On Saturday, when everything normal people either they walk around the city center and watch parades, or go out into nature, I sat at home and argued about the climate, the reasons for the change of seasons and all that. The dispute ended in nothing, so I immersed myself in Wikipedia and educational videos in two languages. No, well, I knew that the change of seasons occurs due to the tilt of the axis and the elliptical orbit, and in general I considered myself a fairly savvy person in this matter, but alas, this is not so. For example, I didn’t know that the earth’s axis is not only tilted by 23.5 degrees, it also rotates. This rotation is called precession. She is best seen in GIFs
What precession looks like earth's axis
This is hard to see on the ground, but you can simply observe the precession yourself - simply by launching a top. It also has a rotation axis, and, as I checked yesterday, it also rotates. Or it can be clearly seen on the gyroscope. 
True, given our longevity, the results of precession are almost invisible - full turn our axis takes almost 26,000 years to complete. In addition, in addition to the fact that the axis of the earth rotates, it also vibrates (You can also see it on the top, but only in slow motion). This wobbling is called nutation, and in the picture it is marked in red). Please note that the earth's axis is not always tilted at 23.5 degrees - the tilt can fluctuate in both directions by 3-8 degrees 
It is this nutation that causes changes in the weather, then winter is colder, then warmer, then summer is drier and hotter, then you don’t have to get out of your jackets. The weather changes because of her. By the way, in 2014 it was expected that nutation would be especially strong, but the expectations were not met.
By the way, due to precession, our northern polar star will change relatively soon. In the sense of the star by which we will search for the north (relatively, this is in a couple of thousand years)))
Well, now about eras. And this was also a shock for me. So, first, and, for me, most important. This is NOT the "age of Aquarius". Now is the "era of fishes". This turned out to be a blow for me :) I had never before thought about how exactly eras are counted, how they are counted. Well, remember precession? It is precisely because of this that the cardinal directions are constantly changing for us (I mean in the cosmic sense). Because of this, the sun, although for us it always rises in the east, actually describes full circle across the sky. And approximately every 2150 years you can see (well, if you live that long))) that a day spring equinox it begins to rise, being among the stars of the new zodiac sign.
We managed to find only a picture, but there is also a video 
Video about eras
Video about precession, climate, our elliptical orbit (did you know that our elliptical orbit also rotates?))
Humanity has almost four million years of experience, and during this time we have achieved an understanding of movement tectonic plates, learned to predict the weather and mastered space. But our planet is still fraught with many secrets and mysteries. One of them, with which the global and the theory of catastrophes are associated, is the precession of the planet’s axis.
Historical sketch
The movement of the equinox points against the background of stars was noticed in the 3rd century BC. But the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus was the first to describe the increase in the longitude of stars and the differences between the sidereal and actual years in the 2nd century BC. And this despite the fact that at that time it was believed that all the stars were fixed on a fixed sphere, and the movement of the sky was the movement of this sphere around own axis. After that there were works by Ptolemy, Theon of Alexandria, Thabit ibn Qurr, Nicolaus Copernicus, Tycho Brahe and many others. The reason was explained and described by Isaac Newton in his Principia (1686). And the precession formula was shown by the American astronomer Simon Newcome (1896). It is his formula, refined in 1976 by the International Astronomical Union, that describes the speed of precession depending on the time reference.
Physics of the phenomenon
IN elementary physics precession is a change in the angular momentum of a body when its direction of movement in space changes. This process is observed using the example of a top and its deceleration. Initially, the vertical axis of the top, as it slows down, begins to describe a cone - this is the precession of the top’s axis. Main physical property precession - inertia-free. This means that when the force causing precession ceases, the body will take a stationary position. In a relationship celestial bodies- Gravity is such a force. And since it acts constantly, the movement and precession of the planets will never stop.
The movement of our stationary planet
Everyone knows that planet Earth revolves around the Sun, rotates along its axis and changes the direction of this axis. But that's not all. Astronomy distinguishes thirteen types of movement of our house. Let's list them briefly:
- Rotation around its own axis (change of day and night).
- Rotation around the Sun (change of seasons).
- “Walking forward” or the anticipation of the equinoxes is precession.
- The swaying of the earth's axis is nutation.
- Change of the Earth's axis to the plane of its orbit (ecliptic inclination).
- Change in the ellipse of the earth's orbit (eccentricity).
- Changes in perihelion (distance from the point of the orbit furthest from the sun).
- Parallactic inequalities of the Sun (monthly changes in the distance between our planet and the star).
- At the moment of the parade of planets (the planets are located on one side of the Sun), the center of mass of our system goes beyond the boundaries of the solar globe.
- Deviations of the Earth (disturbances and perturbations) under the influence of the attraction of other planets.
- The forward movement of the whole solar system to Vega.
- Movement of the system around the core of the Milky Way.
- Galaxy movement Milky Way around the center of a cluster of similar galaxies.
All this is complicated, but mathematically proven. We will focus on the third movement of our planet - precession.
Is this a spinning top?
We are accustomed to thinking that the axis of rotation of the planet around its axis is unchanged and its northern end is directed to the point of the polar star. But it's not quite like that. The planet's axis describes a cone, just like a children's toy spinning top or top, which is caused by the attraction of our satellite and our star. As a result, the planet's poles move slowly relative to the stars with an arc radius of 23 degrees and 26 minutes.
How to see it?
The tilt of the earth's axis is due to interactions in the gravitational system between the Sun-Earth and the Moon-other planets. The gravitational forces are so great that they force the planet's axis to precess - a slow sway clockwise in the direction opposite to the planet's rotation. It’s easy to see the phenomenon of lunar-solar precession in action - just look at a winding top. If you tilt its handle away from the vertical, it begins to describe a circle in the direction opposite to the rotation. If we imagine that the axis of the planet is a handle, and the planet itself is a top, then this will be, albeit a rough example, of the precession of the Earth’s axis. Our planet goes through half of its precession cycle in 25,776 years.
Consequences of precession of the Sun and the Earth-Moon complex
The slow movement of the vernal equinox point (the intersection of the celestial equator and the ecliptic), provoked by precession, leads to two consequences:
- Adjustment celestial coordinates.
- Changes in the presence of the Sun in the zodiacal constellations.
Changes in the point of the vernal equinox led to the emergence of an international agreement on the coordinates of celestial bodies with mandatory fixation on a specific date. Indeed, due to the precession of the Earth’s axis in ancient times this point was in the constellation Aries, and today it is located in the constellation Pisces. By analogy, there is no correspondence between the astrological signs of the zodiac constellations. For example, the sign of Pisces indicates that during the period from February 21, the star is located in the constellation Pisces. This is how it was in ancient times. But today, due to the precession of the Earth's orbit during this period of time, the Sun is in
There will be no eternal spring
Precession is the anticipation of the equinoxes, which means the displacement of the points of the autumn and spring equinoxes. In other words, spring on the planet comes earlier every year (by 20 minutes and 24 seconds), and autumn comes later. This has nothing to do with the calendar - ours Gregorian calendar takes into account length (from equinox to equinox). Therefore, in fact, the effect of precession is already included in our calendar. This displacement is periodic, and its period, as mentioned earlier, is 25,776 years.
When will the new Ice Age begin?
The change in the direction of the Earth's axis every approximately 26 thousand years (precession) is a change in its northern direction. Today the North Pole point points to the North Star; in 13 thousand years it will point to Vega. And after 50 thousand years, the planet will go through two cycles of precession and return to its current state. When the planet is “upright” - the amount of solar energy received is minimal and an ice age sets in - most of the land is covered with ice and snow. The history of the planet shows that the ice age lasts about 100 thousand years, and the interglacial period - 10 thousand. Today we are experiencing such an interglacial time, but in 50 thousand years the ice crust will cover the planet to the borders below New York.
It's not just precession that's to blame
According to the National Aerospace Agency NASA, the planet's geographic North Pole has begun to actively shift eastward since 2000. Over 115 years of studying the climate on the planet, it has deviated by 12 meters. Until 2000, the pole was moving towards Canada at a speed of several centimeters per year. But after the specified date, he changed both direction and speed. Today it is moving towards Britain at a speed of up to 17 centimeters per year. The reasons for this phenomenon are the melting of the Greenland glaciers, an increase in the mass of ice in the east of Antarctica, and droughts in the Caspian and Indian subcontinent basins. And behind these phenomena is the anthropogenic factor of impact on the Earth.
Why are winters different?
In addition to the fact that our planet precesses, it also oscillates when this process. This is nutation - rapid “swinging of the poles” relative to the precessional period. It is she who changes the weather - sometimes the winter is colder, sometimes the summer is drier and hotter. During years of particularly strong nutation, more severe weather conditions are expected.
The physical meaning of the precessional climate cycle
The precession of the Earth's axis does not create a climate cycle on its own, but in the presence of the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit. The more aphelion differs from perihelion, the more pronounced the climate cycle is. With a circular orbit, the climate cycle does not create precession.
Precession of the Earth's rotation axis
The earth rotates about its axis. Turnover is carried out per day. The axis is tilted to the orbit by 23.439° . The axis maintains the angle of inclination, but changes position - precesses (Figure 1). The rotation of the axis relative to the stars occurs in 25’765 years, against daily rotation. Observed as a “prelude to the equinoxes.”
The perihelion point of the Earth's orbit moves with a period of 111,528 years, in the direction opposite to precession.
The period of convergence of two movements is equal to20'930 years.
Hypotheses for causes: Axis precession - a consequence of the discrepancy between the plane of rotation of the Earth and the plane of the orbit and the eccentricity of the orbit. Precession is caused by the Sun. The movement of the perihelion point is caused by the influence on the Earth's orbit of the movement of the Sun relative to the center of mass of the Solar System. The movement of the perihelion point is caused by Jupiter (together with other gas giants).
Precession does not affect the climate of the planet if the orbit is a circle. That is, the distance to the Sun is the same at any point in the orbit. But the Earth's orbit is not a circle (Figure-2). The climate impact is significant.
Earth's precessional winter (Figure-2a)
Harsh climate northern hemisphere: When it is winter in the northern hemisphere, the planet is further from the Sun - winter is colder. It's summer in the northern hemisphere; the planet is closer to the Sun - summer is hotter. The climate is harsher than in a circular orbit.
Mild climate of the southern hemisphere: In the southern hemisphere it is the opposite.
Summer is colder. Winter is warmer. The climate is milder than in a circular orbit.
The reason for the Earth's precessional winter. (hypothesis)
The land area in the northern hemisphere is larger than in the southern hemisphere. Freezing more than usual in winter, the snow-white land reflects the energy of the Sun longer - the planet cools down. The moment comes when the snow does not have time to melt over the summer.The Northern Hemisphere is covered with non-melting glaciers. Climatic conditions incompatible with life over a large range. Life persists in oases near the equator. Every 10`465 years the situation changes to the opposite.
Earth's precessional summer (Figure-2b)
Mild climate of the northern hemisphere: When it's summer in the northern hemisphere, the planet is further from the Sun - summer is cooler. It is winter in the northern hemisphere; the planet is closer to the Sun - winter is warmer. The climate is milder than in a circular orbit.
As of 2010, the winter solstice occurs on December 21, earlier than the day of perihelion, January 3. These two events diverge in time every year. Astronomically, the moment of the mildest climate for the northern hemisphere has already passed! In 1265.
Harsh climate of the southern hemisphere: Winter is colder. Summer is hotter. The climate is harsher than in a circular orbit. In winter, the polar cap of Antarctica increases more intensively. In summer it melts more intensely.
Cause of Earth's precessional summer (hypothesis)
The surface of the southern hemisphere, covered with oceans, is closer to the Sun - absorbs more solar energy. The planet is warming up. Accumulates heat reserves in the world's oceans. The polar caps and alpine glaciers are shrinking. How more Earth warms up during the precessional summer, the longer it will cool down during the precessional winter. The less severe the climate will be at the stage of maximum cooling of the planet. The higher the chances of surviving in oases.
Severity of climate - difference between maximum and minimum temperature. How more difference, the more severe the climate.
Impact of precession on Earth's weather
Northern and southern hemisphere heat up differently throughout the year. For half the year the northern hemisphere is warmer than the southern hemisphere, half the year it’s the other way around. There are constant seasonal winds and ocean currents, transferring heat from a warmer hemisphere to a less warm one. The speed of winds and currents is determined by the temperature difference between the hemispheres. The path of currents determines the climate in the areas through which winds and waters pass. The difference in heating of the hemispheres changes with the course of precession. The paths of the winds and their strength are slowly but inevitably changing. There are no two identical centuries in the Earth's climate. During the “Precessional Summer” period, the temperature difference between the hemispheres is maximum. This means that the strength of the winds that distribute heat is maximum. More number and the strength of hurricanes.
Thermal inertia
December 21 is the winter solstice. The longest night. Should be the coldest. But, there is a delay in the onset of cold by 30 days. There is a similar delay for the onset of heat. The reason for the delay is thermal inertia. Having passed the astronomical peak, it continues to heat up (or cool down).The same phenomenon should occur for the precessional cycle. Can be assessed maximum value thermal inertia, the coldest and hottest year for the planet.
Thermal inertia, T = 20`930(years/cycle) / 365.24(year) × 30(days) ≈1720 years.
Coldest, last year ~ (-7481) AD.
Hottest, in the future ~ 2985 AD.
Coldest in the future ~ 13’450 AD.
Planet Earth entered precessional summer in ~370 AD.
Precessional summer on Earth will end by ~5601 AD.
Precessional chronology scale.
Climate cycles
Precession, in the presence of aphelion, creates periodic cycles of climate on the planet. The change is global in nature and significantly alters the conditions for cellular life forms. Man is part of the biogeocenosis. Depends on the food. Therefore, the climate cycle “formats” the history of human civilization into eras lasting 20,930 years.
Precessional chronology scale
To get an idea of time, you need vivid images.
We need to create a timeline. Indicate the position of the event on the scale. Time scale: origin and unit of measurement (cycle).
The unit of measurement for humans is cycles:
A day is the rotation of the Earth relative to the Sun.
Year is the rotation of the Earth (axis of rotation) relative to the Sun (“Tropical” year).
Both parameters have a vivid, tangible essence.
The man took the conventional date as the beginning of the countdown. Not assigned to a visual entity. This leads to inconvenience. The first is negative time. The solution is ingenious, from a mathematical point of view. But it disrupts the perception of time by consciousness. The “mirroring” of counting years and dividing into two eras breaks the sense of continuity of the passage of time. Secondly, there is no connection to materiality. Loss of memory about the beginning of the countdown will lead people to the inability to understand when exactly this or that year was relative to the new temporary count of years.
For fixation historical events, we need a time counting system that has an astronomical essence. Such a unit of counting years can be one cycle of precession of the earth's axis relative to the aphelion of the orbit. “History” will acquire a visual essence.
Date: 0001 New Era - the beginning of the Christian chronology.
Date: 4241 BC - the beginning of the counting of years by the Egyptian civilization.
Date: 5508 BC - biblical “Creation of the world.”
The essence of the cycle is clear: the precessional winter of the northern hemisphere will be erased by glaciers from the surface of Europe, Northern Asia, North America everything that man has built. The planet's population will be reduced to several hundred million people. Precessional spring will begin new cycle life. Repopulation of thawing lands.
Take the current one as the first cycle. Enter reverse numbering of cycles. Restore the history of mankind by fitting discoverable events into cycles. Historical clarity will come.
Historical time is indicated as follows: cycle number; year number in the cycle; number of the day in the year. The numbering of years in each cycle is only positive. Take as the beginning of the cycle: the winter solstice of the northern hemisphere at the time of aphelion. The beginning of each year is the winter solstice in the northern hemisphere.
At any given time, mutual arrangement planets are unique. Indicating the position of the four giant planets and the Earth in orbit is called the exact moment in time. Accurate to the day. Having a material essence. Its physical carrier is the stable properties of the movement of planets in orbits. Fix the beginning of the cycle by the position of the planets in relation to the center of the galaxy.
Note.
The precessional scale did not coincide with the Christian chronology by only a few years. Maybe I counted incorrectly. Maybe the ancient astronomers who created the Christian chronology scale.
For the convenience of comparing dates, I shifted the precessional chronology scale to achieve coincidence of the scales, accurate to within a century. For example, 2000 AD compared with the year 11200 P.Ts.
In many ways, fragmentary thoughts about the relationship of knowledge in the field of astronomy, modern history Lands with an ancient history turn into a harmonious hypothesis (harmonious, put in quotation marks) under the influence of the notes that the portal’s readers bring. IN in this case they helped to reveal one of the secrets of the Zodiac with the material presented Star-foxy - “Global cataclysms await the planet.
Of course, there's a lot I don't know. I could not find other words of synonyms describing the mechanism of precession than those that are most often found in textbooks - the displacement of the points of the spring and autumn equinoxes and those new ones that I paid attention to: " braking during the movement of the Earth around the signs of the Zodiac", about which I.V. speaks Meshcheryakov:
[When the scientific group, which included me, was developing the GLONASS space navigation system, many fundamental problems had to be solved. It was necessary to take into account the drift of the poles and the uneven rotation of the Earth - the so-called geodynamics. As of 1990, the deceleration of the Earth's movement around the signs of the Zodiac was 5 arc seconds per year. The time of the spring equinox is taken, and the Earth arrives at the next equinox with a delay of 5 arc seconds. After 72 years, 1 degree is gained. And the epoch of the Zodiac signs is 30 degrees. We multiply, and it turns out 2160 years. 12 - full circle of the Zodiac - multiply by 2160, and get the inverse precession of the Earth. This number - 25920 - is one of the life cycles of the planet. So global warming is associated with the cycles of existence and development of the Earth and the solar system.k
It’s not very clear to me whether we can say that this is a slowdown, as Meshcheryakov said (or the journalist misrepresented this). I can’t say anything about this due to lack of knowledge. However, I clearly remember myths that mention that during periods of catastrophes (floods or something else), the Earth would stop rotating for three days.
But in order to make a smooth transition to the hypothesis, to develop it, which the doctor did not dare technical sciences Ivan Vasilyevich Meshcheryakov, I will make an intermediate hypothesis, supported by references to the mechanism of precession, with schematic drawings made during the era of space flights, although the first to explain the mechanism of precession was the brilliant Newton.
Now, let's go back to ancient times. Excerpt from Alan Alford's book [Gods of the New Millennium]
[Thousands of years ago, ancient astronomers divided the starry sky into twelve sectors and came up with names and symbols for them, by which they are known to this day. The Greeks gave each such group of stars the name "zodiac". Nowadays, in order to determine the character of a person and draw up his complete horoscope, they look under what star he was born and what was the relative position of the Sun and the Earth on the day of his birth. This kind of entertainment is now very widespread and very entertaining, but in essence it has not the slightest relation to science. Astrology has had a long way to go.
Going back to time ancient Sumer and Egypt, we see that the concept of the zodiac was then used in completely different areas. For there is no doubt that in these ancient civilizations the signs of the zodiac were used on a scientific level. It is now widely accepted, incredible as it may seem, that the ancients knew a precessional cycle of 25,920 years, and they divided this cycle into 12 periods of 2160 years.
It was already mentioned in Chapter 6 that the Sumerian mathematical system was built around the number 3600, so that the highest number in this system, 12,960,000, was equal to 500 precessional cycles of 25,920 years. If 25,920 years corresponds to 360 degrees of the “circumference of the sky,” then 2160 years is 30 degrees, and 72 years is 1 degree. Thus, the number "72" also played a very important role. The significance of this number in one legend led Egyptologist Jane Sellers to suggest that the Egyptians were also aware of the phenomenon of precession. This legend is the myth of Osiris, it tells how 72 conspirators, led by Set, were going to kill Osiris. Jane Sellers is an exceptional person - she is an expert in many fields, including astronomy and archaeology. She is convinced that the 4,000-year-old Pyramid Texts clearly reveal knowledge of astronomy, even if the Egyptians themselves did not realize the full implications of it. Sellers writes: "I am convinced that for ancient man numbers 72... 2160, 25 920 contain the concept of Eternal Return."
Egyptian zodiac or Dendera zodiac.
Sellers is not alone among respected scholars who acknowledge that the Egyptians knew about precession. The eminent scientist Carl Jung (1875-1961) was severely criticized when he expressed the opinion that the Egyptians knew the stages of transition from one zodiac sign to another. Jung was especially impressed by the fact that the onset of chaos in Egypt and the fall Ancient kingdom coincided with the end of the Ox period and the beginning of the Aries period. He called these periods “transitions of eternities,” sometimes accompanied by catastrophic shifts, and even noted the instability of the era when he. lived himself, explaining this as a consequence of the transition from the zodiac of Pisces to the sign of Aquarius.
Modern astronomers date the Age of Aries to approximately 4360-2200 BC, that is, to the time when Egyptian civilization began. Initially, the Egyptian pharaohs of the Old Kingdom worshiped the bull, which denoted the zodiac sign Aries. Then, after the chaos of the First Intermediate Period in Egypt, around 2000 BC, new era. At this time, the pharaohs began to depict sphinxes with ram heads, which marked the transition to Aries that had taken place. Thus, the monuments Ancient Egypt confirm what Carl Jung said.
It is amazing that the Egyptian ram had its own prototype in Sumer. One of the most famous finds in the Sumerian royal city of Ur is the so-called “Ram in the Thicket”. But upon closer examination, it turns out that this Sumerian ram is covered feathers. It must be assumed that this image represents a symbolic interpretation of the god who should appear with the advent of the era of Aries. This interpretation is quite consistent with Sumerian texts from around 2100 BC, where there are predictions of an upcoming invasion from the west. The widespread sacrifice of bulls shortly after 2000 BC was a symbolic sign that the Age of Aries had finally ended.
What was the significance of changing the zodiac sign with a period of 2160 years for those who entered into new civilization of people? There is no clear answer to this question. In the end, one way or another, you inevitably come to the conclusion that the concept of the zodiac was created not by man, but by the gods, and that it was conceived precisely for the needs of the gods!
These abstract arguments can be supported by direct evidence. Although the concept of the zodiac first appeared in Sumer, sometime after 3800 BC, it has been shown in some studies to have existed earlier. Indeed, one Sumerian clay tablet contains a list of the constellations of the zodiac, starting with Leo, and there are also hints that this concept goes back much further early times- approximately to 11,000 BC, when people were just beginning to engage in agriculture. Further, the number 12, which divided the precessional cycle into 12 “regions” of the zodiac, corresponds to the 12 celestial bodies of the solar system. This knowledge was not invented by man, but was bequeathed to him by his gods.
In the previous chapter I told how Marduk waited for the “time of destiny” to arrive before returning to Babylon. One text that speaks of Marduk's return says that Nergal advised him to leave Babylon, convincing him that he had come "too early." Could it be a mere coincidence that this dispute arose precisely at the moment when " star clock"showed the approach of a new precessional age?
In this chapter I will show that the signs of the zodiac in an astronomical sense represent a sidereal clock that will help us determine the time of the Flood, the construction of the Sphinx and the pyramids.k
To make it clear further move reasoning, let me remind you what is meant by precession.
Precession in astronomy - the slow movement of the Earth's axis of rotation along circular cone, whose axis of symmetry is perpendicular to the ecliptic plane , with a full rotation period k of 26,000 years.
Precession of the earth's axis
Precession also called the anticipation of the equinoxes, because it causes a slow displacement of the points of the spring and autumn equinoxes, caused by the movement of the planes of the ecliptic and equator ( rice. 2
) (the equinox points are determined by the line of intersection of these planes). Simplified Precession can be represented as the slow movement of the axis of the world (straight line parallel to the average axis of rotation of the Earth RR") along a circular cone, the axis of which is perpendicular to the ecliptic ( see fig. 2
), with a period of complete revolution k 26000 years.
Everyone knows that the point of the vernal equinox is constantly shifting. The point of the vernal equinox moves by 1 degree in approximately 72 years.
March 9 (21), the day on which the sun enters the sign of Aries; this day is considered the first day of spring, and since the sun is at the equator on this day, then March 9 (21) for all places on earth is day equal to night, hence the name of this day. The planes of the equator and ecliptic intersect along
a line called the line of equinoxes; this line intersects the celestial sphere at two points; one of these points, towards which the sun is seen at the moment of the vernal equinox, is called the vernal equinox point.You have probably observed the rotation of a top more than once and noticed that its axis is almost never stationary. Under force gravity, in accordance with laws rotational movement, the axis of the top moves, describing a conical surface.
The earth is a big top. And its axis of rotation, under the influence of the gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun on the equatorial excess (as is known, the Earth is flattened and, thus, there seems to be more matter located at the equator than at the poles) also rotates slowly.
Remember this schematic representation of the mechanism of precession, represented by a petal, the pattern of which is the oldest on Earth.
The Earth's rotation axis describes a cone with an angle of 23.5' near the ecliptic axis, as a result of which the celestial pole moves around the ecliptic pole in a small circle, making one revolution in approximately 26,000 years. This movement is called precession.
The consequence of precession is a gradual shift of the vernal equinox point towards visible movement Sun by 50.3" per year. For this reason, the Sun annually enters the vernal equinox 20 minutes earlier than it makes a full revolution in the sky.
In this figure, precession is represented by two lobes - over the north and south poles.As a result of precession, the pattern of daily rotation of the starry sky slowly changes: about 4600 years ago, the celestial pole was near the star Alpha Draconis, now it is located near the North Star, and after 2000 years, Gamma Cephei will become the polar star. In 12,000 years, the right to be called “polar” will pass to the star Vega (alpha Lyrae), which is currently 51` from the pole. Changing the position of the celestial equator and celestial pole, as well as moving the vernal equinox point causes a change in the equatorial and ecliptic celestial coordinates. Therefore, giving the coordinates heavenly bodies in catalogs, when depicting them on maps, they must indicate the epoch, i.e., the moment in time for which the positions of the equator and the vernal equinox points were taken when determining the coordinate system.
If we talk about the history of the discovery of the phenomenon of precession, then all textbooks attribute this discovery to the Greek astronomer Hipparchus. It happened in the 2nd century. BC e., when comparing the longitudes of the stars determined by him from observations with the longitudes of the same stars found 150 years before him by the Greek astronomers Timocharis and Aristillus.
But I think that the knowledge of precession was known to the ancients from time immemorial.
To a large extent, precession occurs under the influence of the gravitational forces of the Moon. The forces that cause precession, due to changes in the location of the Sun and Moon relative to the Earth, are constantly changing. Therefore, along with the movement of the Earth’s axis of rotation along the cone, its small vibrations are observed, called nutation . Under the influence of precession and nutation, the celestial pole describes a complex wave-like curve among the stars.
The rate of change in the coordinates of stars due to precession depends on the position of the stars on celestial sphere. The declinations of different stars change over the course of a year by values from + 20" to - 20" depending on right ascension. Right ascensions change in a more complex way due to precession, and their corrections depend on both the right ascensions and the declinations of the stars. For near-polar stars, right ascensions can change quite noticeably even over short time intervals. For example, the right ascension of the North Star changes by almost a whole degree over 10 years.
Precession tables are published in astronomical yearbooks and calendars.
It should be borne in mind that precession and nutation only change the orientation of the Earth's rotation axis in space and do not affect the position of this axis in the Earth's body. Therefore, neither the latitude nor the longitude of places on the earth’s surface change due to precession and nutation and these phenomena do not affect the climate.
Now, let's move to the territory of Mesopotamia, in modern Syria. Photographs from the ruins of archaeological sites were taken by the brave and wonderful traveler Olga Borovikova. 
It would seem that there is a connection between ancient Sumer and the phenomenon of precession. Take your time. Consider the patterns that appear constantly on buildings, devices, appearance, reminiscent of those devices that can most often be found on the wrist modern man.
The symbol is everywhere in architectural monuments, on images of gods. If we move from Sumer to our times, for the Sumerians to the distant future, for us today... What device is most often found on buildings, what will the dial with arrows mean for distant descendants who are already studying our history?
One of the answers is a clock!!!. A device for counting time cycles.
We are accustomed to seeing watches as they are. For the gods, whose life span is estimated in hundreds of thousands of years, a period equal to one 24 cycle of the Earth’s revolution around the sun will be an insignificant period. They need more long periods and cycles that are independent of the planet on which they were located. Just like, for earthly cosmonauts there will be a problem of reporting the usual earthly time if they long time, is located on Mars. Another external cycle will be required, which will be the same for the planets of the Solar System.
For the gods, the unit of time was not the period of revolution of the Earth around the Sun, but the period of precession, divided into 12 (13) parts. For the gods, a significant unit of time is a period of 2160 years.
In addition, the rings around the dial apparently make it possible to switch to other time scales if the god-astronaut moved to another star system.. The whole design reminds me of the Mayan calendar.
You remember the petals depicting precession in modern drawings. Now compare them with the paddles on the watch face of the device attached to your wrist. Match - 100%.
An open mind can determine which version is more plausible: a daisy-shaped decoration or a functional purpose for keeping time for those who invented the zodiac.
But the zodiac performed, performs another temporary function for the gods. He accounts for the time of the reign of the Earth by the clans of gods. We look at the Dendera or Egyptian zodiac. In addition to being divided into 12 parts, it is divided into eight parts along the outer perimeter. If the change of eras of a Zodiac sign is 30 degrees or 2160 years, then the change of reign of the clans of gods on Earth is equal to the length of the precession arc of 45 degrees or 3240 degrees. At one time, referring to Homer, I determined that the period of return of the planet-starship Nibiru is 3240 years. Coincidence again?
After such lengthy discussions, we can return to Meshcheryakov’s thesis:
[braking when the Earth moves around the signs of the Zodiac
What can happen to the Earth when it is at perihelion points. One of the answers is a complete cessation of the Earth’s rotation within three days, as this was recorded in myths.
The frequency of such phenomena during the precession cycle will be equal to 12960, which coincides with the dating of the catastrophe, which occurred approximately 13,000 years ago. If we accept the fact that the Mayans knew what events could happen to the Earth at the perihelion points of the precessional cycle, then the date December 21, 2012 takes on a very definite meaning, on the basis of which we can say what awaits us in the future.
It is clear that what is written [is built on hypotheses. But these hypotheses fit too well into the history of the past and, possibly, the future of the Earth.
Due to the disturbing effect exerted on the rotation of the Earth by the bodies of the Solar System, the axis of rotation of the Earth makes very complex movement. The Earth is shaped like a spheroid, and therefore different parts of the spheroid are attracted unevenly by the Sun and Moon.
1. The axis slowly describes a cone, remaining all the time inclined to the plane of the Earth’s motion at an angle of about 66º.5. This movement is called precessional, its period is about 26,000 years. It determines the average direction of the axis in space at different epochs.
2. The Earth’s axis of rotation makes various small oscillations around its average position, the main of which have a period of 18.6 years (this period is the period of revolution of the nodes lunar orbit, since nutation is a consequence of the gravitational pull of the Moon on the Earth) and are called nutation earth's axis. Nutational oscillations occur because the precessional forces of the Sun and Moon continuously change their magnitude and direction. They = 0 when the Sun and Moon are in the plane of the Earth's equator and reach a maximum at greatest distance From him. The true celestial pole, due to nutation, describes a complex curve around the middle pole. Its movement on the celestial sphere occurs approximately along an ellipse, the major semi-axis of which is 18",4, and the minor axis is 13",7. Due to precession and nutation, the relative positions of the celestial poles and the ecliptic poles are continuously changing.
3. The attraction of the planets is not enough to cause changes in the positions of the earth's axis. But the planets influence the position of the earth's orbit. Changes in the positions of the ecliptic plane under the influence of the gravity of the planets are called planetary precession.
The celestial pole, determined by the average direction of the Earth's rotation axis, i.e. having only precessional motion is called middle pole of the world. True world pole takes into account the nutational movements of the axis. Due to precession, the average celestial pole describes a circle with a radius of 23º.5 near the ecliptic pole over 26,000 years. In one year, the movement of the average celestial pole on the celestial sphere is about 50",3. The equinoctial points also move westward by the same amount, moving towards the apparent annual movement of the Sun. This phenomenon is called anticipation of the equinoxes. As a result, the Sun hits the equinoctial points earlier than the same place against the background of stars. The celestial pole describes an open circle on the celestial sphere. 2000 BC polar star was a Draco, after 12,000 years a Lyra will become polar. At the beginning of our era, the vernal equinox point was in the constellation Aries, and the autumn equinox point was in the constellation Libra. Now the point of the spring equinox is in the constellation Pisces, and the autumn equinox in the constellation Virgo.
The precessional movement of the celestial pole causes the coordinates of the stars to change over time. The influence of precession on coordinates:
da/dt = m + n sin a tan d,
dd/dt = n sin a,
where da/dt, dd/dt are changes in coordinates per year, m is annual precession in right ascension, n is annual precession in declination.
Due to the continuous change in the equatorial coordinates of the stars, a slow change in appearance occurs starry sky For this place on the ground. Some previously invisible stars will rise and set, and some visible ones will become non-rising. So, in a few thousand years in Europe it will be possible to observe the Southern Cross, but it will not be possible to see Sirius and part of the constellation Orion.
Precession was discovered by Hipparchus and explained by I. Newton.
Problem N bodies.
The problem of determining four or more bodies attracting each other according to Newton's law is even more complex than the problem of three bodies and in general view still not resolved.
The N-body problem is formulated in general form in the following way: “In empty space there are N free material points that attract each other according to Newton's law. They are asked initial coordinates And initial speeds. Determine the subsequent movement of these points”.
To study the motions of N bodies, a perturbation calculation method is used, which allows one to find an approximate solution to the problem. Now there are a number of methods for approximate solution of the problem, allowing for each specific system of bodies with given specific initial conditions construct movement trajectories with any accuracy required for practice for any limited period of time.
The movement of five outer planets Solar system for 400 years - from 1653 to 2060. The calculation results coincided with observational data. However, specific numerical methods can't answer many questions qualitative nature, For example:
Will one of the bodies always remain in some region of space or will it be able to move away to infinity?
Can the distance between any two of these bodies decrease without limit, or, on the contrary, will this distance be contained within certain limits?
Will the solar system ever disintegrate, if we assume that it consists of bodies whose movement is disturbed by small forces from all other celestial bodies?
Pierre Simon Laplace in 1799 - 1825 solved a limited problem about the motion of planets and their satellites under the influence of the gravitational force of the Sun and their mutual gravitational influence. Laplace took into account the movements of 18 bodies. He believed that the precise motion of the planets was at times disrupted and external intervention was necessary to restore order. IN AND. Arnold proved several theorems according to which it follows that the solar system will not disintegrate for many millions of years.
Discovery of new planets.
In 1781, William Herschel discovered a new big planet Uranus, which was previously mistaken for a star. By 1840, it became clear that the orbit of Uranus differed from that predicted by Newton's theory. There were noticeable deviations in the orbit from the theoretically calculated trajectory. It was assumed that the movement of Uranus is disturbed by some massive body located beyond its orbit.
J.J. Le Verrier and J.K. Adams independently calculated the position of this body. Adams gave his calculations to the Greenwich and Cambridge Observatories, but they did not pay due attention. Le Verrier reported his discovery to the Berlin Observatory to Johann Gottfried Galle. He immediately began searching for the object and found it at a distance of 1º from the calculated one. It turned out to be the planet Neptune.
In the 80s of the 20th century, the motion of the five outer planets of the Solar System was simulated on a computer for 400 years - from 1653 to 2060. The results showed that there is no planet beyond the orbit of Pluto that is noticeably disturbing the orbit already known planets. However, Pluto itself has almost no effect on Neptune's orbit due to its low mass. If there are similar low-mass planets beyond Pluto’s orbit, then they are almost impossible to detect. It is possible that there is a massive body moving in a highly elongated elliptical orbit, the period of revolution of which significantly exceeds the considered 400 years. There is an assumption that this body, being at a distance of about 30 thousand AU. from the Sun, having a mass comparable to the mass of Jupiter, constantly knocks out comets from the Oort Cloud, forcing them to move towards the center of the Solar system.
- What methods exist for determining the masses of celestial bodies?
- Is it possible to use Kepler's third law to find the mass of a planet that does not have a satellite?
- What is a tide?
- How often do tides occur on Earth?
- What is an applied hour?
- Which maximum height tidal wave?
- What explains the ebb and flow of the tides?
- Who was the first to correctly explain the phenomenon of ebb and flow?
- What is precession?
- What is the period of precession?
- What is nutation?
- What is the nutation period?
- What is the anticipation of the equinoxes?
- Why does precession lead to changes in equatorial coordinates?
- Where will the North Pole of the world be in 12 thousand years?
- How is the N-body problem formulated?
- What are the difficulties in solving the N-body problem?
- Which planet was discovered by taking into account disturbances in the motion of another planet?
- Are there massive planets beyond Neptune's orbit?
Tasks:
1. Calculate the mass of Neptune relative to the mass of the Earth, knowing that its satellite is 354 thousand km from the center of the planet and the orbital period is 5 days 21 hours.
Answer: 17.1 Earth masses.
2. The radius of Mars is 1.88 times less than the radius of the Earth, and average density 1.4 times less. Determine the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of Mars if the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the Earth is 9.81 m/s 2 .
Answer: g M » 3.6 m/s 2 .
Answer: The mass of the planet Saturn is approximately 95 times the mass of the Earth.
4. Determine the mass of the planet Pluto (in Earth masses), knowing that its satellite Charon orbits the planet with a period of 6.4 days at an average distance of 19.6 thousand km. For the Moon, these values are equal to 27.3 days and 384 thousand km, respectively.
Answer: The mass of the planet Pluto is 0.0024 Earth masses.
Literature:
- Astronomical calendar. Permanent part. M. Science. 1981.
- Kononovich E.V., Moroz V.I. General astronomy course. M., Editorial URSS, 2004.
- Vorontsov-Velyaminov B.A. Collection of problems and practical exercises in astronomy. M. Science. 1974.
- Galuzo I.V., Golubev V.A., Shimbalev A.A. Planning and methods of conducting lessons. Astronomy in 11th grade. Minsk. Aversev. 2003.
Atmosphere of the Sun
Program questions:
Chemical composition of the solar atmosphere;
Rotation of the Sun;
Darkening solar disk to the edge;
Outer layers of the solar atmosphere: chromosphere and corona;
Radio and X-ray radiation from the Sun.
Chemical composition of the solar atmosphere;
IN visible area Solar radiation has a continuous spectrum, against which several tens of thousands of dark absorption lines, called Fraunhofer. The continuous spectrum reaches its greatest intensity in the blue-green part, at wavelengths of 4300 - 5000 A. On both sides of the maximum, the intensity of the spectrum decreases.
Extra-atmospheric observations have shown that the Sun emits radiation into the invisible short-wave and long-wave regions of the spectrum. In the shorter wavelength region, the spectrum changes sharply. The intensity of the continuous spectrum quickly decreases, and the dark Fraunhofer lines are replaced by emission lines.
The strongest line solar spectrum is in the ultraviolet region. This is the resonance line of hydrogen L a with a wavelength of 1216 A. In the visible region, the resonance lines H and K of ionized calcium are most intense. After them in intensity come the first lines of the Balmer series of hydrogen H a, H b, H g, then the resonance lines of sodium, lines of magnesium, iron, titanium, and other elements. The remaining numerous lines are identified with the spectra of about 70 known chemical elements from the table of D.I. Mendeleev. The presence of these lines in the spectrum of the Sun indicates the presence of corresponding elements in the solar atmosphere. The presence of hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, magnesium, sodium, iron, calcium, and other elements in the Sun has been established.
The predominant element in the Sun is hydrogen. It accounts for 70% of the Sun's mass. Next is helium - 29% of the mass. The remaining elements combined account for a little more than 1%.
Rotation of the Sun
Observations of individual features on the solar disk, as well as measurements of displacements spectral lines at its various points they talk about the movement of solar matter around one of the solar diameters, called axis of rotation Sun.
The plane passing through the center of the Sun and perpendicular to the axis of rotation is called the plane of the solar equator. It forms an angle of 7 0 15’ with the plane of the ecliptic and intersects the surface of the Sun along the equator. The angle between the plane of the equator and the radius drawn from the center of the Sun to this point on its surface is called heliographic latitude.
The angular speed of rotation of the Sun decreases as it moves away from the equator and approaches the poles.
On average, w = 14º.4 - 2º.7 sin 2 B, where B is the heliographic latitude. Angular velocity is measured by the angle of rotation per day.
The sidereal period of the equatorial region is 25 days; near the poles it reaches 30 days. Due to the rotation of the Earth around the Sun, its rotation seems to be slower and equals 27 and 32 days, respectively (synodic period).
Darkening of the solar disk towards the edge
The photosphere is the main part of the solar atmosphere in which visible radiation is formed, which is continuous. Thus, it emits almost all of the solar energy that comes to us. The photosphere is a thin layer of gas several hundred kilometers long, quite opaque. The photosphere is visible when directly observing the Sun in white light in the form of its apparent “surface”.
When observing the solar disk, its darkening towards the edge is noticeable. As you move away from the center, the brightness decreases very quickly. This effect is explained by the fact that in the photosphere the temperature increases with depth.
Various points of the solar disk are characterized by the angle q, which makes up the line of sight with the normal to the surface of the Sun at the location in question. At the center of the disk, this angle is 0, and the line of sight coincides with the radius of the Sun. At the edge q = 90 and the line of sight slides along the tangent to the layers of the Sun. Most of radiation from a certain layer of gas comes from a level located at the optical depth t=1. When the line of sight intersects the layers of the photosphere at a large angle q, the optical depth t=1 is achieved in the outer layers, where the temperature is lower. As a result, the intensity of radiation from the edges of the solar disk is less than the intensity of radiation from its middle.
The decrease in the brightness of the solar disk towards the edge can, to a first approximation, be represented by the formula:
I (q) = I 0 (1 - u + cos q),
where I (q) is the brightness at the point at which the line of sight makes an angle q with the normal, I 0 is the brightness of the radiation from the center of the disk, u is a proportionality coefficient depending on the wavelength.
Visual and photographic observations of the photosphere make it possible to detect it fine structure, resembling closely spaced cumulus clouds. Light round formations are called granules, and the entire structure is granulation. The angular dimensions of the granules are no more than 1″ arc, which corresponds to 700 km. Each individual granule exists for 5-10 minutes, after which it disintegrates and new granules form in its place. The granules are surrounded by dark spaces. The substance rises in the granules and falls around them. The speed of these movements is 1-2 km/s.
Granulation is a manifestation of the convective zone located under the photosphere. In the convective zone, mixing of matter occurs as a result of the rise and fall of individual masses of gas.
The reason for the occurrence of convection in the outer layers of the Sun is two important circumstances. On the one hand, the temperature directly below the photosphere increases very quickly in depth and radiation cannot ensure the release of radiation from deeper hot layers. Therefore, energy is transferred by the moving inhomogeneities themselves. On the other hand, these inhomogeneities turn out to be tenacious if the gas in them is not completely, but only partially ionized.
When passing into the lower layers of the photosphere, the gas is neutralized and is not able to form stable inhomogeneities. therefore, in the very upper parts of the convective zone, convective movements are slowed down and convection suddenly stops. Oscillations and disturbances in the photosphere generate acoustic waves. The outer layers of the convective zone represent a kind of resonator in which 5-minute oscillations are excited in the form of standing waves.
Outer layers of the solar atmosphere: chromosphere and corona
The density of matter in the photosphere quickly decreases with height and the outer layers turn out to be very rarefied. In the outer layers of the photosphere, the temperature reaches 4500 K, and then begins to rise again. There is a slow increase in temperature to several tens of thousands of degrees, accompanied by the ionization of hydrogen and helium. This part of the atmosphere is called chromosphere. In the upper layers of the chromosphere, the density of the substance reaches 10 -15 g/cm 3 .
1 cm 3 of these layers of the chromosphere contains about 10 9 atoms, but the temperature increases to a million degrees. This is where the outermost part of the Sun's atmosphere, called the solar corona, begins. The reason for the heating of the outermost layers of the solar atmosphere is the energy of acoustic waves arising in the photosphere. As they propagate upward into lower-density layers, these waves increase their amplitude to several kilometers and turn into shock waves. As a result of the occurrence shock waves Wave dissipation occurs, which increases the chaotic velocities of particle movement and the temperature rises.
The integral brightness of the chromosphere is hundreds of times less than the brightness of the photosphere. Therefore, to observe the chromosphere, it is necessary to use special methods that make it possible to isolate its weak radiation from the powerful flux of photospheric radiation. The most convenient methods are observations during eclipses. The length of the chromosphere is 12 - 15,000 km.
When studying photographs of the chromosphere, inhomogeneities are visible, the smallest ones are called spicules. The spicules are oblong in shape, elongated in the radial direction. Their length is several thousand km, thickness is about 1,000 km. At speeds of several tens of km/s, spicules rise from the chromosphere into the corona and dissolve in it. Through spicules, the substance of the chromosphere is exchanged with the overlying corona. Spicules form more large structure, called the chromospheric network, generated by wave movements caused by much larger and deeper elements of the subphotospheric convective zone than the granules.
Crown has very low brightness, so it can only be observed during the total phase of solar eclipses. Outside of eclipses, it is observed using coronagraphs. The crown does not have sharp outlines and has an irregular shape that changes greatly over time. The brightest part of the corona, removed from the limb no more than 0.2 - 0.3 radii of the Sun, is usually called the inner corona, and the remaining, very extended part is called the outer corona. Important feature The crown is its radiant structure. The rays come in different lengths, up to a dozen or more solar radii. The inner crown is rich structural formations, resembling arcs, helmets, individual clouds.
Corona radiation is scattered light from the photosphere. This light is highly polarized. Such polarization can only be caused by free electrons. 1 cm 3 of corona matter contains about 10 8 free electrons. The appearance of such a number of free electrons must be caused by ionization. This means that 1 cm 3 of the corona contains about 10 8 ions. The total concentration of the substance should be 2 . 10 8 . The solar corona is a rarefied plasma with a temperature of about a million Kelvin. Consequence high temperature is the large extent of the crown. The length of the corona is hundreds of times greater than the thickness of the photosphere and amounts to hundreds of thousands of kilometers.
Radio and X-ray radiation from the Sun
WITH The solar corona is completely transparent to visible radiation, but poorly transmits radio waves, which experience strong absorption and refraction in it. At meter waves, the brightness temperature of the corona reaches a million degrees. At shorter wavelengths it decreases. This is due to an increase in the depth from which the radiation emerges, due to a decrease in the absorbing properties of the plasma.
Radio emission from the solar corona has been traced over distances of several tens of radii. This is possible due to the fact that the Sun annually passes by a powerful source of radio emission - the Crab Nebula and solar corona eclipses it. The nebula's radiation is scattered in the inhomogeneities of the corona. Bursts of radio emission from the Sun are observed, caused by plasma oscillations associated with the passage of cosmic rays during chromospheric flares.
X-ray radiation studied using special telescopes installed on spacecraft. The X-ray image of the Sun has irregular shape with many bright spots and a “ragged” structure. Near the optical limb, there is a noticeable increase in brightness in the form of an inhomogeneous ring. Particularly bright spots are observed above the centers solar activity, in areas where there are powerful sources radio emissions at decimeter and meter waves. This means that X-rays originate primarily from the solar corona. X-ray observations of the Sun make it possible to conduct detailed studies of the structure of the solar corona directly in projection onto the solar disk. Next to the bright areas of the corona glow above the sunspots, extensive dark areas were found that were not associated with any noticeable formations in visible rays. They're called coronal holes and are associated with areas of the solar atmosphere in which magnetic fields do not form loops. Coronal holes are a source of amplification solar wind. They can exist for several revolutions of the Sun and cause on Earth a 27-day periodicity of phenomena sensitive to corpuscular radiation from the Sun.
Control questions:
- Which chemical elements predominate in the solar atmosphere?
- How can you find out about the chemical composition of the Sun?
- With what period does the Sun rotate around its axis?
- Do the rotation periods of the equatorial and polar regions of the Sun coincide?
- What is the photosphere of the Sun?
- What is the structure of the solar photosphere?
- What causes the darkening of the solar disk towards the edge?
- What is granulation?
- What is the solar corona?
- What is the density of matter in the corona?
- What is the solar chromosphere?