At the end of the 2nd - beginning of the 1st millennium BC. Iranian-speaking tribes settled on the territory of Northern Iran, which for a millennium peacefully penetrated into the rest of Iran and assimilated local population. From the 9th century BC, according to Assyrian cuneiform historical texts, the entire population of Iran is mentioned under common name Medes
mussel like historical region In ancient times, it covered the territory bounded in the north by the Araks River and the Elbrus ridge south of the Caspian Sea, in the east by the Dasht and Kevir deserts, in the west and south by the black chains of the Zagros.
Written sources testify to the diversity of the population of Media, which was culturally heterogeneous. If among the Iranian-speaking tribes the main occupation was cattle breeding, which is determined by the territory of residence, then in the agricultural regions of North-Western Media it was noted relatively high level development of productive forces.
Since the 9th century. BC, the Assyrians, bordering Media, began to make numerous predatory campaigns into its territory. During the 8th century. BC. the Median regions were dependent on the Assyrians and paid them regular taxes, the basis of which were crafts and livestock. This expansion from the west accelerated the consolidation of the Median tribes and the emergence of state entities.
From the 8th century BC. On the territory of Media, the first small state-regions began to form, among which the state of Mana came to the forefront, which later became the cultural and economic core of the Median state in the 6th century. BC. The state of Mana often fought with Assyria and Urartu and was not truly defeated by any of these powers.
Along with Mana and smaller kingdoms, there was an alliance of Median tribes, the long-term preservation of which is explained by the need for solidarity of the Median tribes in the fight against external aggression. According to the reports of the ancient Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BC), a certain Deioces played a major unifying role among the Median tribes.
By the beginning of the 1st millennium, Median society entered into new era- the period of class formation and the creation of a slave society begins, although tribal ties are still long time continue to retain their importance.
VIII century BC. in the history of Media is marked by two periods of Assyrian invasions, the first - from 834 to 788 and the second - from 744 to 678, which greatly destroyed and devastated the country for certain time. Assyria formally subjugated all of Media, although it was extremely difficult for the Assyrians to retain its territory as part of their state. difficult task. Frequent uprisings broke out in various Median regions, as tribute collections encountered fierce resistance from the Medes.
At the turn of the 8th and 7th centuries. BC. in Western Asia a new political factor, which significantly changed the balance of forces. These were nomadic tribes: Cimmerians, Treres and Scythians, penetrating from the Black Sea region to Western Asia. In 673 BC, taking advantage of hostilities between the Assyrians and Cimmerians, the Median tribes launched a great revolt against Assyria. The uprising was led by one of the Median leaders, Kashtariti. The uprising covered a significant territory - the entire Central Media, and the rebels acted offensively and threatened to siege and capture many Assyrian fortresses at once. The uprising was a complete success.
Kashtariti - one of the leaders of the Median uprising - unites all Median tribes and eliminates small regional state entities. By the middle of the 7th century. BC. the kingdom of Media becomes large state Ancient East, it is mentioned as independent along with Urartu, Habushkia, Assyria.
Assyria could not come to terms with defeat, found an ally against the Medes in the person of the Scythians and again attacked Media, after which it overcame the country in 653 - 625. BC. Scythian rule was established.
For the Medes, Scythian dominance had specific value. On the one hand, they learned the cavalry and rifle tactics of the Scythians, on the other hand, the dominance of the Scythians contributed to the development of an intertribal language not only in the territory of the Median kingdom itself, but throughout the entire territory of Media as a whole: the Iranian language of the Medes and the Iranian language of the Scythians were so close that that mutual understanding between the inhabitants of the Scythian and Median kingdoms was complete. At the same time, Scythian domination did not affect the foundations of Median statehood, but was expressed only in the payment of a certain tribute from Scythian raids.
In 625 BC. Cyaxares (in Iranian Huvakhshtra), the son of Kashtariti, became the king of Media. He defeated the Scythians, united all the Median tribes, subjugated, in particular, the Persians and created a single power with its capital in Ecbatana (now Hamadan). The Median kingdom again represented a significant political and military force.
Cyaxares, following the example of his Assyrian neighbors, whose army structure was carefully developed, first created regular army, divided into strategic and tactical units and formations, based not on tribal ties, but on the military necessity of the state as a whole. He also streamlined the division of troops by type of weapon. This was the last step towards establishing statehood in Media.
After the expulsion of the Scythians, the main conquests of the Medes began on the Iranian Plateau. Having concluded an alliance with Babylonia, main blow Media is directed against its primordial enemy Assyria. Cyaxares even became related to the Babylonian royal house, giving his daughter in marriage to Prince Nebuchadnezzar. This anti-Assyrian coalition turned out to be so powerful that in 605 BC. she managed to completely defeat Assyria.
Having finished with Assyria, Media conquers Urartu, Parthia, Hyrcania, Cappadocia, subjugates the tribes of Eastern Iran, makes Persia dependent and comes into contact with the nomadic Saka tribes within Central Asia.
End of the 7th and beginning of the 6th century. BC. were, all along the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea, a period of serious political and ethnic shifts, regroupings of forces acting with and against Media; Scythians, Urartians, Armenians, remnants of the Hurrians and ancestors of the Iberians, inhabitants of Asia Minor, etc. were involved in these shifts. The result of these regroupings was the war between Media and Lydia in 590 and 585.
This war was preceded by a period strained relations between Media and Babylonia after the completion of the division of the Assyrian inheritance. Both great powers entered into rivalry, and a clash between them was inevitable. However, Media got bogged down in events in the north and then in Asia Minor.
By this time, the territorial growth of the Lydian kingdom was noted; its possessions came close to the Urartian borders. And here the interests of Lydia collided with the interests of Media. The five-year Median-Lydian War ended on May 28, 585 BC. During the battle, a solar eclipse occurred, predicted by the Greek scientist Thales. Both sides saw solar eclipse a bad omen for themselves and concluded a peace treaty, sealed dynastic marriage between children of both states. The border between Lydia and the Median state was drawn along the Galis River (Soviet Kyzyl-Yrmak). Cyaxares, having expanded the Median power to its extreme limits, died in the same year. A large and powerful power was inherited by the son of Cyaxares Astyages (584 - 550 BC), who was the last king Mussels. He subjugated Elam, which had previously been dependent on Babylonia, to his power. This led to a sharp deterioration in relations between Babylonia and Media, and both sides began to prepare for war.
The state structure of the Median state, in comparison with the structure of Assyria in the 7th century. BC. was quite loose. There were fragile military-administrative associations, the existence of which largely depended on the randomness of military successes or defeats. The core of the power was Media. It was a territory administered directly from Ecbatana, with a population that had all the duties and benefits of Median citizens and subjects of the Median king.
As a result of territorial growth, the wealth of the Median nobility and the scale of its slave holdings increased enormously. The stratification of property among the free had gone far, but the features of patriarchy in society still remained. In the 7th - early 6th centuries. BC. there were no developed forms of slavery here yet, but only patriarchal slavery. In Media there was a law according to which the poor members of society could give themselves to a wealthy person who undertook to feed them. The poor moved into a position similar to slavery, however, with the difference that they could leave their master at any time if they were dissatisfied with their food.
In general, in Media in the 6th century. BC. the bulk were free community landowners, direct producers material goods, it was with their hands that the power of the Median state was mainly created. The seizure of colossal wealth through predatory wars and heavy taxes caused the rapid enrichment of the Median nobility, a sharp property stratification of society and a rapid escalation of contradictions.
During the reign of Astyages, the tribal aristocracy - the descendants of the Median leaders - played a significant role in the state. She was very restrictive royal power, which at that time was pursuing a progressive policy of unifying the country.
All these rapidly growing contradictions, long wars, as well as conflicts with Babylonia, complicated the position of Media and led the Median state to death. In 550, the Persians, led by King Cyrus II (558 - 529 BC) from the Achaemenid clan, conquered Media and annexed it to their state.
Bibliography
To prepare this work, materials from the site http://www.bestreferat.ru were used
Media was originally the name of a tribal union, then a kingdom located in the northwestern regions of the Iranian Plateau. The Medes were first mentioned in the Assyrian chronicles of the 9th century. BC The Median kingdom arose in the 7th century. BC as a result of an anti-Assyrian uprising supported by the Cimmerians and Scythians. In alliance with Babylonia, Media defeated the Assyrian power, conquered Urartu, Northern Mesopotamia, Parthia, Persia and part of Asia Minor. In 1585 BC. shared spheres of influence in Western Asia with Lydia. In the VI century. BC in the territories under its control the Persian language grew tribal union, the war with which (553-550) ended with the defeat of Media, the capture of its capital Ecbatana (modern Hamadan) and inclusion in the Persian state. Last mentioned about Media as an independent state is available in Armenian sources of the 1st century. BC
Median kingdom, second. floor. VII century BC e. - 550 BC e.
The Medes were immediate family Persians They created a large state in the Middle East, subjugating Assyria, Persia, the Syrian kingdoms and some other territories.
The traditional chronology of Media is highly questionable. The information given here is obtained as a result of modern research.
Deyok sec. Thursday VII century BC e. - 640s BC e.
Fraort 640s - 620s BC e.
Cyaxares 620s - OK. 585 BC e.
Astyages ca. 585-550 BC e.
In 550 BC. e. The Median kingdom was destroyed by the king of the Parsua region from the dynasty Achaemenid - Cyrus II .
Book materials used: Sychev N.V. Book of Dynasties. M., 2008. p. 583.
Read further:
Mussels kings, a royal dynasty that ruled in Media (Iran) c. 670-550 BC
Dayukku, king of Media (Iran), reigned c. 670-647 BC
Ishtuvegu(Astyages), king of Media in 585-550. BC
Uvakhshatra(Cyaxares, Khvakhshatra) (625-585 BC), son of Phraortes, king of Media.
Fravartis(Phraortes), king of Media (Iran), reigned 647-625. BC Son of Dayukku. + 625 BC. According to Herodotus, Fravartish, having inherited power from his father, was not content with dominion over the Medes and went to war against the Persians. The Persians were the first to be attacked by him and the first to submit to the Medes. Having ruled over these two peoples, Fravartish began to conquer Asia, nation by nation. Finally he set out on a campaign against the Assyrians, but died in this war, and with him died most of his troops.
In the 5th century BC e. The border of Media passed along the river Halys
In 673 BC. e. The Medes, under the leadership of Kashtariti, rebelled against her and in 672 BC. e. created independent state. By the middle of the 7th century. BC e. it united all the Median tribes. In 653 BC. e. Kashtariti began a war with Assyria, but at this time Media was attacked by the Scythians, was defeated and fell under their rule.
In 625 BC. e. King Cyaxares defeated the Scythians and revived Media, making Ecbatana the capital. The tribal militia was replaced by a strong standing army, divided by type of weapon. In 614 BC. e. The Medes, in alliance with the Neo-Babylonian kingdom, began a war against Assyria in 612 BC. e. took its capital Nineveh in 609 BC. e. in the battle of Harran they finished off the remnants of the Assyrian troops.
Having destroyed Assyria, Media annexed Northern Mesopotamia and the Harran region in Syria and became, along with the Neo-Babylonian kingdom, the largest power in Ancient East. OK. 593 BC e. she conquered Urartu, then the kingdom of the Scythians in Sakasena and Mannu. In the east, Persia, Hyrcania and Parthia were subjugated. In the west, after the war with Lydia, the border of Media in Asia Minor began to run along the Halys River.
In 584 BC. e. Cyaxares was succeeded by Astyages, who annexed Elam, which had previously been dependent on Babylonia, to Media. In 550 BC. e. the rebel Persians captured and incorporated Media into the Persian power Achaemenids.
In the 4th century. BC e. The Median kingdom was formed on part of the territory of Media.
Mussel - ancient state, as well as an ancient ethnogeographical region in western Iran. from the city of Araks and Mount Elbrus in the north to the borders of Persida in the south, and from the Zagros Mountains in the west to the Dasht-Kevir desert in the east. The Median kingdom existed in 672 BC. AD - 550 BC That is, and in its heyday it was much wider than the borders of ethnic Media.
Media occupied the territory of Northwestern Iran. West Side The state covered the areas of the Zagros mountain ranges near the borders with Assyria and was called Media Atropatena. To the east of Atropatena stretched the flat part of Media.
In the III - I millennium BC. AD Tribes of settled farmers and herders lived on the territory of Media; they spoke Elamite, Kasitian, Kutian, Hurrian and other non-Indo-European languages.
It is widely believed that the ancestors of Iranian-speaking tribes were cattle breeders of Eastern Europe. from where some of them crossed the Caucasus and along the coast of the Caspian Sea to Iran and Central Asia. Iranian tribes appeared in Iran around the 12th-11th centuries. BC AD and spread throughout Iran at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. This penetration was not of an aggressive nature, but was mixing with the local population. In some areas of the state, even in the 9th - 8th centuries. BC That is, the old non-Iranian population predominated. But, starting from the 8th century. BC That is, Iranians already constituted an overwhelming majority in many areas of Iran. Associated with this time wide use graves of armed horsemen. Babylonian words testify to the Iranians' involvement in horse breeding. Finds of rich graves, in which there are many artistic products, vessels with gold Marlik, indicates the isolation of military commanders.
Assyrians in Media
I start from the 9th century. BC e. the Assyrians began to make campaigns against Media in order to capture booty. Currently, in Northwestern Iran there were dozens of small principalities in which both the Medes and the local population of Kutian-Kassite origin lived.
Ancient Iranians
The ancient Iranians, who belonged to one of the branches of the Indo-Europeans, appeared on the territory modern Iran at the turn of the 2nd - 1st millennia BC. Moreover, science has not yet resolved the question of where they came from - from the territories of the Caucasus or from Central Asia through the Caspian steppes. Having interacted with the local population - Hurrians, Kassites, etc. - and partially assimilated it, the Iranians from the 8th century. BC. became the dominant ethnic group, which in turn was divided into two parts - the Medes in the north and the Persians in the south. The wars of Assyria with Urartu, the invasions of the Cimmerians and Scythians created a favorable situation for the consolidation of the Mede tribes, on the basis of which the state of Media was formed, which became already in the 7th century. BC. strong power, whose alliance with Babylonia played decisive role in the collapse of Assyria.
The successful ruler of Media, Cyaxares, not only defeated Assyria, but also managed to conquer and subjugate Urartu and a number of other countries from the Caspian steppes to Asia Minor, where he concluded an alliance with the large Lydian kingdom. Cyaxares' son Astyages made efforts to preserve and strengthen the power of Media. However, in this struggle he met fierce resistance from the regional tribal nobility, whose enrichment during the wars of conquest contributed to its strengthening. Among the Iranian tribes that were dependent on the kings of Media were who fought with their Elamite neighbors the Persians.
Situated in the south of the Iranian plateau, next to ancient Elam, the Persians existed for many decades almost independently of the ethnically close Medes. The consolidation of the Persians into a state occurred slowly and was slightly delayed compared to the Medes. However, this autonomy contributed political independence the emerging state. The ruler of the Persians, Cyrus I, in the second half of the 7th century, BC. recognized the authority of Assyria, with which the Medes waged a fierce struggle, and during the time of his son Cambyses I, married to the daughter of Astyages, the Persians were already vassals of Media. The son of Cambyses, Cyrus II, was the grandson of the king of Media on his mother’s side, and this relationship played a certain role both in his fate and in the fate of all Persians.
Sources: www.history-names.ru, nado.znate.ru, otvet.mail.ru, www.bibliotekar.ru, helpiks.org
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The history of the Median revolt is known from Assyrian fortune-telling inscriptions, undated by year. Probably in 671, a revolt swept through a number of eastern provinces of Assyria. The main role was played by rebellious local rulers from the Median regions: Kashtariti from Kar-Kashshi, Dusani from Sapparda and Mamitiarshi from Madai. Allied with them were the Scythians, Cimmerians and Mania. The Assyrian fortresses in Kishessu and even in Bit Hamban were already under threat. The Assyrians tried to negotiate with the rebels and the Scythian leader Partatua. This is where our information ends. But it is often assumed that Partatua nevertheless agreed to an alliance with Assyria, and this helped her retain part of the eastern provinces.
By 669, Media was considered by the Assyrians to be a separate “country”. But it was not yet a single kingdom. During the uprising, an association like a military alliance probably arose, but each of the three leaders ruled in his own “country,” and there were many more of them in Media. And according to the story of Herodotus, which is the main source on the history of the Median kingdom, after gaining independence, Media remained disunited and civil strife continued in it until it was united by Deyok (Iranian: Dahyoka). At first he was the ruler and “judge” of his “country” (dahyu), and then he headed the Median association, which also consisted of various “countries” and a district with its own rulers, and the power of Deiokos was limited to certain functions, in particular the “judge” of all Media . Obviously, in the fight against local rulers, he achieved that at a specially assembled council of “all Medes” he was proclaimed king.
After this, Deyok built a large royal city with a palace and a treasury inside a citadel, surrounded by powerful walls, behind which the “other” people were settled; This is how Ecbatana (Iranian: Khagmatana, modern: Hamadan) was founded. A royal guard was created, strict palace rules were established, and the king was approached through messengers or by submitting written petitions. These measures were intended to protect and elevate the king in front of members of noble families who were previously equal to him in position. A police service was established, and there were spies and eavesdroppers throughout the country.
Much in this story by Herodotus rather reflects the order late period existence of the Median state. But the very establishment of royal power, the founding of the capital, the rise of the king over the rulers of other “countries” and the real unification of Media date back to the time of Deiocus. Deiocus's son, Phraortes (c. 646-624), began conquests beyond its borders. According to Herodotus, the Persians were the first to be conquered, and then a number of other peoples. Then Phraort decided to go to war with Assyria, but in this campaign he died along with most of the army.
Under his son Cyaxares (624/23-585/84), Media reached its greatest power, becoming a great power. However, at the beginning of his reign, he failed in the fight against the Scythians, and the Medes had to pay them tribute, as many peoples of Western Asia paid it to the Scythians. Later, Cyaxares put an end to the Scythian “rule” over Asia (according to Herodotus, by treasonably killing some of the Scythians), but when this happened is unclear. Obviously, before the final stage of the war with Assyria, Cyaxares carried out a military reform: instead of a militia recruited by people and “countries,” a regular army was created from formations of spearmen, archers and cavalry.
Media again entered into a war with Assyria, which, in alliance with Manna, Urartu and Egypt, fought the Neo-Babylonian kingdom and other opponents. After the defeat of the Assyrian and Mannaean troops from the Babylonians in 616, the Medes invaded the possessions of Assyria (and probably subjugated Manna at the same time); soon they were already in the province of Arrapha (near modern Kirkuk in Iraq), and then walked through the indigenous lands of Assyria to Ashur and took this ancient center (614 BC).
In 612, the Medes and Babylonians again invaded Assyria and marched on its capital. In August 612, Nineveh fell after an assault and fierce street fighting.
The Median state now included the Urartian, Mannaean and Scythian kingdoms, which by 593 retained autonomy. But it was apparently soon destroyed, and in 590 a war between the Medes and Lydia began - by that time the main state in the west of Asia Minor. This war ended after a battle during which a total solar eclipse occurred on May 28, 585. According to the peace, secured by the marriage of the son of Cyaxares, Astyages, to the daughter of the Lydian king, the border of both states was established along the river. Galis (Kyzylyrmak), - the northeastern part of Asia Minor was assigned to Media.
There is no reliable information about Media's possessions in the east. Its sphere of influence probably covered the west of Central Asia and Afghanistan, but did not extend to Margiana (the region of Merv) and areas further to the east, first conquered by the Achaemenids.
In many, especially peripheral, areas of the Median state, dependent kingdoms remained (like the Persian one, ruled by the Achaemenids). Other regions were included in provinces headed by governors appointed from Ecbatana. But there is almost no specific information about the size of the governorships, the powers of their rulers and other features of the internal structure of the Median state. It is undeniable, however, that she played very important role in the development of Iranian state institutions, and many of them were inherited and developed under the Achaemenids.
The creation of a large state and conquests, accompanied by the seizure of huge booty and tribute, contributed to the economic and social development Median society, the growth of wealth of certain circles of the nobility. There is evidence of the existence in Media of large farms with the exploitation of slaves and dependents, as well as free people who have lost their farm. The strengthening of royal power and the struggle with local rulers and nobility found ideological justification in the teachings of magicians, followers of dualism of the Mazdaite type (the cult of Mazda itself has been attested in the west of Iran and in Media since the 8th century). Opposition to centralization, local “lawlessness” and strife were declared a manifestation of “Lies” and the opposite of “Truth”, the “fair” world order implemented on earth by the king and his “good law”. This ideology was used, according to Herodotus, already during the unification of Media by Deiokos, and later, obviously, was widely propagated in the country. The magicians themselves played a prominent role in political life and at the royal court along with the clan, military and noble nobility.
Until the beginning of the 6th century. internal contradictions were concealed by foreign policy successes. But the era of Median history, associated with the struggle for independence, the defeat of Assyria and the subsequent conquests, ended with the reign of Cyaxares. During his 35 years of reign, his son Astyages did not conduct significant military operations, at least in the west. But it was under him that the institutions of the Median state were streamlined (and, probably, the establishment of many of its orders, which Herodotus wrote about). Astyages sought to limit the power high nobility and was “cruel” with her. At the same time, the influence of magicians increased. A tense situation developed in Media.
Under these conditions, part of the nobility, led by a member of the royal family and the commander of the troops, Harpagus, entered into relations with the Persian king Cyrus II, who was preparing an uprising against Media. After the start of the uprising, in 550, during Astyages’s campaign against the Persians, “his army rebelled against him, he was captured and given to Cyrus,” writes the Babylonian chronicle. And according to Herodotus, in decisive battle Only part of the Median army fought, not involved in the conspiracy, while the other openly went over to the side of the Persians. Cyrus won, and the Achaemenid power replaced the Median one.
→K: Appeared in 670 BC. e. K: Disappeared in 550 BC. e.
Culture
The Medes were very close to the Persians in language, religion, and customs. They wore long hair and beards; like the Persians and all Iranians, they wore trousers, short boots and on their belts an akinak (a cross between a long dagger and a short sword), the former hallmark free man. Unlike the Persians, they did not wear tight jackets, but long, loose robes with large sleeves (they were quickly adopted by the Persian nobility and despised by the Greeks, considering them “feminine”); also distinguished them from the Persians special kind headdresses. Median infantrymen were armed with short spears and wicker, leather-covered shields. But unlike the Persians, who fought on foot, the Medes were famous for their cavalry. The Median king fought in the center of the army, standing in an Assyrian chariot - a custom adopted by the Persians. Like all Iranian peoples, the Medes used plate armor that covered both riders and horses.
Religion
Among the Medes, more than among the Persians, pure Zoroastrianism was developed, perhaps the former state religion under Ishtuvegu. It is not for nothing that the Zoroastrian clergy - magicians - came from a Median tribe with this name and have retained its name to this day.
In Media, the cult of veneration of the fertility goddess Ardvisura Anahita was widespread. In the main city of Media, Ecbatana, there was a temple of the goddess Anahita (according to Greek authors - Anaitis). Strabo, Roman historian of the 1st century. BC e., referring to the ancient Greek historian of the 5th century. BC e. Herodotus, mentions the rituals of ritual prostitution and says that Median women, serving in the temples of Ardvisur Anahita, “indulge in debauchery. At the same time, they treat their lovers so kindly that they not only show them hospitality and exchange gifts, but often give more than they receive, since they come from rich families that provide them with the means for this. However, they do not take as lovers the first foreigners they meet, but mainly those equal to themselves in social status.”
Median language
The issue of the Median language is controversial. Some scholars accept the existence of a single Median language; others deny this, believing that the Medes spoke several dialects, which, along with the Persian dialect, constituted a single ancient Iranian language. This is argued by the fact that languages that can be considered descendants of Median (northwestern Aryan languages: Kurdish, Talysh, Tat, Tati and others) do not demonstrate the necessary degree of kinship. In any case, it can be assumed a priori that common language in Media there was a dialect of the Ecbatani district (according to general rule, Whereby official language- this, with few exceptions, is the language of the capital and the court).
Writing undoubtedly existed, but no monuments were found. It is remarkable that the cuneiform script, which the Persians used to record texts in the Persian language, is an adaptation to Persian language Urartian cuneiform - therefore, it could only get to the Persians through the Medes. Some words of the ancient Persian language related to social and public sphere, for example the word “satrap”.
see also
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Notes
Literature
- Vilchevsky O. L. Kurds. M., 1961.
- World history in 10 volumes, volumes 1,2, M., 1956.
- Herodotus. History in 9 books. M.. 1972.
- Dyakonov I. M. History of Media. M.-L., 1956.
- Strabo. Geography in 17 books. M., 1994.
- Kyler Young Jr. Early history Medes and Persians and the Achaemenid Empire before the death of Cambyses // Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean c. 525-479 BC e. M., 2011. P. 13-71. (Series: The Cambridge History of the Ancient World. Vol. IV) - ISBN 978-5-86218-496-9
- - In Liberaeum "New Herodotus"
- www.kurdist.ru/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=12 Latif Mammad. Ancient mythology and Kurds. Ararat or Judy? Magazine “Friendship” (Dostanî), No. 20-21. M., 2002.
- Sources in in electronic format: www.kurdist.ru, www.ko83.unoforum.ru
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Excerpt characterizing Media
- They'll probably put it out.- Who should put it out? – the voice of Danila Terentich, who had been silent until now, was heard. His voice was calm and slow. “Moscow is, brothers,” he said, “she is mother squirrel...” His voice broke off, and he suddenly sobbed like an old man. And it was as if everyone was waiting for just this in order to understand the meaning that this visible glow had for them. Sighs, words of prayer and the sobbing of the old count's valet were heard.
The valet, returning, reported to the count that Moscow was burning. The Count put on his robe and went out to have a look. Sonya, who had not yet undressed, and Madame Schoss came out with him. Natasha and the Countess remained alone in the room. (Petya was no longer with his family; he went forward with his regiment, marching to Trinity.)
The Countess began to cry when she heard the news of the fire in Moscow. Natasha, pale, with fixed eyes, sitting under the icons on the bench (in the very place where she sat when she arrived), did not pay any attention to her father’s words. She listened to the incessant moaning of the adjutant, heard three houses away.
- Oh, what a horror! - said Sonya, cold and frightened, returned from the yard. – I think all of Moscow will burn, a terrible glow! Natasha, look now, you can see from the window from here,” she said to her sister, apparently wanting to entertain her with something. But Natasha looked at her, as if not understanding what they were asking her, and again stared at the corner of the stove. Natasha had been in this state of tetanus since this morning, ever since Sonya, to the surprise and annoyance of the Countess, for some unknown reason, found it necessary to announce to Natasha about Prince Andrei’s wound and his presence with them on the train. The Countess became angry with Sonya, as she was rarely angry. Sonya cried and asked for forgiveness and now, as if trying to make amends for her guilt, she never stopped caring for her sister.
“Look, Natasha, how terribly it burns,” said Sonya.
– What’s burning? – Natasha asked. - Oh, yes, Moscow.
And as if in order not to offend Sonya by refusing and to get rid of her, she moved her head to the window, looked so that, obviously, she could not see anything, and again sat down in her previous position.
-Have you not seen it?
“No, really, I saw it,” she said in a voice pleading for calm.
Both the Countess and Sonya understood that Moscow, the fire of Moscow, whatever it was, of course, could not matter to Natasha.
The Count again went behind the partition and lay down. The Countess approached Natasha, touched her head with her inverted hand, as she did when her daughter was sick, then touched her forehead with her lips, as if to find out if there was a fever, and kissed her.
-You're cold. You're shaking all over. You should go to bed,” she said.
- Go to bed? Yes, okay, I'll go to bed. “I’ll go to bed now,” Natasha said.
Since Natasha was told this morning that Prince Andrei was seriously wounded and was going with them, only in the first minute she asked a lot about where? How? Is he dangerously injured? and is she allowed to see him? But after she was told that she could not see him, that he was seriously wounded, but that his life was not in danger, she, obviously, did not believe what she was told, but was convinced that no matter how much she said, she would be answer the same thing, stopped asking and talking. All the way with big eyes, which the Countess knew so well and whose expressions the Countess was so afraid of, Natasha sat motionless in the corner of the carriage and now sat in the same way on the bench on which she sat down. She was thinking about something, something she was deciding or had already decided in her mind now - the countess knew this, but what it was, she did not know, and this frightened and tormented her.
- Natasha, undress, my dear, lie down on my bed. (Only the countess alone had a bed made on the bed; m me Schoss and both young ladies had to sleep on the floor on the hay.)
“No, mom, I’ll lie here on the floor,” Natasha said angrily, went to the window and opened it. The adjutant groans from open window was heard more clearly. She stuck her head in damp air nights, and the countess saw how her thin shoulders were shaking with sobs and beating against the frame. Natasha knew that it was not Prince Andrei who was moaning. She knew that Prince Andrei was lying in the same connection where they were, in another hut across the hallway; but this terrible, incessant groan made her sob. The Countess exchanged glances with Sonya.
“Lie down, my dear, lie down, my friend,” said the countess, lightly touching Natasha’s shoulder with her hand. - Well, go to bed.
“Oh, yes... I’ll go to bed now,” said Natasha, hastily undressing and tearing off the strings of her skirts. Having taken off her dress and put on a jacket, she tucked her legs in, sat down on the bed prepared on the floor and, throwing her short thin braid over her shoulder, began to braid it. Thin, long, familiar fingers quickly, deftly took apart, braided, and tied the braid. Natasha's head turned with a habitual gesture, first in one direction, then in the other, but her eyes, feverishly open, looked straight and motionless. When the night suit was finished, Natasha quietly sank down onto the sheet laid on the hay on the edge of the door.
“Natasha, lie down in the middle,” said Sonya.
“No, I’m here,” Natasha said. “Go to bed,” she added with annoyance. And she buried her face in the pillow.
The Countess, m me Schoss and Sonya hastily undressed and lay down. One lamp remained in the room. But in the yard it was getting brighter from the fire of Malye Mytishchi, two miles away, and the drunken cries of the people were buzzing in the tavern, which Mamon’s Cossacks had smashed, on the crossroads, on the street, and the incessant groan of the adjutant was heard.
Natasha listened for a long time to the internal and external sounds coming to her, and did not move. She heard first the prayer and sighs of her mother, the cracking of her bed under her, the familiar whistling snoring of m me Schoss, the quiet breathing of Sonya. Then the Countess called out to Natasha. Natasha did not answer her.
“He seems to be sleeping, mom,” Sonya answered quietly. The Countess, after being silent for a while, called out again, but no one answered her.
Soon after this, Natasha heard her mother's even breathing. Natasha did not move, despite the fact that her small bare foot, having escaped from under the blanket, was chilly on the bare floor.
As if celebrating victory over everyone, a cricket screamed in the crack. The rooster crowed far away, and loved ones responded. The screams died down in the tavern, only the same adjutant's stand could be heard. Natasha stood up.
- Sonya? are you sleeping? Mother? – she whispered. No one answered. Natasha slowly and carefully stood up, crossed herself and stepped carefully with her narrow and flexible bare foot onto the dirty, cold floor. The floorboard creaked. She, quickly moving her feet, ran a few steps like a kitten and grabbed the cold door bracket.
It seemed to her that something heavy, striking evenly, was knocking on all the walls of the hut: it was her heart, frozen with fear, with horror and love, beating, bursting.
She opened the door, crossed the threshold and stepped onto the damp, cold ground entryway The gripping cold refreshed her. She felt the sleeping man with her bare foot, stepped over him and opened the door to the hut where Prince Andrei lay. It was dark in this hut. In the back corner of the bed, on which something was lying, there was a tallow candle on a bench that had burned out like a large mushroom.
Natasha, in the morning, when they told her about the wound and the presence of Prince Andrei, decided that she should see him. She did not know what it was for, but she knew that the meeting would be painful, and she was even more convinced that it was necessary.
All day she lived only in the hope that at night she would see him. But now, when this moment came, the horror of what she would see came over her. How was he mutilated? What was left of him? Was he like that incessant groan of the adjutant? Yes, he was like that. He was in her imagination the personification of this terrible groan. When she saw an obscure mass in the corner and mistook his raised knees under the blanket for his shoulders, she imagined some kind of terrible body and stopped in horror. But irresistible force pulled her forward. She carefully took one step, then another, and found herself in the middle of a small, cluttered hut. In the hut, under the icons, another person was lying on the benches (it was Timokhin), and two more people were lying on the floor (these were the doctor and the valet).
The valet stood up and whispered something. Timokhin, suffering from pain in his wounded leg, did not sleep and looked with all his eyes at strange phenomenon girls in a casual shirt, jacket and eternal cap. The sleepy and frightened words of the valet; “What do you need, why?” - they only forced Natasha to quickly approach what was lying in the corner. No matter how scary or unlike a human this body was, she had to see it. She passed the valet: the burnt mushroom of the candle fell off, and she clearly saw Prince Andrei lying with his arms outstretched on the blanket, just as she had always seen him.
He was the same as always; but the inflamed color of his face, his sparkling eyes, fixed enthusiastically on her, and especially the tender child’s neck protruding from the folded collar of his shirt, gave him a special, innocent, childish appearance, which, however, she had never seen in Prince Andrei. She walked up to him and with a quick, flexible, youthful movement knelt down.
He smiled and extended his hand to her.
For Prince Andrei, seven days have passed since he woke up at the dressing station of the Borodino field. All this time he was in almost constant unconsciousness. The fever and inflammation of the intestines, which were damaged, in the opinion of the doctor traveling with the wounded man, should have carried him away. But on the seventh day he happily ate a slice of bread with tea, and the doctor noticed that the general fever had decreased. Prince Andrei regained consciousness in the morning. The first night after leaving Moscow it was quite warm, and Prince Andrei was left to spend the night in a carriage; but in Mytishchi the wounded man himself demanded to be carried out and to be given tea. The pain caused to him by being carried into the hut made Prince Andrei moan loudly and lose consciousness again. When they laid him on the camp bed, he lay for a long time with eyes closed motionless. Then he opened them and quietly whispered: “What should I have for tea?” This memory for the small details of life amazed the doctor. He felt the pulse and, to his surprise and displeasure, noticed that the pulse was better. To his displeasure, the doctor noticed this because, from his experience, he was convinced that Prince Andrei could not live and that if he did not die now, he would only die with great suffering some time later. With Prince Andrei they were carrying the major of his regiment, Timokhin, who had joined them in Moscow with a red nose and was wounded in the leg in the same Battle of Borodino. With them rode a doctor, the prince's valet, his coachman and two orderlies.