>>History: Predecessors of the Romans
47. Predecessors of the Romans
1. Nature of Italy.
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Once upon a time, about 3000 years ago, in ancient Italy flourished mysterious civilization. These people were rich, elegant and sophisticated. They feasted and drank expensive wines, entertained themselves with games and sports, and spent money on magnificent jewelry and objects of art. They were called Etruscans, their world seemed like paradise, but it was doomed. The Etruscan priests predicted that their civilization would last a thousand years, and so it happened. One hundred years before the birth of Christ this incredible world disappeared. What happened to this great civilization, which paved the way for the mighty Roman Empire? Where are the Etruscans now?
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Where are the Etruscans? In the same place where they were - in Italy, mixed with the Latins, who came there like savages and then became the princes of this world. The same as everywhere else. For scientists, the search for the Etruscans is endless, although you just need to read what they themselves wrote. Many have tried to do this since the time of Volansky, but it turned out. that everything is simpler - they wrote in Russian and in Russian runes. So who are they then? A stupid question that only academics ask. Following the “scientific” method - if it is written on the fence “Vasya was here”, it should be read - “Heinrich was here”. Maybe it's time to just hear the language we all speak? It, despite all the efforts of the “civilizers” (ce-lization, that is, licked savages), contains in its roots the fundamental principles, the images from which all secondary languages originate. And the language in Russian is also the people. Interesting material on the topic of Russian roots of many languages here:
http://publikashka.com/blog/igra_slovami/2013-01-02-132
And
http://publikashka.com/blog/igra_slovami_2/2013-02-08-135
Once upon a time, about 3000 years ago, a mysterious civilization flourished in ancient Italy. These people were rich, elegant and sophisticated. They feasted and drank expensive wines, entertained themselves with games and sports, and spent money on magnificent jewelry and objects of art. They were called Etruscans, their world seemed like paradise, but it was doomed. The Etruscan priests predicted that their civilization would last a thousand years, and so it happened. One hundred years before the birth of Christ, this incredible world disappeared. What happened to this great civilization that paved the way for the mighty Roman Empire? Where are the Etruscans now?
Lack of written and material historical evidence, the significant time period separating modernity from the Etruscan era does not yet allow a thorough study of the life of representatives of this civilization, but it is known that both the ancient peoples and modern world, the Etruscans had a very noticeable influence.
The emergence and disappearance of the Etruscan civilization
The Etruscans appeared on the Apennine Peninsula in the 9th century BC. and after three centuries they represented advanced civilization, which could be proud of the high level of craftsmanship, successful agriculture, and the presence of metallurgical production.
Fragment of the front wall of an Etruscan funeral urnThe Villanova civilization, the first of the Iron Age cultures in Italy, is considered by some scientists early stage the existence of the Etruscans, while others deny continuity between the two cultures, recognizing the version of the expulsion of the Villanova representatives by the Etruscans.
The origin of the Etruscans is one of the issues that has caused controversy among historians since ancient times. Thus, Herodotus argued that these people came to the Apennines from Asia Minor - this version is still the most popular.
Herodotus Titus Livy assumed that the homeland of the Etruscans was the Alps, and the people appeared thanks to the migration of tribes from the north. According to the third version, the Etruscans did not come from anywhere, but always lived in this territory. The fourth version is about the connection of the Etruscans with Slavic tribes– is currently considered pseudoscientific, despite its popularity.
It is interesting that the Etruscans themselves foresaw the decline and death of their civilization, which they wrote about in their books, which were later lost.
Etruscan sarcophagus The reasons for the disappearance of the people are called both assimilation with the Romans and the impact external factors- in particular, malaria, which could have been brought to Etruria by travelers from the East and spread thanks to the mosquitoes that inhabited the swampy lands of Italy in large numbers.
The Etruscans themselves are silent about their history - their language, despite the fairly successful decipherment of the inscriptions on tombstones, nevertheless continues to remain unsolved.
Interaction of the Etruscans with other peoples
Be that as it may, about a thousand years of existence of the Etruscan civilization left interesting traces. Etruria was in an exceptionally favorable position in terms of natural resources region. Here, building stone, clay, tin, and iron were found in abundance, forests grew, and coal deposits were explored. Etruscans, in addition high level development of agriculture and crafts, they also succeeded in piracy - they were known as excellent shipbuilders and kept the ships of other tribes at bay. This people is credited with, among other things, the invention of the anchor with a lead rod, as well as the copper sea ram.
Fragment of a fresco depicting an Etruscan ship However, the interaction of the Etruscans with the ancient peoples of the Mediterranean was not in the nature of confrontations - on the contrary, the inhabitants of Etruria willingly adopted the values Ancient Greece and features of everyday life. It is known that the ancient Greek alphabet was borrowed first by the Etruscans, and from them by the Romans. Although Etruscan scientists cannot yet translate it, but it was written nonetheless Greek letters– as on the tablets from the city of Cortona, discovered in 1992.
Tablets from Cortona with an inscription in the Etruscan language It is believed that a number of words used by modern people have Etruscan origin. These are, in particular, “person”, “arena”, “antenna” (meaning “mast”), “letter” and even “service” (meaning “slave, servant”).
The Etruscans were great lovers of music - to the sound of a flute, most often a double one, they cooked, fought, went hunting, and even punished slaves, as the Greek scientist and philosopher Aristotle writes with some indignation.
Fresco of the necropolis of the city of Tarquinia depicting a double flute Togas, decorations, construction of cities and circuses
They probably dressed to the music - it is interesting that the famous Roman toga with a purple border traces its history back to the Etruscans. This large piece of fabric, usually made of wool, evolved from the ornate cloaks of Etruscan chiefs.
The Etruscans are considered the creators of the Roman toga Women wore full skirts and lace-up bodices, and in addition, they were very fond of jewelry - just like men. Etruscan bracelets, rings, and necklaces made of gold have been preserved. Etruscan craftsmen achieved particular skill in creating brooches - gold clasps of extremely fine workmanship that were used to fasten capes.
Etruscan fibula made of gold The Etruscan art of city building, which had a great influence on the architecture of Rome and antiquity in general, deserves special mention. In the 7th century BC. the phenomenon of the Twelve Cities arose - a union of the largest Etruscan cities, among them Veii, Clusium, Perusia, Vatluna and others. The remaining cities of Etruria were subordinate to the closest of those included in the Twelve City.
Etruscan city Volterra The Etruscans began the construction of the city with a symbolic designation of the border - it was supposed to be outlined by an ox and a heifer harnessed to a plow. The city necessarily had three streets, three gates, three temples - dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, Minerva. The rituals of building Etruscan cities - Etrusco ritu - were adopted by the Romans.
The second material, dedicated to the military affairs of the Etruscans, will be based on the works, again, of English-speaking historians, at whose service were the museums of Rome and Tuscany and, naturally, British museums, which house a lot interesting finds. Perhaps the most accessible to the Russian reader in this regard was and remains Peter Connolly, whose book “Greece and Rome in Wars” (in the Russian translation “Greece and Rome. Military Encyclopedia”) was published by the Eksmo publishing house already... sixteen years ago. That is... it is gradually becoming a rarity, and many have no longer read it simply due to age. Interesting publication is an English-language translation by the French author Michel Fugeret of The Romans (2002), which also has a section on the Etruscans and their weapons, although not a large one. And although it does not contain color illustrations, but only graphics and black and white photos, this great job for all those interested in the military affairs of Rome.
Situla from Chiusi, 7th century. BC e. (610 - 600) “Women with braids stand, and a man in a Corinthian-type helmet with a crest approaches them. But women ignore him, as can be seen from their arms proudly crossed over their chests.” Archaeological Museum Florence.
In the first material, “Etruscans against Russians,” we talked about where the Etruscans, along with their cows, moved to Italy. Now we'll talk that here the Etruscans founded city-policies of the Greek model, and each Etruscan city, as well as the Greek city-polises, began to have own army. The cities were allies, but very rarely acted together, which greatly weakened them. For some kind of campaign they could join forces, but more often they wasted their strength in the struggle of one city with another.
In the 7th century BC. The Etruscans adopted Greek tactics and the Greek phalanx. Accordingly, they also used a 12 by 8 hoplite formation with four Uraga commanders.
Situla from Chiusi, on which warriors in hoplite weapons are clearly visible. Archaeological Museum of Florence.
Like the later Romans, the Etruscans tried to use the troops that their allies or conquered peoples supplied them. Peter Connolly believes that the Roman army early period history of Rome was a typical Etruscan army. Under Tarquin the Ancient, the first Etruscan king of Rome, it included three parts: the Etruscans (formed in phalanx), the Romans and the Latins. Warriors armed with spears, axes and javelins were placed on the flanks, as reported by Polybius, who saw with his own eyes the text of the very first treaty with Carthage, concluded around 509 BC. According to him, it was written in archaic Latin, so it could only be partially understood.
Etruscan warrior from Viterbe. OK. 500 BC Louvre.
Servius Tullius, the second of the Etruscan kings, being of Latin origin, decided to reorganize the army according to income, instead of origin. Six categories were established, the very first of which included the wealthiest people, who numbered 80 centuries according to Roman counting, or suckers according to Greek. Most these people, apparently, were the same Etruscans. Warriors from this category needed to have a helmet, armor, leggings, shield, spear and, of course, a sword. Titus Livy used the word clipeus to describe their shield, and Dionysius called the shields of this century Argolic (Argive) shields. That is, all these people were armed as hoplites and lined up for battle in a phalanx. At their disposal were two centuries of master gunsmiths and builders (they were called fabri - “masters”, hence the word “factory”), who did not take part in the battles themselves.
Etruscan shield from Tarquin. Altes Museum, Berlin.
In the second category there were 20 centuries. These warriors were armed more simply and, in particular, did not have armor and used the scutum shield instead of the more expensive Argive shield. Both Dionysius and Diodorus unanimously argued that it was rectangular, and archeology confirmed this. The famous Kertos situla, dating back to 500 BC, was discovered, decorated with coinage with images of warriors with Argive, oval and also rectangular shields in their hands. That is, it is obvious that the shape of the shields was very different, and that there was no single pattern!
Kertos situla. And on it are images of warriors, around 500 BC. Their study allows us to conclude that in Italy three types of shields were used simultaneously. It is quite possible that on it we see typical Etruscan warriors of this time. Museum of Archeology in Bologna, Italy.
The third category also consisted of 20 centuries. These warriors were distinguished by the absence of leggings, which apparently were quite expensive if their presence or absence had such a dramatic impact on income. The fourth category was also divided into 20 centuries. Livy reports that they were armed with a spear and a javelin, but Dionysius armed them with a scutum, a spear, and a sword. The fifth category of the 30 centuries according to Livy consisted of slingers, but Dionysius also adds javelin throwers who fought outside the ranks to the slingers. The fifth grade consisted of two centuries of buglers and trumpeters. Finally, the poorest population was completely freed from military service. The army was divided according to age into veterans who served in the cities, while the stronger youth participated in campaigns outside their territory.
Etruscan ceramic vessel depicting fighting warriors. One of them is dressed in a typical “linen shell”. Martin von Wagner Museum, University Museum (Würzburg).
That is, the difference that the description of these two ancient authors gives us is small, so there is no reason not to believe them. Most likely, the second, third and fourth ranks acted on the flanks in the same way as the allies did before the reform of Servius Tullius. Livy, however, claims that from them the second, third and fourth ranks were formed in general order of battle. If all Roman citizens formed central part troops, then perhaps this order was precisely the prototype of the legion of the Republican era, when warriors of different weapons were built together in three lines. Otherwise, it is difficult to imagine what such a construction looked like in reality. Be that as it may, it is known that when it was necessary to convene an army, each century collected the required number of soldiers. So, if an army of ten thousand was needed, then each century equipped two enomotives, that is, 50 people.
Etruscan funerary urn, mid-2nd millennium BC. Worcester Museum of Art in Worcester, Massachusetts, USA.
Then the Etruscans were expelled from Rome, but at the same time the army lost a large part of the soldiers who belonged to the first class. Naturally, this lowered the level of her combat effectiveness. No wonder Livy wrote that round shields (and, consequently, the phalanx) were used by the Romans until the introduction of payment for service at the end of the 5th century. With liquidation royal power The role of commanders was taken on by two praetors, whose institution functioned until the middle of the 4th century, and each of them commanded half of the army.
Etruscans versus Romans. Etruscan warriors from the temple at Purgi in Cerveteri c. 550 – 500 BC. National Etruscan Museum, Villa Giulia, Rome.
Just like Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus reports on the reorganization in the Etruscan-Roman army, which he carried out in the middle of the 6th century. Servius Tullius. Both accounts are essentially identical and most likely go back to Fabius Lictor, who wrote a history of Rome around 200 BC. It is believed that his information is based on documents from that era. In any case, the position of praetor - commander of veteran soldiers - remained in more late time called praetor urbanus, although its functions now related exclusively to judicial activities. The two chief magistrates were now called consuls, and the word "praetor" denoted the magistrates of the second rank; during Polybius there were already six of them.
Achilles bandages the wounded Patroclus. Both figures are wearing linothorax (“linen shells”), reinforced with scales; Patroclus’ untied left shoulder pad is straightened. Image from a red-figure vase from Vulci, circa 500 BC. e. Painting of a red-figure Attic vessel. State museums, Old Museum, Antique Collection, Berlin.
The warriors who were part of the phalanx and belonged to the first category had Greek-style weapons, that is, a round Argive shield, chased bronze armor, anatomical greaves, a helmet, a spear and a sword. However, although the Etruscans fought as a phalanx, even axes are found in their burials, which can hardly be used to fight in close formation. But perhaps, Connolly writes, these weapons were placed in the tomb according to custom. On the other hand, the ax could be used to fight in one-on-one duels, such as the one shown in the sculpture of two hoplites from Faleria Veteres. They are both armed according to the Greek model, except for the curved dagger in the hand of one of the fighters. But it’s one thing to have a weapon as part of funeral equipment, but you definitely can’t use an ax in a phalanx.
Modern reconstruction appearance Etruscan warrior based on finds in Tarquinia. Altes Museum, Berlin.
The painting from Cheri (scientists call their finds that way: “warrior from Cheri” or somewhere else...) shows a typical hoplite in a Chalcidian helmet and with round breastplates. The image from Chiusi shows a hoplite in full Greek weapons, but his helmet is decorated with feathers according to the Italic, and by no means Greek, pattern. Well, the finds in the “Tomb of the Warrior at Vulci” (about 525 BC) provide an example of the presence of mixed types of weapons: a Negau helmet, an Argive shield and Greco-Etruscan type leggings.
Etruscan ship. Painting in a tomb at Tarquinia.
Judging by the frescoes in the tombs, Greek armor was widespread among the Etruscans; discoveries of disk-shaped breastplates dating back to the first half of the 7th century are known. However, their exact dating is difficult, since where and when they were found remains unclear. The painting from Cheri, which cannot be dated earlier than the end of the 6th century, gives reason to believe that this type of armor was used much later than the 7th century. By the way, we see the same disks on Assyrian bas-reliefs, and even later examples of them were found in Spain and also in central Europe. Connolly believes that they have a clear eastern origin. The "Cheri Painting" shows that they are secured to the torso by three straps, most likely leather. Why three? And on them back side Usually three loops are found: two at the top and one at the bottom, which secured this disc to the belts in a very ingenious way. Why it could not be secured on four straps crosswise, like the same Assyrians, is unknown. Although there are examples of such fastening.
The most popular early helmet in Etruria was the Negau type helmet, which received its name from the name of the village in Yugoslavia, near which they were found in large numbers. An interesting specimen was discovered in Olympia, and you can see it in British Museum. The inscription made on it says that it was dedicated to the temple by a certain Hiero, the son of Deinomenes, and the inhabitants of Syracuse, who captured it from the Etruscans in sea battle at Cumae in 474 BC The earliest dateable example of such a helmet was discovered in the “Tomb of the Warrior” at Vulci. Without any changes, they were used until the 4th, and perhaps even the 3rd centuries. BC. Characteristic feature Negau helmets had a bronze ring with holes along its inner edge, intended for attaching a balaclava, thanks to which it sat tightly on the head. The helmet had a low ridge, which was sometimes located across. P. Connolly notes that such helmets were worn by Roman centurions, and it is also found on the famous figurine depicting a Spartan hoplite.
Etruscan warrior. "Mars from Todi". Gregorian Etruscan Museum, Vatican.
Of course, it is tempting to argue that this had some significance, for example, that such decoration was the insignia of the Lohagi; and why it was then adopted by the centurions is understandable. However, this is just speculation. There is no evidence for this opinion.
Leggings in Etruria were used of the Greek type, without an anatomically pronounced knee. They were used in the same way as helmets of the Negau type (i.e. until the 4th – 3rd centuries), and this is undoubtedly the case, since they are often found together.
Surprisingly, for some reason, in Etruria, protective armor for the hips, ankles and feet was used even when they were no longer used in mainland Greece. Bracers were also used there for just as long. A curved sword, or kopis, common in Greece and Spain from the 6th to the 3rd centuries. BC, according to P. Connolly, may have its origins in Etruria, since it was here that the earliest examples of these weapons were found, dating back to the 7th century. BC. Bronze "saber" from Este in northern Italy could just be the forerunner of this terrible weapon and confirms its Italian origin.
Magnificent finds from the "Tomb of the Warrior" at Lanuvium near Rome, dating back to 480 BC. Combat equipment includes a bronze muscular (anatomical) cuirass (with traces of leather and linen lining), a bronze helmet of the negau type (with gilding and silvering, as well as glass paste in imitation of eye holes), and a sword - kopis. Other finds include a bronze sports disc, two iron body scrapers and a bottle for olive oil. National Museum of Baths of Diocletian, Rome.
Etruscan and early Greek swords of this type were cutting weapons with a blade about 60–65 cm long. Later examples from Macedonia and Spain were cutting and piercing weapons with a blade whose length did not exceed 48 cm.
Breastplate from the Warrior's Tomb.
The tombs of the Greeks and Etruscans were very different, and their views on afterlife. Here is a tomb from the archaeological reserve at Cape Makronides in Ayia Napa in Cyprus. The door is slightly tall more than a meter, inside there is a room at most 1.5 m high with two “beds” without a hint of painting. For the Etruscans, everything is completely different.
The Etruscan spears had a variety of tips. For example, these are long tips belonging to the Villanova type. In a 5th century tomb. in Vulci they found a typical pilum tip, with a tube for attaching to the shaft. This means that they were already fighting with such weapons at that time, and they have been known for quite a long time.
In the IV and III centuries. BC. in Etruria still continued to use the Greek heritage in the field of weapons, and then also adopted their late classical Greek style. On the sarcophagus of the Amazons and on the tomb of Giglioli (both monuments are located in Tarquinia) you can see images of typical Thracian helmets of the 4th century. BC. and linen shells, however, they began to be covered with metal plates. They are clearly visible, for example, on the famous statue of Mars from Todi, who is depicted in typical Etruscan armor. At the same time, images of chain mail had already appeared on funeral urns, that is, the Etruscans also knew them. Moreover, in design it was still the same “linen cuirass”, but only chain mail. Well, the Romans adopted it along with all the other “finds” of the peoples surrounding Rome.
It is interesting that on Etruscan sculptures anatomical shells painted with gray paint are often visible. But this does not mean that they are iron; it is much more likely that they were simply silvered or even tinned with tin and, perhaps, that this was later done in the Roman army. The depiction of muscles is usually highly stylized, which makes it easy to distinguish Etruscan armor from Greek.
Tomb of the Lionesses in Tarquinia. Neither the Greeks nor the Slavs encountered anything like this.
A complete Etruscan armor was found in the "Tomb of the Seven Rooms" in Orvieto, near Lake Bolsena. It consists of a typical Etruscan shell anatomical type, leggings of the Greek late classical type, an Argive shield, and a helmet of the Montefortine type with characteristic cheekpieces with three disks stamped on them. The pilum became a throwing weapon. The sharp-tang type of pilum first appeared in northern Italy in the 5th century. A pilum with a flat tongue, which is inserted into a slot in the shaft and secured by one or two wooden rods, was depicted in the tomb of Giglioli at Tarquinia, sometime in the middle of the 4th century BC, but the earliest archaeological find such a tip dates back to the end of the 3rd century. and was made again in Etruria, in Telamon. Thus, P. Connolly concludes, the genesis of Etruscan weapons has a direct connection with the weapons and armor of the ancient Greeks, and then they themselves borrowed (or invented) something, and the Romans, in turn, borrowed it from them.
But the most important thing in the Etruscan culture is again connected not even with their military affairs, but with funeral rites. And this once again is also confirmed by the fact that the Etruscans had nothing in common with the Slavs. The fact is that the traditions of commemorating the dead and their burial are among the most persistent. The custom of funeral fights at the grave of the deceased, borrowed by the Romans as entertainment, the tradition of constructing painted tombs - we see none of this among the Slavs, there is not even a hint of it, but this is the most important attribute of spiritual culture, preserved for many hundreds, or even thousands years!
An Etruscan vessel found in one of their tombs. This is how they looked at that distant time. Louvre.
This site will help you visit the Gregorian Etruscan Museum of the Vatican. There you can see the halls of the museum (and not only this museum itself) and photographs (and descriptions) of the artifacts exhibited there: http://mv.vatican.va/3_EN/pages/MGE/MGE_Main.html
At the address below you can find the alphabet, a dictionary, and much more: http://www.etruskisch.de/pgs/og.htm
But here everything is Etruscan!
http://ancientstudies.as.nyu.edu/docs/CP/963/EtruscanNews10_winter.pdf
The predecessors of the Romans, who inhabited the territory of modern Italy in the 6th century BC, were the Etruscan tribes. About the origin of this people modern historians virtually nothing is known.
They had their own distinctive culture and beliefs. The Etruscan culture was very similar to the culture of the ancient Greeks, but was not so developed and multifaceted. Many elements of the art of the Etruscan tribes would later play a significant role in the formation of the art of the ancient Romans.
The Etruscans were fluent in the art of navigation. They knew how to build reliable ships, which gave them the opportunity to trade with the states of the Mediterranean coast - Ancient Phenicia, Egypt, Greece.
Like the ancient Phoenicians, the Etruscans also did not shy away from piracy and trafficking in captured people. In Ancient Greece, there was a myth that Etruscan sailors, in a thirst for profit, kidnapped the god Dionysus himself.
State structure and life of the Etruscans
At the head of each Etruscan city was a king who was responsible for deciding social and political problems townspeople An aristocratic stratum was also identified in society. The highest class was considered to be the generals who led the army and carried out periodic seizures of neighboring lands.
We can have an idea of the life of the Etruscans thanks to archaeological excavations in Italy. Archaeologists found burial chambers that exactly replicated the model of their residential building. They were carved into the rock and consisted of several rooms.
Sarcophagi for the dead had elements of artistic painting. Clay jugs, bronze vases and other household items were discovered in the burial chambers, which speaks to the Etruscan beliefs in the afterlife.
Culture and religion of the ancient Etruscans
The Etruscans were famous for their ability to produce ceramics and Jewelry. The Etruscans created ceramic products following the example of the ancient Greeks, but introduced their own elements: non-standard shape and a black coating that imitated metal.
A wide variety of materials were used in the manufacture of jewelry: glass, copper, wood, gold and silver. Women preferred jewelry made in the Greek style.
Special pendants were created for children - amulets that protected them from evil forces. Some Etruscan jewelry has survived to this day.
The religious ideas of the Etruscans were also very developed. They associated the whole world with the temple, top part which was the sky, and the lower one was the kingdom of the dead.
The religious beliefs of the Etruscans were reminiscent of the mythological beliefs of the ancient Romans: the most respected and revered was supreme god Tin, who would be renamed Jupiter by the Romans, the mistress of all life on earth - Turan, was the prototype of the ancient Roman Venus.
The Etruscans very often resorted to fortune telling. Unlike other tribes, where only priests had the right to practice divination, in the Etruscan tribes anyone could practice divination. The tools for divination were birds, stones, as well as animal livers, which, according to the Etruscans, were of a divine nature.