminary is exactly the way we see it.

The progress of technology has made it possible to better understand what the Sun is, what processes occur inside the star, on its surface. Scientists have learned what solar radiation is, how a gas object affects the planets in its zone of influence, in particular, the earth’s climate. Now humanity has a sufficiently voluminous knowledge base to say with confidence: it was possible to find out what the radiation emitted by the Sun is in its essence, how to measure this energy flow and how to formulate the features of its impact on different shapes organic life on Earth.

About terms

The most important step in mastering the essence of the concept was made in the last century. It was then that the eminent astronomer A. Eddington formulated an assumption: thermonuclear fusion occurs in the depths of the sun, which allows the release of a huge amount of energy emitted into the space around the star. Trying to estimate the magnitude of solar radiation, efforts were made to determine the actual parameters of the environment on the luminary. Thus, the temperature of the core, according to scientists, reaches 15 million degrees. This is sufficient to cope with the mutual repulsive influence of protons. The collision of units leads to the formation of helium nuclei.

New information attracted the attention of many prominent scientists, including A. Einstein. In attempts to estimate the amount of solar radiation, scientists found that helium nuclei in their mass are inferior to the total value of 4 protons necessary for the formation of a new structure. This is how a feature of the reactions was identified, called the “mass defect”. But in nature nothing can disappear without a trace! In an attempt to find the “escaped” values, scientists compared energy healing and the specificity of mass changes. It was then that it was possible to reveal that the difference was emitted by gamma rays.

Emitted objects make their way from the core of our star to its surface through numerous gaseous atmospheric layers, which leads to the fragmentation of elements and the formation of electromagnetic radiation based on them. Among other types of solar radiation is light perceived by the human eye. Rough estimates suggest that the process of passing gamma rays takes about 10 million years. Another eight minutes - and the emitted energy reaches the surface of our planet.

How and what?

Solar radiation is the total complex of electromagnetic radiation, which has a fairly wide range. This includes the so-called solar wind, that is, an energy flow formed by electrons, light particles. At the boundary layer of our planet's atmosphere, the same intensity of solar radiation is constantly observed. The energy of a star is discrete, its transfer is carried out through quanta, and the corpuscular nuance is so insignificant that the rays can be considered as electromagnetic waves. And their distribution, as physicists have found, occurs evenly and in a straight line. Thus, in order to describe solar radiation, it is necessary to determine its characteristic wavelength. Based on this parameter, it is customary to distinguish several types of radiation:

warm;
radio wave;
White light;
ultraviolet;
gamma;
X-ray.

The ratio of infrared, visible, ultraviolet is best estimated in the following way: 52%, 43%, 5%.

For a quantitative radiation assessment, it is necessary to calculate the energy flux density, that is, the amount of energy that reaches a limited area of the surface in a given time period.

Research has shown that solar radiation is predominantly absorbed by the planetary atmosphere. Thanks to this, heating occurs to a temperature comfortable for organic life characteristic of the Earth. The existing ozone shell allows only one hundredth of ultraviolet radiation to pass through. In this case, short-length waves that are dangerous to living beings are completely blocked. Atmospheric layers are capable of scattering almost a third of the Sun's rays, and another 20% are absorbed. Consequently, no more than half of the total energy reaches the planet's surface. It is this “residue” that science calls direct solar radiation.

How about more details?

There are several aspects that determine how intense the direct radiation will be. The most significant are the angle of incidence depending on latitude ( geographical characteristics localities on the globe), the time of year that determines how great the distance is to a specific point from the source of radiation. Much depends on the characteristics of the atmosphere - how polluted it is, how many clouds there are at a given moment. Finally, the nature of the surface on which the beam falls plays a role, namely, its ability to reflect incoming waves.

Total solar radiation is a quantity that combines scattered volumes and direct radiation. The parameter used to assess intensity is estimated in calories per unit area. At the same time, remember that at different times of the day the values characteristic of radiation differ. In addition, energy cannot be distributed evenly over the surface of the planet. The closer to the pole, the higher the intensity, while the snow covers are highly reflective, which means the air does not get the opportunity to warm up. Consequently, the further from the equator, the lower the total solar wave radiation will be.

As scientists have discovered, the energy of solar radiation has a serious impact on the planetary climate and subjugates the life activity of various organisms existing on Earth. In our country, as well as in the territory of our closest neighbors, as well as in other countries located in the northern hemisphere, in winter the predominant share belongs to scattered radiation, but in summer direct radiation dominates.

Infrared waves

Of the total amount of total solar radiation, an impressive percentage belongs to the infrared spectrum, which is not perceived by the human eye. Due to such waves, the surface of the planet heats up, gradually transmitting thermal energy air masses. This helps maintain a comfortable climate and maintain conditions for the existence of organic life. If no serious disruptions occur, the climate remains relatively unchanged, which means that all creatures can live in their usual conditions.

Our star is not the only source of infrared waves. Similar radiation is characteristic of any heated object, including an ordinary battery in a human home. It is on the principle of perception infrared radiation Numerous devices operate that make it possible to see heated bodies in the dark or in other conditions that are uncomfortable for the eyes. By the way, compact devices that have become so popular recently work on a similar principle for assessing through which areas of the building the greatest heat loss occurs. These mechanisms are especially widespread among builders, as well as owners of private houses, since they help to identify through which areas heat is lost, organize their protection and prevent unnecessary energy consumption.

Do not underestimate the influence of solar radiation in the infrared spectrum on the human body simply because our eyes cannot perceive such waves. In particular, radiation is actively used in medicine, since it makes it possible to increase the concentration of leukocytes in the circulatory system, as well as normalize blood flow by increasing the lumens of blood vessels. Devices based on the IR spectrum are used as prophylactics against skin pathologies, therapeutic for inflammatory processes in acute and chronic forms. The most modern drugs help cope with colloid scars and trophic wounds.

This is interesting

Based on the study of solar radiation factors, it was possible to create truly unique devices called thermographs. They make it possible to timely detect various diseases that cannot be detected by other means. This is how you can find cancer or a blood clot. IR protects to some extent from ultraviolet radiation, which is dangerous to organic life, which has made it possible to use waves of this spectrum to restore health long time astronauts in space.

The nature around us is still mysterious to this day, this also applies to radiation of various wavelengths. In particular, infrared light has not yet been thoroughly studied. Scientists know that its improper use can cause harm to health. Thus, it is unacceptable to use equipment that generates such light for the treatment of purulent inflamed areas, bleeding and malignant neoplasms. The infrared spectrum is contraindicated for people suffering from dysfunction of the heart and blood vessels, including those located in the brain.

Visible light

One of the elements of total solar radiation is light visible to the human eye. The wave beams travel in straight lines, so they do not overlap each other. At one time this became the topic of a considerable number of scientific works: Scientists set out to understand why there are so many shades around us. It turned out that they play a role key parameters Sveta:

refraction;
reflection;
absorption.

As scientists have found, objects are not capable of being sources of visible light, but can absorb radiation and reflect it. Reflection angles and wave frequencies vary. Over the course of many centuries, a person's ability to see has gradually improved, but certain limitations are due to the biological structure of the eye: the retina is such that it can perceive only certain rays of reflected light waves. This radiation is a small gap between ultraviolet and infrared waves.

Numerous curious and mysterious light features not only became the subject of many works, but were also the basis for the birth of a new physical discipline. At the same time, non-scientific practices and theories appeared, the adherents of which believe that color can affect a person’s physical condition and psyche. Based on such assumptions, people surround themselves with objects that are most pleasing to their eyes, making everyday life more comfortable.

Ultraviolet

An equally important aspect of total solar radiation is ultraviolet radiation, formed by waves of large, medium and short lengths. They are different from each other in both physical parameters, and by the characteristics of the influence on forms of organic life. Long ultraviolet waves, for example, are mostly scattered in the atmospheric layers, and only a small percentage reaches the earth's surface. The shorter the wavelength, the deeper such radiation can penetrate human (and not only) skin.

On the one hand, ultraviolet radiation is dangerous, but without it the existence of diverse organic life is impossible. This radiation is responsible for the formation of calciferol in the body, and this element is necessary for the construction of bone tissue. The UV spectrum is a powerful prevention of rickets and osteochondrosis, which is especially important in childhood. In addition, such radiation:

normalizes metabolism;
activates the production of essential enzymes;
enhances regenerative processes;
stimulates blood flow;
dilates blood vessels;
stimulates the immune system;
leads to the formation of endorphin, which means nervous overexcitation decreases.

but on the other hand

It was stated above that total solar radiation is the amount of radiation that reaches the surface of the planet and is scattered in the atmosphere. Accordingly, the element of this volume is ultraviolet of all lengths. It must be remembered that this factor has both positive and negative effects on organic life. Sunbathing, although often beneficial, can be a source of health hazards. Excessive exposure to direct sunlight, especially in conditions of increased solar activity, is harmful and dangerous. Long-term effects on the body, as well as too high radiation activity, cause:

burns, redness;
swelling;
hyperemia;
heat;
nausea;
vomiting.

Prolonged ultraviolet irradiation provokes disturbances in appetite, the functioning of the central nervous system, and the immune system. In addition, my head starts to hurt. The signs described are classic manifestations sunstroke. The person himself cannot always realize what is happening - the condition worsens gradually. If it is noticeable that someone nearby is feeling ill, first aid should be provided. The scheme is as follows:

help move from direct light to a cool, shaded place;
put the patient on his back so that his legs are higher than his head (this will help normalize blood flow);
cool your neck and face with water, and put a cold compress on your forehead;
unfasten your tie, belt, take off tight clothes;
half an hour after the attack, give cool water (a small amount) to drink.

If the victim loses consciousness, it is important to immediately seek help from a doctor. The ambulance team will move the person to safety and give an injection of glucose or vitamin C. The medicine is given into a vein.

How to tan correctly?

In order not to learn from your own experience how unpleasant the excessive amount of solar radiation received from tanning can be, it is important to follow the rules of safe spending time in the sun. Ultraviolet light initiates the production of melanin, a hormone that helps the skin protect itself from negative influence waves Under the influence of this substance, the skin becomes darker and the shade turns bronze. To this day, debate continues about how beneficial and harmful it is for humans.

On the one hand, tanning is an attempt by the body to protect itself from excessive exposure to radiation. This increases the likelihood of the formation of malignant neoplasms. On the other hand, tanning is considered fashionable and beautiful. To minimize the risks for yourself, it is wise, before starting beach procedures, to understand why the amount of solar radiation received during sunbathing is dangerous, and how to minimize the risks for yourself. To make the experience as pleasant as possible, sunbathers should:

to drink a lot of water;
use skin protecting products;
sunbathe in the evening or in the morning;
do not spend in direct sunlight more than an hour;
do not drink alcohol;
include foods rich in selenium, tocopherol, and tyrosine in the menu. Don't forget about beta-carotene.

Solar radiation value for human body is exceptionally large, both positive and negative aspects should not be overlooked. It should be realized that biochemical reactions occur with different people individual characteristics, so for some, even half an hour of sunbathing can be dangerous. It is wise to consult a doctor before the beach season to assess the type and condition of your skin. This will help prevent harm to health.

If possible, you should avoid tanning in old age, during the period of bearing a baby. Not suitable for sunbathing cancer, mental disorders, skin pathologies and cardiac dysfunction.

Total radiation: where is the shortage?

The process of distribution of solar radiation is quite interesting to consider. As mentioned above, only about half of all waves can reach the surface of the planet. Where do the rest go? The different layers of the atmosphere and the microscopic particles from which they are formed play a role. An impressive part, as stated, is absorbed by the ozone layer - these are all waves whose length is less than 0.36 microns. Additionally, ozone is capable of absorbing some types of waves from the spectrum visible to the human eye, that is, the range of 0.44-1.18 microns.

Ultraviolet light is absorbed to some extent by the oxygen layer. This is typical for radiation with a wavelength of 0.13-0.24 microns. Carbon dioxide and water vapor can absorb a small percentage of the infrared spectrum. The atmospheric aerosol absorbs some part (IR spectrum) of the total amount of solar radiation.

Waves from the short category are scattered in the atmosphere due to the presence of microscopic inhomogeneous particles, aerosol, and clouds. Inhomogeneous elements, particles whose dimensions are smaller than the wavelength, provoke molecular scattering, and larger ones are characterized by the phenomenon described by the indicatrix, that is, aerosol.

The remaining amount of solar radiation reaches the earth's surface. It combines direct radiation and scattered radiation.

Total radiation: important aspects

The total value is the amount of solar radiation received by the territory, as well as absorbed in the atmosphere. If there are no clouds in the sky, total value radiation depends on the latitude of the area, altitude celestial body, the type of land surface in this area, as well as the level of air transparency. The more aerosol particles scattered in the atmosphere, the lower the direct radiation, but the proportion of scattered radiation increases. Normally, in the absence of clouds, scattered radiation is one fourth of the total radiation.

Our country is one of the northern ones, so most of the year in the southern regions the radiation is significantly greater than in the northern ones. This is due to the position of the star in the sky. But the short time period of May-July is a unique period when, even in the north, the total radiation is quite impressive, since the sun is high in the sky, and the duration of daylight hours is longer than in other months of the year. Moreover, on average, in the Asian half of the country, in the absence of clouds, the total radiation is more significant than in the west. The maximum strength of the wave radiation occurs at midday, and the annual maximum occurs in June, when the sun is highest in the sky.

Total solar radiation is the amount of solar energy reaching our planet. It must be remembered that various atmospheric factors lead to the fact that the annual amount of total radiation is less than it could be. The largest difference between what is actually observed and the maximum possible is typical for the Far Eastern regions in summer period. Monsoons provoke extremely dense clouds, so the total radiation is reduced by approximately half.

Curious to know

The largest percentage of the maximum possible exposure to solar energy is actually observed (per 12 months) in the south of the country. The figure reaches 80%.

Cloudiness does not always lead to the same indicator dispersion of solar radiation. The shape of the clouds and the features of the solar disk at a particular moment in time play a role. If it is open, then cloudiness causes a decrease in direct radiation, while scattered radiation increases sharply.

There may also be days when direct radiation is approximately the same in strength as scattered radiation. The daily total value may be even greater than the radiation characteristic of a completely cloudless day.

When calculating for 12 months, special attention must be paid to astronomical phenomena as they determine general numerical indicators. At the same time, cloudiness leads to the fact that the radiation maximum may actually be observed not in June, but a month earlier or later.

Radiation in space

From the boundary of the magnetosphere of our planet and further into outer space Solar radiation becomes a factor associated with mortal danger for humans. Back in 1964, an important popular science work was published on protection methods. Its authors were Soviet scientists Kamanin and Bubnov. It is known that for a person, the radiation dose per week should be no more than 0.3 roentgens, while for a year - within 15 roentgens. For short-term exposure, the limit for a person is 600 roentgens. Space flights, especially in unpredictable conditions solar activity, may be accompanied by significant exposure of astronauts, which requires additional protective measures to be taken against waves of different lengths.

More than a decade has passed since the Apollo missions, during which protection methods were tested and factors affecting human health were studied, but to this day scientists cannot find effective, reliable methods for predicting geomagnetic storms. You can make a forecast based on hours, sometimes for several days, but even for a weekly assumption, the chances of implementation are no more than 5%. sunny wind- an even more unpredictable phenomenon. With a probability of one in three, astronauts setting off on a new mission may find themselves in powerful streams of radiation. This makes it even more important question both research and prediction of radiation characteristics, and the development of methods of protection against it.

Human settlement across continents. Most scientists believe that the ancient homeland of man is Africa and Southwestern Eurasia. Gradually people settled across all continents globe, with the exception of Antarctica (Fig. 38).

It is believed that first they mastered the habitable territories of Eurasia and Africa, and then other continents. In place of the Bering Strait, there was land that about 30 thousand years ago connected the north eastern part Eurasia and North America. Along this land “bridge”, ancient hunters penetrated into North and then South America, all the way to the Tierra del Fuego islands. Humans came to Australia from Southeast Asia.

Findings of human fossils have helped to draw conclusions about the routes of human settlement.

Main areas of settlement. Ancient tribes moved from one place to another in search of better living conditions. The settlement of new lands accelerated the development of animal husbandry and agriculture. The population also gradually grew. If about 15 thousand years ago there were believed to be about 3 million people on Earth, today the population has reached almost 6 billion people. Most people live on the plains, where it is convenient to cultivate arable land, build factories and factories, and locate settlements.

There are four areas of high population density on the globe - South and East Asia, Western Europe and eastern North America. This can be explained by several reasons: favorable natural conditions, a well-developed economy, and the long history of settlement. In South and East Asia, in conditions of a favorable climate, the population has long been engaged in farming on irrigated lands, which allows them to harvest several crops per year and feed a large population.

Rice. 38. Proposed routes of human settlement. Describe the nature of the regions through which people moved

In Western Europe and eastern North America, industry is well developed, there are many factories and factories, and the urban population predominates. The population that moved here from European countries settled on the Atlantic coast of North America.

The main types of economic activities of people. Their influence on natural complexes. The nature of the globe is the environment for the life and activity of the population. By doing farming, a person influences nature and changes it. At the same time, different types of economic activities affect natural complexes differently.

Agriculture changes natural systems especially strongly. Growing crops and raising domestic animals requires significant areas. As a result of land plowing, the area under natural vegetation has decreased. The soil has partially lost its fertility. Artificial irrigation helps to obtain high yields, but in arid areas, excessive watering leads to soil salinization and reduced yield. Domestic animals also change vegetation cover and soil: they trample vegetation and compact the soil. In dry climates, pastures can turn into desert areas.

Under the influence of human economic activity, forest complexes experience great changes. As a result of uncontrolled logging, the area under forests around the globe is decreasing. In tropical and equatorial belts Forests are still being burned to make way for fields and pastures.

Rice. 39. Rice fields. Each rice sprout is planted by hand in flooded fields.

The rapid growth of industry has a detrimental effect on nature, polluting the air, water and soil. Gaseous substances enter the atmosphere, and solid and liquid substances enter the soil and water. When mining minerals, especially in open pits, a lot of waste and dust arises on the surface, and deep, large quarries are formed. Their area is constantly growing, while soil and natural vegetation are also being destroyed.

Urban growth increases the need for new land areas for houses, construction of enterprises, roads. Nature is also changing around large cities where people relax big number residents. Environmental pollution has a negative impact on human health.

Thus, in a significant part of the globe, human economic activity has, to one degree or another, changed natural systems.

Complex cards. The economic activities of the continental population are reflected on comprehensive maps. By their symbols you can determine:

mining sites;
features of land use in agriculture;
areas for growing crops and raising domestic animals;
settlements, some enterprises, power plants.

Natural objects and protected areas are also depicted on the map. (Locate the Sahara on a comprehensive map of Africa. Determine the types of economic activities of the population on its territory.)

Countries of the world. People living in the same territory, speaking the same language and having a common culture form a historically established stable group - an ethnos (from the Greek ethnos - people), which can be represented by a tribe, nationality or nation. The great ethnic groups of the past created ancient civilizations and states.

From the history course you know what states existed in ancient times in South-West Asia, North Africa and in the mountains South America. (Name these states.)

Currently there are more than 200 states.

Countries of the world are distinguished by many characteristics. One of them is the size of the territory they occupy. There are countries that occupy an entire continent (Australia) or half of it (Canada). But there are very small countries, such as the Vatican. Its area of 1 km is just a few blocks of Rome. Such states are called “dwarf”. The countries of the world also differ significantly in population size. The number of inhabitants of some of them exceeds hundreds of millions of people (China, India), in others - 1-2 million, and in the smallest - several thousand people, for example in San Marino.

Rice. 40. Floating timber leads to river pollution

Countries are distinguished by geographical location. The largest number of them are located on the continents. There are countries located on large islands (for example, Great Britain) and archipelagos (Japan, Philippines), as well as on small islands (Jamaica, Malta). Some countries have access to the sea, others are hundreds and thousands of kilometers away from it.

Many countries are different and religious composition population. The most widespread religion in the world is the Christian religion (Eurasia, North America, Australia). In terms of the number of believers, it is inferior to the Muslim religion (countries of the northern half of Africa, South-West and South Asia). Buddhism is common in East Asia, while many in India practice the Hindu religion.

Countries also differ in the composition of their population and in the presence of monuments created by nature, as well as by man.

All countries of the world are also heterogeneous in terms of economic development. Some of them are more developed economically, others less.

As a result of rapid population growth and an equally rapid increase in the need for natural resources throughout the world, human influence on nature has increased. Economic activity often leads to unfavorable changes in nature and to a deterioration in people's living conditions. Never before in the history of mankind has the state of nature deteriorated so quickly on the globe.

Issues of environmental protection and the preservation of living conditions for people on our planet have become one of the most important global problems affecting the interests of all states.

Why is population density different in different places around the world?
What types of human economic activities change natural systems most strongly?
How have the economic activities of the population in your area changed the natural complexes?
Which continents have the most countries? Why?

Forests enrich the atmosphere with oxygen, which is so necessary for life, and absorb carbon dioxide released by animals and humans in the process of breathing, as well as by industrial enterprises in the process of work. They play a major role in the water cycle. Trees take water from the soil, filter it to remove impurities, and release it into the atmosphere, increasing the humidity of the climate. Forests influence the water cycle. Trees rise The groundwater, enriching soils and keeping them from desertification and erosion - it’s not for nothing that rivers immediately become shallow during deforestation.

According to reports from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, deforestation continues at a rapid rate around the world. Every year, 13 million hectares of forest are lost, while only 6 hectares grow.

It means that Every second a forest the size of a football field disappears from the face of the planet.

A significant problem is that the organization receives these data directly from the governments of countries, and governments prefer not to indicate in their reports losses associated, for example, with illegal logging.

Ozone layer depletion

About twenty kilometers above the planet extends the ozone layer - the Earth's ultraviolet shield.

Fluorinated and chlorinated hydrocarbons and halogen compounds released into the atmosphere destroy the structure of the layer. It is depleted and this leads to the formation of ozone holes. The destructive ultraviolet rays penetrating through them are dangerous for all life on Earth. They have a particularly negative effect on human health, their immune and gene systems, causing skin cancer and cataracts. Ultra-violet rays dangerous for plankton - the basis of the food chain, higher vegetation, and animals.

Today, under the influence of the Montreal Protocol, alternatives have been found for almost all technologies that use ozone-depleting substances, and the production, trade and use of these substances is rapidly declining.

As you know, everything in nature is interconnected. The destruction of the ozone layer and, as a consequence, the deviation of any seemingly insignificant environmental parameter can lead to unpredictable and irreversible consequences for all living things.

Declining Biodiversity

According to experts, 10-15 thousand species of organisms disappear every year. This means that over the next 50 years the planet will lose, according to various estimates, from a quarter to half of its biological diversity. The depletion of the species composition of flora and fauna significantly reduces the stability of ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole, which also poses a serious danger to humanity. The process of biodiversity reduction is characterized by an avalanche-like acceleration. The less biodiversity the planet has, the worse the conditions for survival on it.

As of 2000, 415 species of animals are listed in the Red Book of Russia. This list of animals has increased one and a half times in recent years and does not stop growing.

Humanity, as a species with a huge population and habitat, does not leave suitable habitat for other species. Intensive expansion of the area of specially protected natural areas is necessary to preserve endangered species, as well as strict regulation of the extermination of commercially valuable species.

Water pollution

Pollution of the water environment has occurred throughout human history: from time immemorial, people have used any river as a sewer. The greatest danger to the hydrosphere arose in the 20th century with the emergence of large multimillion-dollar cities and the development of industry. Over the past decades, most of the world's rivers and lakes have been turned into sewage ditches and sewage lagoons. Despite hundreds of billions of dollars in investments in treatment facilities, which are able to prevent the transformation of a river or lake into a fetid slurry, but are not able to return the water to its former natural purity: increasing volumes of industrial wastewater and solid waste, dissolving in water, turn out to be stronger than the most powerful cleaning units.

The danger of water pollution is that a person largely consists of water and, in order to remain a person, he must consume water, which in most cities on the planet can hardly be called suitable for drinking. About half the population developing countries does not have access to sources of clean water, is forced to drink contaminated with pathogenic microbes and is therefore doomed to premature death from epidemic diseases.

Overpopulation

Humanity today perceives its huge numbers as the norm, believing that people, with all their numbers and all their life activity, do not harm the planet’s ecosystem, and also that people can continue to increase their numbers, and that this supposedly does not in any way affect the ecology, animal and plant life. the world, as well as the life of humanity itself. But in fact, already today, already now, humanity has crossed all the boundaries and boundaries that the planet could tolerate. The earth cannot support such a huge number of people. According to scientists, 500 thousand is the maximum permissible number of people for our Planet. Today, this limit figure has been exceeded 12 times, and according to scientists’ forecasts, by 2100 it may almost double. At the same time, the modern human population of the Earth for the most part does not even think about the global harm caused by further growth in the number of people.

But an increase in the number of people also means an increase in the use of natural resources, an increase in areas for agricultural and industrial needs, an increase in the amount of harmful emissions, an increase in the amount of household waste and areas for their storage, an increase in the intensity of human expansion into nature and an increase in the intensity of the destruction of natural biodiversity.

Humanity today simply must contain its growth rates, rethink its role in ecological system Planet, and take on the task of building human civilization on the basis of a harmless and meaningful existence, and not on the basis of animal instincts of reproduction and absorption.

Oil contaminated

Oil is a natural oily flammable liquid common in the Earth's sedimentary layer; the most important mineral resource. A complex mixture of alkanes, some cycloalkanes and arenes, as well as oxygen, sulfur and nitrogen compounds. Nowadays oil is like energy resource, is one of the main factors in economic development. But oil production, its transportation and processing are invariably accompanied by its losses, emissions and discharges of harmful substances, the consequence of which is environmental pollution. In terms of scale and toxicity, oil pollution represents a global danger. Oil and petroleum products cause poisoning, death of organisms and soil degradation. Natural self-purification of natural objects from oil pollution is a long process, especially in low temperature conditions. Enterprises of the fuel and energy complex are the largest source of environmental pollutants in industry. They account for about 48% of emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere, 27% of discharges of polluted Wastewater, over 30% of solid waste and up to 70% of total greenhouse gases.

Land degradation

Soil is the guardian of fertility and life on Earth. It takes 100 years for a layer 1 cm thick to form. But it can be lost in just one season of thoughtless human exploitation of the earth. According to geologists, before people began to engage in agricultural activities, rivers annually carried 9 billion tons of soil into the ocean. With human assistance, this figure has increased to 25 billion tons per year. The phenomenon of soil erosion is becoming increasingly dangerous, because... There are fewer and fewer fertile soils on the planet and it is vitally important to preserve at least what is available at the moment, to prevent the disappearance of this single layer earth's lithosphere on which plants can grow.

Under natural conditions, there are several reasons for soil erosion (weathering and washing out of the top fertile layer), which are further aggravated by humans. Millions of hectares of soil are being lost

More than 50 billion tons of waste from energy, industrial, agricultural production and the municipal sector are released into nature annually, including more than 150 million tons from industrial enterprises. About 100 thousand artificial waste is released into the environment chemical substances, of which 15 thousand require special attention.

All this waste is a source of environmental pollution instead of being a source for the production of secondary products.