Any settlement has borders that must be protected from enemy invasions; this need has always existed for large Slavic settlements. During Ancient Rus' conflicts tore the country apart, it was necessary to fight not only with external threats, but also with fellow tribesmen. Unity and agreement between the princes helped create a great state that became defensible. Old Russian warriors stood under one banner and showed the whole world their strength and courage.
Druzhina
The Slavs were a peace-loving people, so the ancient Russian warriors did not stand out too much from the background of ordinary peasants. They defended their home with spears, axes, knives and clubs. Military equipment and weapons appear gradually, and they are more focused on protecting their owner than on attack. In the 10th century, several Slavic tribes united around the Prince of Kyiv, who collected taxes and protected the territory under his control from the invasion of the steppes, Swedes, Byzantines, and Mongols. A squad is formed, 30% of which consists of professional military men (often mercenaries: Varangians, Pechenegs, Germans, Hungarians) and militias (voi). During this period, the weapons of the ancient Russian warrior consisted of a club, a spear, and a sword. Lightweight protection does not restrict movement and ensures mobility in battle and on the march. The main force was infantry, horses were used as pack animals and for delivering soldiers to battlefields. The cavalry is formed after unsuccessful clashes with the steppe people, who were excellent riders.
Protection
Old Russian wars wore shirts and ports, common for the population of Rus' in the 5th - 6th centuries, and put on bast shoes. During the Russian-Byzantine war, the enemy was amazed by the courage and bravery of the “Rus”, who fought without protective armor, covering themselves with shields and using them at the same time as weapons. Later, the “kuyak” appeared, which was essentially a sleeveless shirt, it was trimmed with plates from horse hooves or pieces of leather. Later, metal plates began to be used to protect the body from slashing blows and enemy arrows.
Shield
The armor of the ancient Russian warrior was light, which ensured high maneuverability, but at the same time reduced the degree of protection. Large ones, human-sized, have been used by Slavic peoples since ancient times. They covered the warrior's head, so in the upper part they had a hole for the eyes. Since the 10th century, shields have been made round shape, they are upholstered in iron, covered with leather and decorated with various tribal symbols. According to the testimony of Byzantine historians, the Russians created a wall of shields that tightly closed with each other, and put spears forward. This tactic did not allow the advanced units of the enemy to break through to the rear of the Russian troops. After 100 years the form adapts to new kind troops - cavalry. The shields become almond-shaped and have two mounts designed to be held in battle and on the march. With this type of equipment, ancient Russian warriors went on campaigns and defended their own lands before the invention of firearms. Many traditions and legends are associated with shields. Some of them are up to today are "winged". Fallen and wounded soldiers were brought home on shields; when fleeing, the retreating regiments threw them under the feet of the pursuers' horses. Prince Oleg hangs a shield on the gates of the defeated Constantinople.
Helmets
Until the 9th - 10th centuries, Old Russian warriors wore ordinary hats on their heads, which did not protect them from the chopping blows of the enemy. The first helmets found by archaeologists were made according to the Norman type, but in Rus' they did not receive widespread. The conical shape has become more practical and therefore widely used. In this case, the helmet was riveted from four metal plates; they were decorated with precious stones and feathers (for noble warriors or governors). This shape allowed the sword to slip without causing much harm to the person; a balaclava made of leather or felt softened the blow. The helmet was changed due to additional protective devices: aventail (chain mail mesh), nasal (metal plate). The use of protection in the form of masks (faces) was rare in Rus'; most often these were captured helmets, which were widely used in European countries. The description of the ancient Russian warrior, preserved in the chronicles, suggests that they did not hide their faces, but could fetter the enemy with a menacing gaze. Helmets with a half mask were made for noble and wealthy warriors; they were characterized by decorative details that did not have a protective function.
Chain mail
The most known part The vestments of an ancient Russian warrior, according to archaeological excavations, appear in the 7th - 8th centuries. Chain mail is a shirt made of metal rings tightly connected to each other. At this time, it was quite difficult for craftsmen to make such protection; the work was delicate and took a long period of time. The metal was rolled into wire, from which rings were rolled and welded, fastened to each other according to a 1 to 4 pattern. At least 20 - 25 thousand rings were spent on creating one chain mail, the weight of which ranged from 6 to 16 kilograms. Copper links were woven into the fabric for decoration. In the 12th century, stamping technology was used, when woven rings were flattened, which ensured large area protection. During the same period, chain mail became longer, additional elements of armor appeared: nagovitsa (iron, wicker stockings), aventail (mesh to protect the neck), bracers (metal gloves). Quilted clothing was worn under the chain mail to soften the force of the blow. At the same time, they were used in Rus'. Manufacturing required a base (shirt) made of leather, onto which thin iron slats were tightly attached. Their length was 6 - 9 centimeters, width from 1 to 3. Lamellar armor gradually replaced chain mail and was even sold to other countries. In Rus', scale, lamellar and chain mail armor were often combined. Yushman, bakhterets were essentially chain mail, which, to increase their protective properties, were equipped with plates on the chest. At the beginning of the 14th century appears the new kind armor - mirrors. Metal plates big size, polished to a shine, were usually worn over chain mail. They were connected on the sides and shoulders with leather straps and were often decorated various kinds symbolism.
Weapon
The protective clothing of the ancient Russian warrior was not impenetrable armor, but was distinguished by its lightness, which ensured greater maneuverability of warriors and shooters in battle conditions. According to information obtained from historical sources of the Byzantines, the “Rusichi” were distinguished by their enormous physical strength. In the 5th - 6th centuries, the weapons of our ancestors were quite primitive, used for close combat. To cause significant damage to the enemy, it had a lot of weight and was additionally equipped with damaging elements. The evolution of weapons took place against the background technical progress and changes in battle strategy. Throwing systems, siege engines, piercing and cutting iron tools were used for many centuries, and their design was constantly improved. Some innovations were adopted from other nations, but Russian inventors and gunsmiths have always been distinguished by the originality of their approach and the reliability of the manufactured systems.
Percussion
Weapons for close combat are known to all nations; at the dawn of the development of civilization, its main type was the club. This is a heavy club that is wrapped in iron at the end. Some options include metal spikes or nails. Most often in Russian chronicles, a flail is mentioned along with a club. Due to their ease of manufacture and effectiveness in battle, impact weapons were widely used. The sword and saber are partially replacing it, but militias and warriors continue to use it in battle. Based on chronicle sources and excavation data, historians have created a typical portrait of a man who was called an ancient Russian warrior. Photographs of reconstructions, as well as images of heroes that have survived to this day, necessarily contain some type of striking weapon, most often the legendary mace.
Slashing, piercing
In the history of ancient Rus' great value has a sword. It is not only the main type of weapon, but also a symbol of princely power. The knives used were of several types; they were named according to the place where they were worn: boot knives, belt knives, side knives. They were used along with the sword and the ancient Russian warrior changed in the 10th century, the sword was replaced by a saber. The Russians appreciated its combat characteristics in battles with nomads, from whom they borrowed the uniform. Spears and spears are among the most ancient types of piercing weapons, which were successfully used by warriors as defensive and offensive weapons. When used in parallel, they evolved ambiguously. Rogatins are gradually being replaced by spears, which are being improved into sulitsa. Not only peasants (warriors and militias), but also the princely squad fought with axes. Among the mounted warriors this type weapons had a short handle, infantrymen (warriors) used axes on long shafts. Berdysh (an ax with a wide blade) became a weapon in the 13th - 14th centuries. Later it was transformed into a halberd.
Strelkovoe
All means used daily in hunting and in everyday life were used by Russian soldiers as military weapons. Bows were made from animal horns and suitable types of wood (birch, juniper). Some of them were more than two meters long. To store arrows, they used a shoulder quiver, which was made of leather, sometimes decorated with brocade, precious and semi-precious stones. To make arrows, reeds, birch, reeds, and apple trees were used, with an iron tip attached to the splinter. In the 10th century, the design of the bow was quite complex, and the process of its manufacture was labor-intensive. Crossbows were a more effective type. Their disadvantage was their lower rate of fire, but the bolt (used as a projectile) caused more damage to the enemy, piercing armor when hit. It was difficult to pull the bowstring of a crossbow; even strong warriors rested their feet on the butt to do this. In the 12th century, to speed up and facilitate this process, they began to use a hook, which archers wore on their belts. Before the invention of firearms, bows were used by Russian troops.
Equipment
Foreigners who visited Russian cities of the 12th - 13th centuries were surprised at how equipped the soldiers were. Despite the apparent cumbersomeness of the armor (especially on heavy horsemen), the horsemen coped with several tasks quite easily. Sitting in the saddle, the warrior could hold the reins (drive the horse), shoot from a bow or crossbow, and prepare a heavy sword for close combat. The cavalry was a maneuverable striking force, so the equipment of the rider and horse had to be light but durable. The chest, croup and sides of the war horse were covered with special covers, which were made of fabric with iron plates sewn on. The equipment of the ancient Russian warrior was thought out to the smallest detail. Saddles made of wood allowed the archer to turn in the opposite direction and shoot at full speed ahead, while controlling the direction of the horse's movement. Unlike European warriors of that time, who were completely encased in armor, the light armor of the Russians was focused on fighting with nomads. Noble nobles, princes, and kings had combat and ceremonial weapons and armor, which were richly decorated and equipped with state symbols. Foreign ambassadors were received there and went on holidays.
1. V. Vasnetsov. "Bogatyrs"
It has long become commonplace that distinctive feature Any professional army has uniform protective equipment and uniforms.
But it was not always so. The warriors of ancient Rus' united military uniform didn't exist. Even in relatively small princely squads, the protective equipment and weapons of warriors were different and were selected based on the capabilities or tastes of specific warriors and the prevailing methods of combat.Traditionally, Russian warriors used a variety of protective equipment, which was constantly improved, incorporating the best of what was created in both Europe and Asia.
2
According to ancient Russian concepts, protective equipment without a helmet was called armor. Later, this term began to refer to all the protective equipment of a warrior. The main element of Russian armor for a long time was chain mail. It was used from the 10th to the 17th century.
Chain mail made of metal rings that were riveted or welded together. In the 10th-11th centuries it took the form of a long-skirted shirt with short sleeves. Since the 12th century, the appearance of chain mail has changed; it has long sleeves, and to protect the neck and shoulders - a chain mail mesh aventail. The chain mail weighed 6-12 kilograms. It is curious that when modern craftsmen began to make chain mail, it turned out that they were made quite quickly.
In the XIV-XV centuries, a type of chain mail appeared - canoe, distinguished by the shape of the rings, which were larger than chain mail and flatter. Usually the rings were attached with an overlay. But tenon fastening was also used; in this case, greater strength of the joints was achieved, but their mobility was less. The baidana, which weighed up to 6 kg, reliably protected the warrior from blows from cutting weapons, but could not save him from arrows, darts and other piercing weapons.
3
Known in Rus' since the 10th century " plate armor", it was made of metal plates fastened together and pushed over each other, which could be of various sizes and shapes, but most often rectangular. The thickness of the plates could reach 3 mm. This type of armor was worn on a thick quilted or leather jacket, or less often on chain mail. From the 11th-12th centuries, plates began to be attached with straps to a leather or fabric base, which made the armor more elastic.
4. Chainmail and plate armor of the 10th-11th centuries 
4a. Chain mail. XII-XIII centuries / Artist Vladimir Semenov/
Since the 11th century, Russian soldiers began to use “scaly armor.” The scale armor consisted of steel plates with a rounded bottom edge, which were attached to a fabric or leather base and resembled fish scales. During manufacture, the plates were pushed one on top of the other, after which each one was riveted to the base in the center. The hem and sleeves were usually made from larger plates. Compared to plate armor, this type of armor was more elastic and beautiful. Since the 14th century in Russian the term “armor” has been replaced by the term “armor”, and since the 15th century - “ shell».
5. The shell is scaly. XI century / Artist Vladimir Semenov /
5a. The shell is lamellar. XIII century / Artist Vladimir Semenov /
Since the 13th century, types of protective equipment have appeared in Rus', combining elements of chain mail and armor. The most widespread are kolontar, yushman and kuyak.
Kolontar- armor from the neck to the waist without sleeves, consisting of two halves, fastened on the sides and shoulders of the warrior. Each half consisted of large metal plates, which were held together by small rings or chain mail. A chain mail hem could be attached to it from the belt, going down to the knees.
6
Yushman- a chainmail shirt with horizontal metal plates woven onto the chest and back, which were usually attached with an allowance to each other. Weighed up to 15 kg, combined the strength of plate armor and the elasticity of chain mail. Its production could take up to 100 plates.
7. Warrior in yushman, on right hand bracers, aventail attached to the helmet.
/ Artist Vladimir Semenov /
Kuyak was made of metal plates, round or rectangular, each individually assembled onto a cloth or leather base.
They were made with or without sleeves and had hems like a caftan. Kuyak could be reinforced on the back and chest with large metal plates. Usually it was worn over chain mail, using it as additional protection.
8. Kuyak. 16th century 
Rich warriors wore additional armor - mirror, consisting of large metal plates connected by belts. It was usually made of gold-plated, polished plates that glittered in the sun, which gave it its name.
9. Warrior in armor with a mirror, 17th century / Artist Vladimir Semenov /
The armor of Russian soldiers was supplemented with other elements of equipment. The most important among them was the helmet (shelom) - a metal bell-shaped or sphero-conical headdress with a long top (spire). The top of the helmet was sometimes decorated with a flag - a yalovets. To enhance the protective properties of helmets, they were supplemented with a half mask or nosepiece, which descended from the helmet, covering the nose and upper part of the face.
Often a chain mail mesh was attached to the helmet - aventail, protecting the warrior’s neck and shoulders. From the end of the 12th century, helmets with face masks (a kind of visor) appeared that completely covered the warrior’s face. They were called faces because they usually had the shape of the face of a person or a mythical creature.
10. Helmet with aventail. X century / Artist Vladimir Semenov /
11. Helmet with half mask and aventail. XII-XIII centuries
/ Artist Vladimir Semenov /
12. Sheloms. XI-XIII centuries / Artist Vladimir Semenov /
13. Shields / Artist Vladimir Semenov /
The hands of the warriors, dressed in armor with short sleeves, were protected from the elbows to the wrist with bracers. At the hands, the bracers were connected by rectangular plates - wombs, and were attached to the hand with special straps. The warriors' legs were protected with greaves - buturlyks. They were of three main types: of three wide metal plates, connected by rings in such a way that they covered the entire leg from the knee to the heel; of two narrow and one wide plates; from one concave plate that covered only the front part of the leg.
Since the 13th century, chain mail stockings began to be used to protect the legs. At the same time, metal knee pads appeared, but they did not become widespread, as they made it difficult for soldiers to act on foot.
In the 16th-17th centuries, a quilted shell borrowed from nomads appeared in Rus' - Tegiliai. It was a long caftan with short sleeves and a stand-up collar, lined with a thick layer of cotton wool or hemp. It was made of thick paper material, often with metal plates sewn onto it along the chest. Often plates or pieces of metal were sewn between layers of material. Tegilai reliably protected against slashing blows, and was most often used by poor warriors. But tegilyai are also known, covered with brocade, velvet or silk, which made them expensive and very elegant. Even great princes and kings wore such tegilyai.
14. Warrior in tegilai, quilted hat on his head, 16th century
/ Artist Vladimir Semenov /
15. Armor. XIII-XIV centuries / Artist Vladimir Semenov /
16. Chaldar (horse headdress). 16th century / Artist Vladimir Semenov /
17. Bakhterets and tarch. 16th century / Artist Vladimir Semenov /
18. Archer. XIII century. / Artist Vladimir Semenov /
19. Archer. 16th century / Artist Vladimir Semenov /
20. Ceremonial armor. XVII century / Artist Vladimir Semenov /
Developing and improving, these types of military protective equipment existed until late XVII century. In such armor, our ancestors crushed dog knights on the ice Lake Peipsi, liberated the Russian land from the Horde yoke, defended the freedom and independence of the Fatherland.
21. N.S. Prisekin. "Battle of Kulikovo"
Old Russian troops are the armed forces of Kievan Rus, covering the time period from the 9th century to the mid-13th century. These are the troops that defended the country before the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Warriors guarded the borders of Rus' from raids by nomads and from attacks by the Byzantine Empire. The princes resorted to the help of warriors to resolve internal political issues, when internecine wars.
The troops in the first half of the 9th century were tribal unions of Slavic tribes (Drevlyans, Krivichi, Northerners). Gradually, a small army (druzhina) was formed, which was kept in constant combat readiness. These were trained warriors who were engaged only in military affairs. This policy helped to regularly defend the borders of the state; the prince gathered a large army to carry out long campaigns.
Old Russian troops repeatedly repelled the raids of nomads and warriors of the Byzantine Empire. In this they were helped not only by the strength and courage of the defenders, the tactics and strategy of the commanders, but also by weapons. In the 5th and 6th centuries, the Slavic tribes were poorly armed, but over time the weapons were modified and improved. In the 9th – 13th centuries, the squad was well prepared and equipped.
Warriors used edged weapons, which include four types: chopping, piercing, impact and small arms. The term itself refers to the hand weapons of ancient Russian defenders, which were used in the 9th -13th centuries. This weapon was intended for battle with the enemy. Craftsmen used iron and wood to make weapons. The infantry used heavy throwing vehicles.
A common type of bladed weapon. The blade was made from steel blades, which were welded onto a metal frame. Two steel plates were connected to an iron base. The length of the sword was within 95 centimeters, but in the 12th – 13th centuries the blade became shorter (80 – 85 centimeters). The weight of the weapon rarely exceeded 1.5 kilograms. The handle of the sword consisted of several elements: a crosshair, a pommel and a rod. The sword was sharpened equally on both sides, this made it possible to cut the enemy from any side.
Cold bladed weapon. The saber was sharpened on one side and had a characteristic bend towards the butt. It was usually used by mounted warriors. The saber began to be used in the army in the 10th century. Weapons were found among warriors southern regions Rus'. It was made from one, solid piece of steel. The hilt was decorated depending on the warrior’s birth. Noble and wealthy warriors encrusted the handles with precious stones.
Type of cutting weapon of ancient Russian warriors. Slavic battle axes were practically no different from Scandinavian axes. They were used in battle by foot soldiers. The cavalry used hatchets - these are shortened axes. One part of the weapon was sharpened, it was called the blade, the second was flat, it was called the butt. The iron ax was placed on a wooden handle.
A convenient but auxiliary type of knight's melee weapon. It rarely exceeded 20 centimeters, although there were special combat knives (skramasaks) up to 50 centimeters long. The handle of the weapon could be made of copper, wood, or bone. It was decorated with silver or stones. The blade itself was made like a sword. Two steel plates were welded onto an iron base.
The main type of piercing weapon in Ancient Rus'. The spear tips were forged in such a way that they pierced enemy armor. Spears played a dominant role in the battle of 1378 - the harbinger of the Battle of Kulikovo. When the Slavic troops defeated the Tatar-Mongols. The spear consisted of a long, two-meter shaft and an iron blade mounted on it.
An important weapon used in any battle. Allowed you to hit the enemy from a distance. The most common type of bow consisted of two limbs attached to the handle. The bow was drawn and an arrow was released from it. An iron or steel tip was put on it. Average length arrows - from 70 to 90 centimeters.
One of the first types of weapons. It is considered an impact weapon. Its development began from the club. The mace consisted of a wooden or metal handle. A spherical head equipped with spikes was placed on it. Such weapons hit the enemy, helping to crush him. The length of the mace did not exceed 80 centimeters.
A light weapon that allowed you to deliver a quick and crushing blow in the thick of battle. In the Old Russian army, flails began to be used from the 10th century. An iron weight (often equipped with spikes) was attached to the wooden handle using a leather hanger or an iron chain. The flail was an affordable and effective weapon, therefore it was used in Rus', Europe and Asia.
The first mention of the use of throwing machines by the Slavs dates back to the 6th century. They were used during the siege of Thessaloniki. Machines were actively used in the 9th – 10th centuries, but by the beginning of the 11th century, when the campaigns against Byzantium ceased, the Slavs began to use siege devices less and less. The fortress was taken in two ways: a long siege or a surprise attack. In the 13th century the use of throwing machines increased again.
The device was a simple mechanism. Stones or cannonballs were applied to the long arm of the lever, and people pulled the short arm of the lever. The result was a sharp throw of a large projectile. In order to strike with a 2-3 kilogram cannonball, 8 people were required; to strike with large, multi-kilogram projectiles, the help of dozens of soldiers was needed. Siege engines were used in military operations in Ancient Rus' and in the Middle Ages, before the widespread spread of firearms.
The equipment helped warriors protect themselves from enemy attacks. Basic equipment items ancient Russian warriors– chain mail, shield, helmet and lamellar armor. The uniforms were made in special workshops. The main materials used are iron, leather and wood. Over time, armor changed, became lighter and more comfortable, and its protective function improved.
The body of the ancient Russian warrior was protected by chain mail. The term appeared during the Principality of Moscow, and in the 9th – 12th centuries chain mail was called armor. It consisted of woven small iron rings. The thickness of the suit ranged from 1.5 to 2 millimeters. To make chain mail, both whole rings and rings with rivets were used. Subsequently, they were connected with rivets or pins. Sometimes chain mail was made from iron plates, which were fastened with leather straps. After production, the armor was polished to a shine.
The chain mail was a short-sleeved shirt that reached mid-thigh. The clothes perfectly protected warriors from blows from cold weapons. It appeared in Rus' two hundred years earlier than in Western Europe. So in the 12th century, most French soldiers could not afford chain mail due to the high price of uniforms. At the end of the 12th century, chain mail changed. It became like a shirt with long sleeves and a hem that reached to the knees. Additionally, hoods, protective stockings and mittens were made in the workshops.
One armor weighed no less than 6.5 kilograms. Despite the heavy weight, the chain mail was comfortable, and the defenders could make quick maneuvers. To make the armor, about 600 meters of wire were required. Weaving took for a long time, it took 20 thousand iron rings to make chain mail. In the 12th century, when chain mail changed, the production of one armor began to take up to 30 thousand rings.
Helmets began to come into widespread use in the 10th century, and they were used not only by combatants, but by ordinary soldiers. According to archaeological statistics, several times more helmets are found in Ancient Rus' than in other Western European countries. Two types of helmets were common in the ancient Russian army.
- Norman type. It was an “egg-shaped” or conical helmet. The nose was protected by an iron nasal plate (nasal plate). It could be made with or without aventail (chain mail mesh protecting the neck). The helmet was worn on the head like a hat. But it did not become widespread among ancient Russian warriors.
- Helmets of the Chernigov type are uniforms of a spheroconic shape. They were most often used in Rus'. To make them, it was necessary to rivet four metal parts, and the segments were tied together with a hoop from below. Helmets were convenient during horse battles, as they protected against blows from above. The aventail was always attached to it. The top of the helmet was often decorated with a feather trim.
In the 12th century, sheloms began to appear. This is a type of helmet with a nosepiece, aventail, and a half-cutout for the eyes. The shelom was crowned with an iron spire. These helmets were common in Rus' for several centuries. At the end of the 12th century, helmets with a half mask could also be found; they protected the upper part of the face from light blows. But only rich and noble warriors could afford them.
The shield is the very first armor invented by warriors for protection. High shields were used even before the time of the Rurikovichs and the maintenance of a permanent squad. They were human height, protected from blows, but were extremely uncomfortable. Subsequently, the shields were modified and became lighter. According to archaeological excavations About twenty types of shields were found on the territory of Ancient Rus'.
In the 10th century, craftsmen made round shields - flat wooden planks connected to each other. The diameter did not exceed 80–100 centimeters. Thickness – up to seven millimeters. The shields were covered with leather or upholstered with iron. A hole was made in the center, and on the outside it was covered with an umbon - an iron hemisphere. And with inside a handle was attached to it.
The first ranks of infantry closed their shields with each other. This created a strong wall. The enemy could not get through to the rear of the ancient Russian troops. After the appearance of mounted troops, the shields began to change. They acquired an almond-shaped, oblong shape. This helped keep the enemy in battle.
Uniforms appeared in the 9th – 10th centuries. These are plate-like elements that are woven together with leather cord. By appearance resembled a corset with a long hem. The plates were rectangles with several holes along the edges through which they were connected.
In the old days, lamellar armor was much less common than chain mail; it was worn on top of the armor. They were mainly distributed in Veliky Novgorod and northern regions Kievan Rus. In the 12th - 14th centuries, bracers were added to lamellar armor - armor protecting the hands, elbows, forearms and mirrors - round and iron plaques, amplifiers of the main protection.
The structural principle of organization was called "decimal" or "thousandth". All the warriors were united into dozens, then hundreds and thousands of defenders. The leaders of each structural unit there were tens, sots and thousandes. They were always chosen by the warriors themselves, giving preference to the most experienced and brave defender.
Army in the 9th – 11th centuries
The basis of the ancient Russian army was the princely squad. It was subordinate to the prince and consisted of specially trained professional warriors. The squad was small, numbering several hundred people. The largest squad was that of Prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich, it included 800 people. It consisted of several parts:
- the oldest squad - it included the social elite, governors, wise men, sorcerers;
- junior squad - squires, bodyguards, young military servants;
- best squad;
- front squad.
But the bulk of the army were warriors. They were replenished as a result of irregular military recruitment from the tribes subject to the prince. Hired warriors were invited for long campaigns. Ancient Russian army reached impressive numbers, reaching up to 10 thousand warriors.
Army of the 12th – 13th centuries
At this time, changes took place in the organization of warriors. The place of the senior squad was taken by the princely court - this is the prototype of the standing army. And the junior squad was transformed into a regiment - a militia of landowner boyars. The formation of the army took place in the following way: one warrior on horseback and in full uniform entered the service with 4 - 10 sokh (taxation unit). The princes also resorted to the services of the Pechenegs, Torks, Berendeys and other tribes. They were in constant combat readiness, which helped respond to raids by nomads.
In Ancient Rus' there were three types of troops: infantry, cavalry, and navy. Initially, infantry troops appeared. The bulk of them are “voi”. Already under Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich, soldiers used pack horses instead of convoys. This accelerated the movement of the army. The infantry took part in the capture of cities and covered the rear. Conducted different types works: engineering or transport nature.
Later cavalry appeared, but the mounted troops were few in number. In the tenth century, they preferred to fight on foot, and gradually the warriors became more and more sophisticated. The cavalry helped repel the attacks of the nomads. Since the 11th century it has occupied an important place, becoming on a par with infantry, and later superior to foot troops. The cavalry, like the infantry, had heavily armed warriors. These are defenders with swords, sabers, axes, and maces. Fast, lightly armed warriors also stood out. They were armed with a bow and arrows, an iron mace or battle axes. Only infantry troops used heavy weapons and mortars.
The fleet played an important, but not a key role. It was used only on large sea voyages. In the ninth century in Rus' there were flotillas, which included up to two thousand ships. Their main role was transport; the ships carried soldiers. But there were also special military ships designed for combat. The warriors were transported on boats, which could accommodate up to 50 people. Later, the boats were equipped with throwing machines and rams. Decks intended for archers were built on them.
These are warriors who could consciously cause a battle frenzy. The wolf-knights showed spiritual strength due to the fact that they dedicated their lives to the god Odin. Usually berserkers stood in front of ordinary warriors and began the battle. They were not on the field for long while the trance state continued. Afterwards they left the battle, and the remaining warriors completed the battle.
In order to become a knight, it was necessary to defeat an animal with bare hands: a bear or a wolf. After the victory, the warrior became a berserker, everyone was afraid of him. Such a warrior cannot be defeated, because the spirit of the animal lives in him. The berserker dealt 3 - 4 blows to defeat the enemy. The knight had an instant reaction, several steps ahead of an ordinary warrior. In many ancient texts, berserkers are called werewolves.
The Kyiv princes rarely split up their army and consistently attacked their opponents with all their might. Although there were known cases when warriors of Ancient Rus' fought on several fronts at the same time. In medieval times, troops were divided into parts.
The main tactical maneuver of the infantry was the "wall". But this was possible in the 9th - 10th centuries, when the cavalry was poorly developed and small in number. The army was lined up in even rows of 10–12 ranks. The first warriors put their weapons forward and covered themselves with shields. Thus, they walked in a dense “wall” towards the enemy. The flanks were covered by cavalry.
The second tactical maneuver was the wedge. The warriors lined up in a sharp wedge and rammed the enemy wall. But this method revealed many shortcomings, since the enemy’s cavalry entered from the rear and phalanxes and hit vulnerable areas.
The cavalry performed tactical maneuvers, depending on the course of the battle. The warriors pursued the fleeing troops, launched counter strikes or went out on reconnaissance. The horsemen made a roundabout maneuver to strike at the poorly protected enemy forces.
Oleg Fedorov's drawings are based on reliable archaeological and scientific data, many of them were created for largest museums and private collectors from Russia, Ukraine and other countries.
The druzhina culture in Ancient Rus' was formed simultaneously with the Old Russian statehood and embodied the ethnic, social and political processes of the 9th - early 11th centuries.
As historical materials show, the Slavs, the main population of the ancient Russian territories, were relatively weak in military-technical terms. The only weapons they used were arrows, spears and axes. The situation changed after the so-called “Rus” came to the territory of Ancient Rus'. According to scientists, in ancient times this was the name given to warriors who came from northern Europe. Along with the Rus, items of military weapons and protection that were progressive for that time appeared.
Among the archaeological materials, children's wooden swords and other “toy” weapons are often found. For example, in Staraya Ladoga a wooden sword was found with a handle width of about 5-6 cm and a total length of approximately 60 cm, which corresponds to the size of the palm of a boy aged 6-10 years. Thus, the games were used to teach skills that would be useful to future warriors in adulthood.
It is important to note that the “Russian” army at the initial stage of its existence fought exclusively on foot, which is confirmed by Byzantine and Arab written sources of that time. At first, the Rus viewed horses solely as a means of transportation. True, the horse breeds common at that time in Europe were quite short, so for a long time they simply could not carry a warrior-horseman in full armor.
By the end of the 10th century, military conflicts increasingly occurred between detachments of the Rus and the troops of the Khazar Khaganate, as well as the Byzantine Empire, which had strong and trained cavalry. Therefore, already in 944, Prince Igor’s allies in the campaign against Byzantium were the Pechenegs, whose detachments consisted of light horsemen. It was from the Pechenegs that the Rus began to buy specially trained horses for a new type of army. True, the first attempt of Russian troops in battle on horseback, made in 971 at the Battle of Dorostol, ended in failure. However, failure did not stop our ancestors, and since they still did not have enough cavalry of their own, the practice of attracting mounted detachments of nomads, who were even part of the ancient Russian squads, was introduced.
Old Russian warriors adopted from the steppe people not only the skills of horseback fighting, but also borrowed weapons and clothing characteristic of the “horsemen” culture. It was at that time that sabers, spheroconic helmets, flails, caftans, tash bags, complex bows and other items of rider weapons and horse equipment appeared in Rus'. The words caftan, fur coat, feryaz, sarafan are of eastern (Turkic, Iranian, Arabic) origin, which, apparently, reflects the corresponding origin of the objects themselves.
Taking into account the fact that in most of the territory of Ancient Rus' the climatic conditions were quite harsh, historians suggest that woolen fabric could have been used when sewing Russian caftans. “They put on him trousers, leggings, boots, a jacket, and a brocade caftan with gold buttons, and they put a sable brocade hat on his head” - this is how the Arab traveler and geographer of the 10th century Ibn Fadlan describes the funeral of a noble Russian. The wearing of wide trousers gathered at the knee by the Russians is mentioned, in particular, by the Arab historian of the early 10th century Ibn Ruste.
In some military burials of the ancient Rus, silver conical caps, decorated with filigree and grain, were found, which are presumably the ends of headdresses in the form of a cap with a fur trim. Scientists claim that this is exactly what the “Russian hat” made by the craftsmen of ancient Rus' looked like, the shape of which most likely belongs to nomadic cultures.
The need to lead fighting mainly against steppe lightly armed horsemen led to a gradual change in Russian weapons towards greater lightness and flexibility. Therefore, at first, the completely European (Varangian) weapons of the Russian squads from the time of the campaigns against Byzantium gradually acquired more eastern features: Scandinavian swords were replaced by sabers, warriors moved from rooks to horses, and even heavy knightly armor, which over time became widespread in Europe, never had analogues in the works of ancient Russian gunsmiths
Army of Ancient Rus' - armed forces Kievan Rus (from the end of the 9th century) and the Russian principalities of the pre-Mongol period (until the middle of the 13th century). Like the armed forces of the early medieval Slavs V-VIII centuries, solved the problems of fighting the nomads of the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region and Byzantine Empire, but were fundamentally different new system supplies (from the first half of the 9th century) and the penetration of the Varangian military nobility into the social elite of East Slavic society at the end of the 9th century. The army of Ancient Rus' was also used by the princes of the Rurik dynasty for the internal political struggle in Rus'.
Background
Under the year 375, one of the first military clashes of the ancient Slavs is mentioned. The Antic elder Bozh and with him 70 elders were killed by the Goths.
After the decline of the Hunnic Empire towards the end of the 5th century, with the beginning of the Middle Ages in Europe, the Slavs returned to the historical arena. In the 6th-7th centuries, active Slavic colonization of the Balkan Peninsula took place, which was owned by Byzantium - the most powerful state of the 6th century, which crushed the kingdoms of the Vandals in North Africa, the Ostrogoths in Italy and the Visigoths in Spain and again turned the Mediterranean into Roman Lake. Repeatedly in direct clashes with the Byzantines, the Slavic troops won victories. In particular, in 551, the Slavs defeated the Byzantine cavalry and captured its chief Asbad, which indicates the presence of cavalry among the Slavs, and took the city of Toper, luring its garrison away from the fortress with a false retreat and setting up an ambush. In 597, during the siege of Thessalonica, the Slavs used stone-throwing machines, “turtles,” iron rams and pitons. In the 7th century, the Slavs successfully operated at sea against Byzantium (the siege of Thessaloniki in 610, the landing on Crete in 623, the landing under the walls of Constantinople in 626).
In the next period, associated with the dominance of the Turkic-Bulgarians in the steppes, the Slavs found themselves cut off from the Byzantine borders, but in the 9th century two events took place that immediately chronologically preceded the era of Kievan Rus - the Russian-Byzantine war of 830 and the Russian-Byzantine war of 860. Both expeditions were by sea.
Troop organization
9th-11th centuries
With the expansion of influence in the first half of the 9th century Kyiv princes on the tribal unions of the Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Krivichi and Northerners, establishing a collection system (carried out by 100-200 soldiers) and exporting polyudye, the Kyiv princes began to have the means to maintain a large army in constant combat readiness, which was required to fight the nomads. Also, the army could stay under the banner for a long time, making long-term campaigns, which was required to defend the interests of foreign trade on the Black and Caspian Seas.
The core of the army was the princely squad, which appeared in the era of military democracy. It included professional warriors. The number of senior warriors (excluding their own warriors and servants) can be judged from later data ( Novgorod Republic- 300 “golden belts”; Battle of Kulikovo - more than 500 dead). The more numerous young squad consisted of gridi (the prince's bodyguards - Ibn Fadlan estimates the number of “heroes” in the castle of the Kyiv prince at 400 people in 922), youths (military servants), children (children of senior warriors). However, the squad was small and hardly exceeded 2000 people.
The most numerous part of the army was the militia - the warriors. At the turn of the 9th-10th centuries, the militia was tribal. Archaeological data indicate property stratification among Eastern Slavs at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries and the emergence of thousands of mansions of the local nobility, while tribute was calculated in proportion to the households, regardless of the wealth of the owners (however, according to one version of the origin of the boyars, the local nobility was the prototype of the senior squad). From the middle of the 9th century, when Princess Olga organized the collection of tribute in the Russian North through the system of churchyards (later we see the Kyiv governor in Novgorod, transporting 2/3 of the Novgorod tributes to Kyiv), tribal militias lost their importance.
Recruits of warriors at the beginning of the reign of Svyatoslav Igorevich or when Vladimir Svyatoslavich formed the garrisons of the fortresses he built on the border with the steppe are of a one-time nature; there is no information that this service had any duration or that the warrior had to report for service with any equipment .
Since the 11th century, the senior squad begins to play a key role at the veche. On the contrary, in the more numerous part of the veche - in young people- historians see not the prince’s junior squad, but the city’s people’s militia (merchants, artisans). Regarding rural people's militia, then, according to various versions, the smerds participated in campaigns as servants of the convoy, supplied horses for the city militia (Presnyakov A. E.) or themselves served in the cavalry (Rybakov B. A.).
In the wars of Ancient Rus' they took a certain part mercenary troops. Initially these were Varangians, which is associated with friendly relations between Russia and Scandinavia. They participated not only as mercenaries. Varangians are also found among the closest associates of the first Kyiv princes. In some campaigns of the 10th century, Russian princes hired Pechenegs and Hungarians. Later, during the period of feudal fragmentation, mercenaries also often took part in internecine wars. Among the peoples who were among the mercenaries, in addition to the Varangians and Pechenegs, there were Cumans, Hungarians, Western and Southern Slavs, Finno-Ugrians and Balts, Germans and some others. They all armed themselves in their own style.
Total number the troops could be more than 10,000 people.
XII-XIII centuries
In the 12th century, after Russia lost the cities of Sarkel on the Don and the Tmutarakan principality, after the success of the first crusade trade routes, connecting the Middle East with Western Europe, are reoriented to new routes: Mediterranean and Volga. Historians note the transformation of the structure of the Russian army. In place of the senior and junior squads come the princely court - the prototype of a standing army and a regiment - the feudal militia of landowner boyars, the importance of the veche falls (except for Novgorod; in Rostov the boyars were defeated by the princes in 1175).
|
As the princely lands became isolated under more stable princely rule, this latter not only strengthened, but also acquired a local, territorial character. Its administrative, organizing activities could not help but lay a hand on the structure of the military forces, moreover, in such a way that the druzhina troops became local, and the city troops became princely ones. And the fate of the word “druzhina”, with its fluctuations, testifies to this convergence of elements that were previously heterogeneous. The princes begin to talk about the city regiments as “their” regiments, and to call squads made up of the local population a squad, without identifying them with their personal squad - the court. The concept of the prince's squad expanded greatly by the end of the 12th century. It embraces the influential upper echelons of society and the entire military force reign. The squad was divided into the prince's court and the boyars, large and private. |
Already in relation to the pre-Mongol period it is known (for the Novgorod army) about two methods of recruitment - one warrior on horseback and in full armor (horse and weapon) with 4 or 10 sokh, depending on the degree of danger (that is, the number of troops collected from one territory could differ by 2.5 times; perhaps for this reason, some princes who tried to defend their independence could almost equally resist the united forces of almost all other principalities, and there are also examples of clashes between Russian forces and an enemy who had already defeated them in the first battle: victory at Snova after defeat at Alta, defeat at Zhelani after defeat at Stugna, defeat at City after defeat at Kolomna). Despite the fact that the main type of feudal land ownership until the end of the 15th century was patrimony (that is, hereditary unconditional land ownership), the boyars were obliged to serve the prince. For example, in the 1210s, during the struggle of the Galicians with the Hungarians, the main Russian army was twice sent against the boyars who were late for the general gathering.
Kyiv and Chernigov princes V XII-XIII centuries They used the Black Klobuks and Kovuys, respectively: Pechenegs, Torks and Berendeys, expelled from the steppes by the Polovtsians and settled on the southern Russian borders. A feature of these troops was constant combat readiness, which was necessary for a prompt response to small Polovtsian raids.
Branch of the military
In medieval Rus' there were three types of troops - infantry, cavalry and navy. At first they began to use horses as a means of transportation, and they fought dismounted. The chronicler speaks about Svyatoslav and his army:
Thus, for speed of movement, the army used pack horses instead of a convoy. For battle, the army often dismounted; Leo the Deacon under 971 indicates the unusual performance of the Russian army on horseback.
However, professional cavalry was needed to fight the nomads, so the squad became cavalry. At the same time, the organization took into account the Hungarian and Pecheneg experience. Horse breeding began to develop. The development of cavalry occurred faster in the south of Rus' than in the north, due to differences in the nature of the terrain and opponents. In 1021, Yaroslav the Wise and his army traveled from Kyiv to the Sudomir River, where they defeated Bryachislav of Polotsk, in a week, that is, the average speed was 110-115 km. per day. In the 11th century, cavalry was compared in importance to infantry, and later surpassed it. At the same time, horse archers stood out; in addition to bows and arrows, they used axes, possibly spears, shields and helmets.
Horses were important not only for war, but also for the economy, so they were bred in the owner’s villages. They were also kept on princely farms: there are known cases when princes gave horses to militias during the war. Example Kyiv uprising 1068 shows that the city militia was also mounted.
Throughout the pre-Mongol period, infantry played a role in all military operations. She not only took part in the capture of cities and carried out engineering and transport work, but also covered the rear, carried out sabotage attacks, and also took part in battles along with the cavalry. For example, in the 12th century, mixed battles involving both infantry and cavalry were common near city fortifications. There was no clear division in weapons, and everyone used what was more convenient for him and what he could afford. Therefore, everyone had several types of weapons. However, depending on this, the tasks they performed varied. Thus, in the infantry, as in the cavalry, one can distinguish heavily armed spearmen, in addition to the spear, armed with sulits, a battle axe, a mace, a shield, sometimes with a sword and armor, and lightly armed archers, equipped with a bow and arrows, a battle ax or an iron mace, and, obviously without defensive weapons.
Under 1185 in the south for the first time (and in 1242 in the north for the last time) riflemen are mentioned as a separate branch of the military and a separate tactical unit. The cavalry begins to specialize in direct strikes with edged weapons and in this sense begins to resemble medieval Western European cavalry. Heavily armed spearmen were armed with a spear (or two), a saber or a sword, bows or bows with arrows, a flail, a mace, and, less often, a battle hatchet. They were fully armored, including the shield. In 1185, during a campaign against the Polovtsians, Prince Igor himself, and with him the warriors, did not want to break out of the encirclement on horseback and thereby leave them to the mercy of fate. black people, dismount and attempt a breakthrough on foot. Next, an interesting detail is indicated: the prince, after receiving a wound, continued to move on his horse. As a result of the repeated defeat of the northeastern Russian cities by the Mongols and Horde and the establishment of control over the Volga trade route in the second half of the 13th century, regression and reverse unification of the Russian troops occurred.
The fleet of the Eastern Slavs originated in the 4th-6th centuries and was associated with the struggle against Byzantium. It was a river sailing and rowing fleet, suitable for navigation. Since the 9th century, flotillas of several hundred ships existed in Rus'. They were intended to be used as transport. However, naval battles also took place. The main vessel was a longship, carrying about 50 people and sometimes armed with a ram and throwing machines. During the struggle for the reign of Kiev in the middle of the 12th century, Izyaslav Mstislavich used boats with a second deck built above the oarsmen, on which archers were located.
Tactics
Initially, when cavalry was insignificant, the main infantry battle formation was the "wall". Along the front it was about 300 m and in depth reached 10-12 ranks. The warriors in the front ranks had good defensive weapons. Sometimes such a formation was covered from the flanks by cavalry. Sometimes the army lined up like a ramming wedge. This tactic had a number of disadvantages in the fight against strong cavalry, the main ones: insufficient maneuverability, vulnerability of the rear and flanks. In the general battle with the Byzantines near Adrianople in 970, the weaker flanks (Hungarians and Pechenegs) were ambushed and defeated, but the main Russian-Bulgarian forces continued to fight their way through the center and were able to decide the outcome of the battle in their favor.
In the 11th-12th centuries the army was divided into regiments. In the 11th century, the main battle formation became the “regimental row,” which consisted of a center and flanks. As a rule, the infantry was in the center. This formation increased the mobility of the army. In 1023, in the Battle of Listven, one Russian formation with a center (tribal militia) and two powerful flanks (druzhina) defeated another Russian simple formation of one regiment.
Already in 1036, in the decisive battle with the Pechenegs, the Russian army was divided into three regiments, which had a homogeneous structure, based on territoriality.
In 1068, on the Snova River, the 3,000-strong army of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich of Chernigov defeated the 12,000-strong Polovtsian army. During the campaigns against the Polovtsians in Kiev rule Svyatopolk Izyaslavich and Vladimir Monomakh, Russian troops repeatedly fought surrounded due to the multiple numerical superiority of the enemy, which did not prevent them from winning victories.
The Russian cavalry was homogeneous; different tactical tasks (reconnaissance, counter strike, pursuit) were performed by units with the same method of recruitment and the same organizational structure. By the end of the 12th century, to the division of three regiments along the front, a division of four regiments in depth was added.
To control the troops, banners were used, which served as a guide for everyone. Musical instruments were also used.
Armament
Protective
If the early Slavs, according to the Greeks, did not have armor, then the spread of chain mail dates back to the 8th-9th centuries. They were made from rings made of iron wire, which reached 7-9 and 13-14 mm in diameter, and 1.5 - 2 mm in thickness. Half of the rings were welded, and the other half was riveted during weaving (1 to 4). In total, there were at least 20,000 of them. Later, there were chain mail with copper rings woven in for decoration. The ring size is reduced to 6-8 and 10-13 mm. There were also weavings where all the rings were riveted together. Old Russian chain mail, on average, was 60-70 cm in length, about 50 cm or more in width (at the waist), with short sleeves of about 25 cm and a split collar. At the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th century, chain mail made of flat rings appeared - their diameter is 13-16 mm with a wire width of 2-4 mm and a thickness of 0.6-0.8 mm. These rings were flattened using a stamp. This shape increased the coverage area with the same weight of armor. In the 13th century, a pan-European heavier armor took place, and knee-length chain mail appeared in Rus'. However, chain mail weaving was also used for other purposes - around the same time, chain mail stockings (nagavitsy) appeared. And most helmets were equipped with aventail. Chain mail in Rus' was very common and was used not only by the squad, but also by humble warriors.
In addition to chain mail, lamellar armor was used. Their appearance dates back to IX-X century. Such armor was made from iron plates of a close to rectangular shape, with several holes along the edges. Through these holes, all the plates were connected with straps. On average, the length of each plate was 8-10 cm, and the width was 1.5-3.5 cm. More than 500 of them were needed for the armor. The lamellar had the appearance of a hip-length shirt, with a hem that widened downwards, sometimes with sleeves. According to archaeological data, in IX-XIII centuries There was 1 lamellar for every 4 pieces of chain mail, while in the north (especially in Novgorod, Pskov, Minsk) plate armor was more common. And later they even supplant chain mail. There is also information about their export. Scale armor was also used, which were plates measuring 6 by 4-6 cm, attached at the top edge to a leather or fabric base. There were also brigantines. To protect hands, folding bracers have been used since the late 12th - early 13th centuries. And at the end of the 13th century, early mirrors appeared - round plaques worn over armor.
Helmets, according to archeology, have been in widespread use since the 10th century, and there are more archaeological finds of helmets (as well as chain mail) in Rus' than in any other European country. At first these were conical helmets of the Norman type, which had no Norman origin, and those who came to Europe from Asia. This type did not become widespread in Rus' and was supplanted by spheroconic helmets, which appeared around the same time. These were Chernigov-type helmets, riveted from four pieces of iron, and often richly decorated. There were also other types of spheroconic helmets. From the 12th century, tall helmets with a spire and a nosepiece appeared in Rus', and soon became the most common type of helmet, maintaining primacy for several centuries. This is due to the fact that the spheroconic shape is best suited for protection from attacks from above, which is important in areas of horse-saber combat. In the second half of the 12th century, helmets with a half mask appeared - they were richly decorated and were the property of noble warriors. But the use of disguises has not been confirmed by anything, therefore, if it happened, it was only in isolated cases. Western hemispherical helmets existed, but were also rare.
Large shields were protective weapons of the ancient Slavs, but their design is unknown. In the 10th century, round, flat, wooden, leather-covered shields with an iron umbo were common. Since the beginning of the 11th century, almond-shaped shields, convenient for horsemen, have been widely used. And from the middle of the 13th century they begin to turn into triangular ones.
IN mid-XIII centuries, the Galician-Volyn army had horse armor, called by the chronicler Tatar (mask and leather blanket), which coincides with Plano Carpini's description of Mongol horse armor.
Throwing machines
In Ancient Rus' there was the use of throwing machines. The earliest report of their use by the Slavs dates back to the end of the 6th century - in the description of the siege of Thessaloniki in 597. In the Greek source they are described as follows: “They were quadrangular on wide bases, ending with a narrower upper part, on which there were very thick drums, with iron edges, and wooden beams were driven into them (like beams in a large house), having slings (sphendons), when lifted, they threw stones, both large and numerous, so that neither the earth could bear their hits, nor human structures. But in addition, only three of the four sides of the ballista were surrounded by boards, so that those inside were protected from being hit by arrows fired from the walls.” During the siege of Constantinople in 626 by the Slavic-Avar army, the siege equipment consisted of 12 copper-clad mobile towers, several rams, “turtles” and throwing machines covered with leather. Moreover, it was mainly Slavic detachments that manufactured and serviced the vehicles. Arrow-throwing and stone-throwing machines are also mentioned during the siege of Constantinople in 814 by the Slavic-Bulgarian army. During the times of Ancient Rus', the use of throwing machines by both the Byzantines and the Slavs, notes Lev Deacon, speaking about the campaigns of Svyatoslav Igorevich. The message from the Joachim Chronicle about the use of two vices by the Novgorodians against Dobrynya, who was going to baptize them, is rather legendary. By the end of the 10th century, the Russians stopped raiding Byzantium, and a change in tactics led to a decrease in the use of siege weapons. Now the besieged city is taken either by a long blockade or by sudden capture; The fate of the city was most often decided as a result of a battle near it, and then the main type of military action was a field battle. Throwing weapons were used again in 1146 by the troops of Vsevolod Olgovich during the unsuccessful siege of Zvenigorod. In 1152, during the assault on Novgorod-Seversky, they destroyed the wall with stones from vices and took the fort, after which the struggle ended in peace. IN Ipatiev Chronicle It is noted that the Polovtsians, under the leadership of Konchak, went to Rus', with them there was an Islamic master serving powerful crossbows, which required 8 (or 50) people and “live fire” to pull. But the Polovtsians were defeated and the cars fell to the Russians. Shereshirs (from the Persian tir-i-cherkh), mentioned in the Tale of Igor's Campaign - perhaps there are incendiary shells that were thrown from similar crossbows. Arrows for them have also been preserved. Such an arrow was in the form of an iron rod 170 cm long with a pointed end and a tail unit in the form of 3 iron blades, weighing 2 kg. In 1219, the Russians used large stone-throwing and flame-throwing crossbows during the assault on the Bulgarian city of Oshel. In this case, Russian siege technology developed under West Asian influence. In 1234, vice was used in a field internecine battle, which ended in peace. In the 13th century, the use of throwing machines increased. Great importance here the invasion of the Mongols played a role, who used the best technology that time. However, throwing weapons were also used by the Russians, for example, in the defense of Chernigov and Kholm. They were also actively used in wars with the Polish-Hungarian invaders, for example, in the battle of Yaroslav in 1245. Throwing machines were also used by the Novgorodians when capturing fortresses in the Baltic states.
The main type of Russian throwing machines were not easel crossbows, but various lever sling machines. The simplest type was the paterella, which threw stones attached to the long arm of a lever when people pulled on the other arm. For kernels of 2 - 3 kg, 8 people were enough, and for kernels of several tens of kilograms - up to 100 or more. A more advanced and widespread machine was the manjanik, which was called a vice in Rus'. Instead of traction, created by people, a movable counterweight was used. All these machines were short-lived; their repair and production were supervised by “vicious” craftsmen. IN end of the 14th century century, firearms appeared, but siege engines still retained military significance until the 15th century.