Modern encyclopedia
The state of the tribal union of the Turks in 552,745 in the territory of the Center. Asia, North China, a large part of Sr. Asia (up to the Amu Darya River). In the beginning. 7th century broke up into the West. Turkic Khaganate (Central Asian; before 740) and East. Turkic Khaganate... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
TURKIC KHANATE, a state of a tribal union of Turks in 552,745 on the territory of Central Asia, Northern China, a significant part Central Asia(to the Amu Darya river). At the beginning of the 7th century. broke up into the Western Turkic Khaganate (Central Asian; before 740) and... ... Russian history
Turkic Khaganate- TURKIC KHANATE, a state of a tribal union of Turks in 552,745 on the territory of Central Asia, Northern China, a significant part of Central Asia (along the Amu Darya River). At the beginning of the 7th century. broke up into the Western Turkic Khaganate (Central Asian; before 740) and... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary
The state of the tribal union of the Turks in 552,745 in the territory of Central Asia, Northern China, a significant part of Central Asia (up to the Amu Darya River). At the beginning of the 7th century. split into the Western Turkic Khaganate (Central Asian; before 740) and the Eastern Turkic... encyclopedic Dictionary
- (552,745) state military, founded in the Center. ASIA was a tribal union of the Turks, headed by one of the leaders (Huns) of the tribes, Ashina. An important place in their societies. life belonged to the military. business. The Turks were engaged in nomadic cattle breeding and hunting. In 460 tribe... ... Soviet historical encyclopedia
- (552,745) a state founded in Central Asia by a tribal union of Turks. In 460, one of the Hunnic tribes, the so-called Ashina, fell under the rule of the Rourans (See Rourans) and was resettled from Eastern Turkestan to Altai, where an alliance was formed... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
Turkic Khaganate- (552,745) state, based in Cent. Asia tribal union of the Turks, to which the head. one of the leaders (Huns) of the Ashina tribes. An important place in their societies. life belonged to the military. business. The Turks were engaged in nomadic cattle breeding and hunting. In 545 the Turks... ... Ancient world. encyclopedic Dictionary
TURKIC KHANATE, state- Existed from the 4th to the 8th century, founded by Ashina. In the second half of the 6th century T.K. in alliance with Byzantium, he began wars with Iran for control of the Great Silk Road. In 576 the Turks took the Bosporus (Kerch), and in 581 they besieged Chersonesus. At the beginning of the 7th century T... Toponymic dictionary Sevastopol
603 704 ... Wikipedia
Books
- Essays on the history of the Kazakh SSR, Vyatkin M.. The book presents a general picture of the development of the Kazakh national statehood from ancient times to October 21, 1868. The essays include the following sections: I. Pre-class society on ...
- Ancient Turks, Gumilyov L.N. The book is dedicated to a little-studied period of world history in the 6th-8th centuries. n. e., when the power of the ancient Turks, the Great Turkic Khaganate, arose and flourished in the vastness of Eurasia. Detailed analysis...
§ 1. TURKIC KHANATE (553-603)
Territory of the Turkic Khaganate.Formed in the initial medieval period in Eurasia, the Turkic Khaganate occupied huge territory, starting from the east of Altai and ending with the western coast of the Caspian Sea (see map). The dominance of the Kaganate extended over vast areas from the southeastern border with China to the southwestern border with Persia (Iran). It was on this territory that one of the first feudal states- Turkic Khaganate.
Ethnic composition population.The main population of the Kaganate were Turkic-speaking tribes. The vast majority were Tele (Tirek) tribes ( common name many Turkic tribes). Judging by Chinese chronicle sources, the name “Turk” subsequently came from the name “tele”. Therefore, the names “tele” and “Turk” have the same meaning and meaning. Among the Turkic-speaking tribes, the population of the Turkic Kaganate included more than 30 Tele tribes, including the Kyrgyz, Oghuz, Uighurs, Dulu, Uysuns, etc.
The struggle of the Turks for their independence. Political situation.The ancient chronicles say about this: “In 545, an envoy of the Chinese emperor arrived to the Turkic ruler.” The purpose of the visit was to establish relations between the two rulers. At this time, the Turkic tribes fought against the rule of the Rourans (Avars). Turkic Khagan (the title of ruler among the ancients) Turkic peoples) Bumyn sought to free himself from the power of the Rouran Khanate, led by Kagan Anaguy.
Gradually intensifying, in the middleVIcenturies, the Turkic tribes, having entered into an alliance with the Chinese, were looking for a reason for war with the Rouran Khaganate.WITH this price
Liu Kagan Bumyn sent his people to Kagan Anaguy with a proposal: to marry his daughter to him. Having learned about such insolence of Bumyn, Kagan Anaguy lost his temperAndbegan to humiliate him, saying how dare his “smelting slave” dare to make such an offer. (The tribes dependent on the Rouran Khaganate paid him tribute in iron.)
The Turkic kagan was waiting for this refusal. Considering himself offended, he declared war on the Rouran Khagan in order to free the Turks from their former subordination to the Rourans. In 552, the Turkic kagan Bumyn made a campaign against the enemy and completely defeated his troops. Disgraced by defeat, Kagan Anaguy committed suicide.
I After this major victory Bumyn was given the title “elkhan” - “national khan”. However, at the end of 552, Bumyn died, and his place was taken by his son Kara-Eske, who also soon died under unclear circumstances.
Despite the defeat, the Rouran Kaganate repeatedly organized campaigns against the Turks. But they all ended in vain. And under the Turkic Khagan Mukan in the fall of 553, the Rourans suffered another crushing defeat, after which the Rouran Khaganate greatly weakened and fell into decay. From then on, the Turks became the sole rulers of the eastern part of the Great Steppe. Then in the north they conquered the lands of nomadic tribes, stretching to the Sayan Mountains, and in the east - all the way to China
of the Yellow River, subjugating the tribes of the Kays (Tatabs), Khitans, Oguz Tatars, etc.
At this time, the rulers of Northern China, fragmented due to civil strife into two states - Northern Qi and Northern Zhou, began to pay tribute to Khagan Mukan in order to gain his favor and favor. For example, only one part of divided China annually presented the Kagan with 100 bales of silk fabric. Therefore, even after the death of Mukan, Kagan Tobo, who inherited his power, maintained close ties with both North Chinese states. This indicates how strong the political influence of the Turkic Kaganate was in the east in the 570-580s.
After conquering neighboring tribes in the east, the Turks began to make conquests to the west. The younger brother of the Kagan Bumynya Ishtemi led a military campaign of 10 Turkic tumens, commanded by 10 military leaders, to the west of the Great Steppe. With these forces, he conquered the Sogdians, and then the tribes living at the northern foot of Altai.
Thus, by 555 the Turks had already captured the lands up to the Aral Sea without encountering any strong resistance. In a short time, they conquered a huge territory from China to the Amu Darya, the entire Syr Darya region. In Central Asia, the Hephthalites (sedentary tribes of Central Asia who lived on the lands from the Caspian Sea to Northern Hindustan and Eastern Turkestan) showed stubborn resistance to the Turks, which is why the Turks, in order to regain strength, temporarily abandoned further campaigns. The Turks were able to completely conquer them only ten years later - in 563-567.
In the 70s of the 6th century, the Turkic Kaganate expanded its possessions to the North Caucasus and the northern coast of the Black Sea. Thus, the dominance of the Turkic Khaganate in the second half of the 6th century in Central Asia and Eurasia extended to the vast territory of the Asian continent. And the Turkic Kaganate not only became one of such large states as China, Iran and Byzantium, but also became a powerful power in its political position.
Farming.The main type of economy of the population of the Turkic Kaganate was semi-nomadic and nomadic cattle breeding. Wintering grounds were usually located in the floodplain meadows of such large rivers as the Ili, Chu, Talas, Irtysh and Syr Darya, as well as in low-wind gorges near
the foot of the mountains In these places there were usually abundant water sources, and the Turks had favorable conditions for wintering and preserving livestock on frosty winter days. Traditionally, four types of livestock were raised. Livestock products were used for clothing (wool, hides) and food (meat, butter, milk). The historical monument “Kultegin’s Letters” also contains information about urban settlements. This is proof that from the moment of the invasion of Zhetysu (Semirechye) and Central Asia, the Turks learned about cities and permanent settlements and some of them began to move to a settled life. In addition, the Turkic tribes gradually began to engage in agriculture in their wintering lands along the banks of large rivers. Evidence of this is the remains of permanent dwellings found during archaeological excavations in Zhetysu and Southern Kazakhstan. Especially many locations of wintering quarters - kents, in which the Turks lived, were discovered in the territory near the modern city of Taraz.
Culture.The culture of any nation is closely related to the specifics of its economy. It is no coincidence that the nomadic lifestyle and economy of the Turks, associated with cattle breeding, necessitated the creation of a yurt adapted to the nomadic lifestyle. For such a portable dwelling was convenient for quick assembly or disassembly. IN winter time During the winter, the Turks lived in dugouts and dwellings built of stone or reeds.
The main means of transportation among the Turks was the horse. Therefore, they paid special attention to the high-quality and practical production of horse equipment, which includes harness, saddle, bridle, tripod, horseshoes, stirrups, types of supports, undertail, breastplate, etc. In cattle breeding they used a lasso, cohen, jelly (types of harness), buyda (rope for driving a camel), shylbyr (long reins for tying a horse), kuruk (long pole with a loop for catching horses). Others also had such household supplies. nomadic peoples who have been engaged in cattle breeding since ancient times. All this is confirmed by numerous finds found during archaeological excavations, during which the above-mentioned accessories of horse equipment were discovered in Turkic burials.
Archaeological excavations have shown that the Turks in V - VII For centuries, the bodies of the dead were burned, and the ashes remaining after burning the corpses were buried; later, from the 8th century, the dead began to be buried in burials. However, in both types of burials, things and objects that the deceased used during their lifetime were placed in the burial places.
It has been scientifically proven that the burial of the deceased by burning was associated with the cult of fire worship. The Turks believed that the purification of the human soul occurs through fire. And the burial of things and objects with the deceased was associated with the belief about the need for their use in the afterlife. On the other hand, it was a tribute to the dead and worship of the spirits of ancestors. The widespread cult of fire worship among the Turks is evidenced by the following historical fact: when the Byzantine ambassador Zemarkh arrived in the Turkic Khaganate on a diplomatic mission, before being led to a reception with the Turkic Khagan, he was held between two fires, which was a rite of purification by the power of fire, since According to Turkic beliefs, a person, with the help of the cleansing power of fire, got rid of all diseases, evil spirits, and unkind thoughts. Fire played important role and in healing rituals.
Collapse of the Turkic Khaganate. Occupying a vast territory, the Turkic Kaganate was unable to transform into a single centralized state. The Kaganate was weakened by the constant brutal internecine struggle for power within the dynasty of the Kagan himself. Taking advantage of this, the peoples previously conquered by the Turks rose up in the liberation struggle. However, there was neither political nor economic unity among them. They were also characterized by fragmentation. For this reason, internecine wars began in the Kaganate in 581. In an effort to use this situation for their own purposes, China and other neighboring states made frequent campaigns against the Turks. Having failed to unite forces against external enemies, The Turkic Kaganate broke up into separate uluses - possessions. In 603, it was divided into two parts - the Western Turkic and Eastern Turkic Khaganates.
1. Show on the map the territory of the Turkic Kaganate.
2.How was the Turkic Khaganate created?
3.What was the ethnic composition of the Kaganate?
4.With whom did the Turks wage war in the western and eastern directions?
5.Tell us about the economy of the Kaganate.
7.How did culture develop in the Kaganate?
8.What are the reasons for the collapse of the Turkic Khaganate?
Self-test questions
1.When was the Turkic Khaganate formed?
A. in 542 D. in 553
B. in 552 E. in 563
C. in 545
2.Under which Turkic khagan was the Rouran Khaganate finally defeated?
A. under Bumyn D. under Mukan
B. under Anagua E. under Ishtemi
C.at Kara-Eska
3.In what year did the Turkic Khaganate collapse?
A. in 552 D. in 581
B. in 545 E. in 603
C.in 563
9. Education Turkic Khaganate. (552-603) Ethnonym “Turk”. Western Turkic Khaganate (603-704)
The era of the Great Migration of Peoples (2-5 centuries) significantly changed the ethnic and political map of Kazakhstan, Central Asia and Eastern Europe. In the 2nd century, numerous groups of the union of Turkic-speaking tribes settled in the steppe zone from Northern Mongolia to Eastern Europe, in the south their nomads reached the upper reaches of the Amu Darya. In the 6th century, the lands of Kazakhstan came under the rule of the powerful Turkic Khaganate, the rulers of which came from the Alshyn dynastic clan of the Turkic tribe. The ethnonym "Turk" first appears in Chinese sources and dates back to 542. The Chinese considered the Turks to be descendants of the Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu). The founder of this ethno-social association was Bumyn Kagan. The Turkic Khaganate achieved political dominance in Central Asia. The Khitans in Manchuria and the Kirghiz on the Yenisei were conquered.
Western Turkic Khaganate (603-704). The ethnopolitical core of the Kaganate became the 10 On-Ok-Budun tribes, which occupied the ancient Usun lands from the Karatau Mountains to Dzungaria. The capital was the city of Suyab (modern Tokmak in Kyrgyzstan). The Kaganate reached the peak of its power during the reign of Dzhiguyu Kagan (610-618) and his younger brother Tok-Dzhagbu Kagan (618-630). Kaganate represented unified system predominantly nomadic and semi-nomadic mode of farming and sedentary agricultural type of farming. The population was engaged in trade, crafts, arable farming, and cattle breeding. The first person in the kaganate is the kagan (supreme ruler, ruler, military commander, possible owner of all lands). The highest titles in the Kaganate - Yagbu, Giad, Elteber - belonged to the Kagan family. Judicial functions were performed by buyuruks and tarkhans. The main population of the Kaganate was made up of free small communities - cattle breeders (karabuduns). Tribes were socially divided into aristocratic and vassal.
Western Turkic Khaganate (603-704)
Occupying a vast territory, the Turkic Kaganate was unable to transform into a single centralized state. The Kaganate was weakened by the constant brutal internecine struggle for power within the dynasty of the Kagan himself. In 581, internecine wars began in the Kaganate. In an effort to use this situation for their own purposes, China and other neighboring states made frequent campaigns against the Turks. Unable to unite forces against external enemies, the Turkic Khaganate broke up into separate uluses. In 603, it was divided into two parts - the Western Turkic and Eastern Turkic Khaganates.
After the collapse of the Turkic Khaganate into 2 parts in 603, the process of delimiting their borders began. The Western Turkic Kaganate occupied territory in the southeast, starting from the Ili and Chu rivers, in the northwest to the lower reaches of the Volga and Kuban rivers, in the northeast to the upper reaches of the Volga and Irtysh, in the southwest to the Tarim and Amu Darya rivers . The capital and winter headquarters of the Kagan was the city of Suyab, located on the banks of the Chu River.
The main ethnopolitical backbone of the Kaganate consisted of “ten tribes” - “on ok budun.” The “ten tribes” included the Turks Ashina, Uysuns, Kanly, Turgesh, Uyghurs, Kirghiz, Karluks, Oguzes, Kimaks and Kipchaks.
Political and social situation.
The first ruler of the Kagan was Tardush (Dato). The political dominance of the Western Turkic Khaganate especially strengthened during the reign of Khagan Shegu (610-618) and Khagan Ton (618-630). Kagan Shegu expanded the borders in the east to Altai, in the west they reached the Tarim River and the foothills of the Pamirs.
.Turgesh Kaganate (704-756). Military administrative power.
By the time of the Arab conquests, Kazakhstan and most of Central Asia were under the rule of the Western Turkic Khaganate. The Turgesh, who came to power in Zhetysu, occupied a primary place in the fight against the Arabs. The founder of the dynasty was Uch-Elik Kagan (699-706). He established the main headquarters in the city of Suyab. He divided the country into 20 fiefs of 7 thousand soldiers each. In the Turgesh Kaganate, Uch-Elik Kagan was succeeded by his son Sakal Kagan (706-711). There was no unity within the Turgesh state. The foreign policy situation of the state was difficult. In the west they fought the Arabs, in the south the Central Asian Turks posed a great danger.
Turgesh Khaganate - for several years the Turgesh were in political destabilization. But with the coming to the throne of Suluk Kagan (714-738), the Kaganate grew stronger. Military-administrative power passed to the tribes of the black Turgesh (Karabudun), whose horde (headquarters) was moved to Taras (Taraz). Suluk had to fight on two fronts: with the Arabs and the Tang court. Through diplomatic (marriage) and military measures, Suluk averted the danger from the east, which allowed the Turgesh to intensify their activities in the west. In 723, the Turgesh and Karluks inflicted a major defeat on the Arabs. Only at the end of 732 was the Arab governor able to defeat the Turgesh and enter Bukhara. In 737, Suluk launched a campaign against the Arabs and reached Tokharistan, but was defeated. Upon returning to Suyab, he was killed by one of his commanders.
The Chinese Empire and the Arabs entered the fight for the weakened Turgesh Kaganate. In 751, near the city of Atlakha near Taraz, a grandiose battle unfolded between the Arabs and the Chinese. The battle lasted five days. But in decisive moment In the rear of the Chinese, the Karluks rebelled and went over to the side of the Arabs. The Chinese army was defeated. They had to leave not only Zhetysu, but also East Turkestan. But the Arabs were unable to gain a foothold in this area and retreated. But civil strife finally undermined the Kaganate and it fell in 756 under the onslaught of the Turkic-speaking Karluk tribes.
Formation of the Karluk Kaganate (756-940).
State of Karluks (756-940). The Karluks were first mentioned under the name Bulak, which dates back to the 5th century.
The name uch-karluk - common in strong union nomadic tribes that occupied the territory between Altai and the Eastern coast of the lake. Balkhash. In the middle of the 7th century, the Karluk association included 3 tribes: Bulak, Chigir, and Tashlyk. The Karluk leaders bore the title Elteber. In 742, political hegemony in the steppes of Mongolia passed to the union of three tribes: the Karluks, the Uighurs, the Basmyls; for a short time the Basmyls rose to the top; the Khagan, the head of the Karluks and the leader of the Uyghurs, became their leader. A new state, the Uyghur Khaganate (744-840), arose in Central Asia. The head of the Uighur tribes became the supreme kagan, and the leader of the Karluks received the title of right yabgu. The desire for independence led the Karluks to move away from the Uyghur Kaganate. In the middle of the 8th century, a struggle for the Turgesh inheritance broke out between the Karluks and Oguzes. In 766, Semirechye with two headquarters of the Turgesh Khagans - Taraz and Suyab - passed into the hands of Karluk Dzhagbu. An early feudal state was formed under the auspices of the Karluks. In the 8th - 10th centuries, an intensive process of Turkization of settled agricultural residents took place in the Karluk state. In the 8th - 10th centuries, the Karluk tribes settled over the vast territory of Kazakhstan - from the Dzungarian Alatau to the middle reaches of the Syr Darya, lived between lakes Balkhash and Issyk-Kul, in the valleys of the rivers Ili, Chu, Talas, in the spurs of the Tien Shan, in the Isfijab region up to medieval Otrar.
The state structure of the Karluks was characterized by the presence of developed forms of a specific tribal system, which did not contribute to a centralized form of government. The tribal nobility had privileges that were inherited. The military-administrative system of government in the Karluk state reflected the specifics of their nomadic and semi-nomadic life. The Karluk Kaganate, however, did not have strong economic ties. He was torn apart by civil strife, the struggle for power, for pastures. In these conditions real threat The Karluk Kaganate came from the direction of Kashgar. In 940 he took Balasagun, and the Karluk state fell.
.Education of the Oguz Confederation (10-11 centuries).
The long struggle with the Pechenegs contributed to political consolidation and formation in the 9th-10th centuries. Oghuz Tribal Union. The Oguzes included both the ancient ethnic component of the Syr Darya valley and the Aral-Caspian steppes, of Indo-European and Finno-Ugric origin, as well as semi-nomadic and nomadic clans and tribes of Zhetysu and Siberia: Khalaj, Dzhagra, Charuks, Karluks, Imurs, Bayundurs, etc. \\In late 9th – early 11th centuries. Oguz tribes lived on a vast territory from the middle reaches of the Syr Darya to the lower reaches of the Volga. The Oghuz nomads were scattered throughout the Irgiz, Ural, Emba, Uil, in the foothills of the Syrdarya Karatau, to the borders of Isfijab. They lived most compactly in the middle and lower reaches of the Syr Darya, in the Aral Sea region and the eastern Caspian region. The borders of Oguz camps and fortresses reached the Southern Urals and the Lower Volga region. \\In the 10th century. the capital of the Oguz state became the city of Yangikent, which lay at the junction of important caravan routes leading to Sr. Asia, East Europe, and Center. Asia. The head of the Oghuz state was the supreme ruler, who bore the title “Jabgu”. The Oguz dzhagbu had deputies - kul-erkins. Power is up. rulers was inherited. Elections of Oguz khans were carried out in councils. An important role in the Dzhagbu state was played by the main leader of the Oghuz army, who bore the title “Subashi”. \\Their main occupation became agriculture and crafts. The Oguz nomadic steppe had close contacts with the oases of Transoxiana, Khorezm and Semirechye. \\At the turn of the 10th-11th centuries. The Oguz state experienced a crisis due to an uprising among the Oguz tribes, dissatisfied with the predatory collection of taxes. According to Oghuz historical legends, these uprisings fall during the reign of Ali Khan, who came to power around the middle or early second half of the 10th century. The Seljuk leaders led the uprising against the Oghuz rulers of Yangikent and captured Jend, but not for long. At this time, Shahmalik, the heir of Ali Khan, strengthened. Under him, the state became so strong that the Oghuz captured Khorezm in 1041. However, 2 years later, Shahmalik was executed by the Seljuks.
.Kimek Khaganate (9th-11th centuries).
Between 766 and 840 The Kimeks occupied the territory of the west. Altai, Tarbagatai and the Alakol Basin, reaching the northern limits of the Tokuzoguz, who lived in the East. Turkestan. The border between them ran along the Dzhungar ridge. The Kimek federation included: Eymur, Imek, Kipchak, Makak, Tatar, Bayandur, Lanikaz and Ajlar. The head of the Kimek tribes bore the title of baigu (yabgu), which was worn by the ruling elite of the Turkic-speaking peoples - Karluks, Oguzes, Uighurs, etc. The power of the Kimek ruler was significant. Since the formation of the Kimek Kaganate at the end of the 9th beginning. 10th centuries their king began to bear the highest title of kagan. The Kagan of the Kimeks had real power: within the boundaries of his state, he appointed rulers who were representatives of the tribal nobility. The institution of hereditary transfer of power took place not only within the kagan family and the khan clan, but also among the tribal nobility. \\At 9 - start. 11th century The Kimeks had ancient Turkic religious beliefs, among which the cult of Tengri and the cult of ancestors occupied a significant place. Some groups worshiped fire, the sun, stars, rivers and mountains. A common form of religion was shamanism, but some groups of Kimeks professed Manichaeism, a Christian religion. Perhaps Islam gained some popularity among the Kimak nobility. \\At the beginning of the 11th century. The Kimek Khaganate collapsed. Its fall was caused by two reasons: the centrifugal tendencies of the Kipchak khans, who sought self-determination, and the migration of nomadic tribes of Central Asia, whose resettlement dates back to the beginning of the 11th century.
.Education of the Karakhanid state (942-1210). Spread of Islam.
The ancestor is Satuk Bogr Khan (915-955). Using the support of the Samanids, he opposed his uncle Ogulchak, and subjugated Kashgar and Taraz. In 942, Satuk overthrew the ruler in Balasagun and declared himself supreme kagan. From this time the history of the Karakhanid state began. In the education and early history of the Karakhanids, the main role was played by the tribes of the Karluk confederation, which, along with the Karluks, included the Chigils and Yagmas. The possessions of the Karakhanids extended from Maverannahr (between the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers) in the west to Semirechye and Kashgar in the East. \\At the end of the 30s. 11th century under Ibrahim ibn Nasr, the state split into two parts: west. Khanate with its center in Bukhara, which included Transoxiana all the way to Khojent and the east, in the cat. included Taraz, Isfijab, Shash, Fergana, Semirechye, and Kashgar. The capital of the eastern khanate was Balasagun. \\After the defeat of the Karakhanid-Seljuk army in 1141, power over both Karakhanid khanates passed to the Karakitays. In 1210, the eastern Karakhanid dynasty was stopped in the fight against the Naiman. And in 1212 Khorezm Shah Muhammad killed the last Western Kagan Osman from Samarkand, and the Fergana branch of the Karakhanids soon disappeared. The history of the powerful Karakhanid state ended here. \\Unlike the political structures of nomadic societies in the ter. The military management of the treasury was separated from the administrative one. The state administrative structure was based on a hierarchical principle. The main occupation of the population was extensive nomadic and semi-nomadic cattle breeding. At the same time, in the 11th-12th centuries. in Semirechye and South. Kaz - not a part of the Turkic tribes switched to agriculture and joined the urban culture. Ancient Turkic religious ideas occupied an important place in the ideology of nomadic and sedentary populations. Islam, adopted by the Kaganate as a state, became further widespread. Religions. Islamization, especially the south. Districts of Kaz-na, the penetration of the Muslim religion into the nomadic aristocratic environment led to the displacement of the ancient Turkic runic writing and the formation of a new written language in Arabic script. The growth of self-awareness of Turkic ethnic groups led to the emergence of Muslim literature in the Turkic language.
.Karakita state (1128-1213). State of Kereits and Naimans.
The formation of the Karakitai is closely related to the Central Asian Khitan tribes. Khitan (Qidan, Kita, Khita) are mentioned in written sources from 4th century AD like Mongol-speaking tribes. They lived north of China, in the territory of Manchuria and the Ussuri region. In 924, a vast territory from Altai to the Pacific Ocean came under the auspices of the Khitan state (Liao Empire). In 1125, the combined forces of Sun China and the Jurchen state put an end to the Liao Empire. Some of the Khitans submitted to the Jurchens, and the other, through the lands of the Yenisei Kirghiz, reached the river. Emil built a city of the same name here too. Since the establishment of their power over part of Semirechye, the western branch of the Khitan, due to mixing with the Turkic-speaking local population, has been assigned the name Karakitai. In 1128, the Balasagun ruler from the Karakhanid dynasty called on the Karakitaev to go against the Kangls and Karluks who oppressed him. The leader of the Krakitaev, Elyu Dashi, having occupied Balasagun, eliminated the Karakhanid ruler and founded a state in Zhetysu. Then he made a series of aggressive campaigns, expanding the borders from the Yenisei to Talas. After this, the Karakitai conquered the Kangls, annexed East Turkestan, and in 1137 and 1141 defeated the troops of Transoxiana and the Seljuks. A special detachment was sent to conquer Khorezm. The head of the Karakitayan state bore the title of gurkhan, which means “khan of khans.” Balasagun remained the center of his possessions. High discipline was maintained in the army, and a system of household taxation was introduced in the country - one dinar was collected from each house. The gurkhan did not distribute inheritance to his associates, because feared their strengthening and rivalry. Under their direct control was the southern part of Zhetysu, the northeastern region of Isfijab, and the Kulzhinsky region. Part of Zhetysu, north of Ili, belonged to the Karluk Khan, a vassal of the Gurkhan, whose capital was Koilyk. Transoxiana and Eastern Turkestan continued to be ruled by the Karakhanids, who paid tribute to the Karakitays. The first gurkhan died in 1143, and power passed to his widow, and in 1150 his son Elyu Ile became gurkhan. After Ile's death in 1163, his sister ruled the country for some time, and from 1169, his son Yelu Zhilugu ruled. A new period in the history of the Karakitai state is associated with his name, when governors in various regions became practically independent rulers and the power of the gurkhan became essentially nominal. The early states of the Naimans and Kereits arose in eastern Central Asia. In the 10th century, the Kereit state was formed in Altai. In 1007, the Kereites converted to Christianity. The Kereits formed into independent state formations - uluses, each ulus had its own territory. The khans had personal summer camps and winter pastures. Office work and management apparatus became widespread. In 1203, the Kereits were defeated by Mongol tribes, their state collapsed. The Naiman union called “Segiz-Oguz” - “the union of 7 tribes” arose in the middle of the 8th century in the Upper Irtysh and Orkhon regions. In the 10th-12th centuries, as a result of the development and strengthening of early feudal relations, the Naiman union developed into a state formation. The Naimans professed Christianity. In 1206, the state was defeated by Genghis Khan.
§ 3. Turkic Khaganate
During the Great Migration, Turkic society experienced profound changes. The tribal system, which had existed for many millennia, collapsed and was replaced by a class society. Conditions appeared for the emergence of the first states.
It was already mentioned in Chapter I about such state formations as the Hunnic Union in Central Asia under the leadership of Mode, the Hunnic Empire of Attila, and the Avar Khaganate. These formations, which arose as a result of the aggressive campaigns of outstanding commanders, were not yet states in the full sense of the word. In scientific language, such formations are called proto-state.
Over time, the Turkic tribes and peoples created real states, although, of course, we should not forget that these were early medieval states that were not distinguished by their strength.
One of them was the Turkic Khaganate, which arose in 552. The creator of this state, which existed until the middle of the 8th century, was Bumyn Kagan. The center of the Kaganate was in Altai. It was Altai that was the habitat of a large union of tribes that adopted the name “Turk” (“Tukyu”, “Turkut”).
The Turkic Khaganate arose, as happened in most other cases, as a result of successful wars with neighboring peoples. In 545, the Altai Turks defeated the Uighurs, who lived southwest of Altai, and in 551, the Rourans, whose nomadic camps were located to the southeast. In the 60s of the 6th century, the Turks conquered the Hephthalite state in Central Asia. Thus, under the rule of Bu-myn-Kagan, and after his death - Istemi-Kagan, vast territories of Central and Central Asia, Altai, inhabited by numerous
our tribes and peoples. Subsequently, all the Eurasian steppes came under the rule of the Turkic Kaganate. Its eastern border abutted the Great Wall of China, while its western border reached almost to Crimea.
Unlike the Hunnic Empire, which was at the stage of military democracy, early feudal relations arose in the Turkic Kaganate from its very formation. The basis of the economy was nomadic cattle breeding. At the same time, early agriculture arose and began to develop.
The craft has reached a fairly high level. Archaeologists have found the remains of metallurgical forges, as well as tools and weapons made of bronze and iron. Important species crafts included processing of hides, wool, and leather dressing.
Since the end of the 7th century, Turkic rulers began minting their own coins. The centers of coinage, as well as crafts and trade, were cities. The cities of Taraz, Suyab, and Otrar are well known.
The highest achievement of Turkic culture was the appearance of writing. This was the so-called runic writing. Runic texts that have survived to this day were discovered at the end of the 19th century in the Orkhon River valley in Northern Mongolia, on the gravestones of the adviser to the first rulers of the Kaganate, Tonyukuk, last ruler Bilge Kagan and his brother Kul-Tegin. The inscriptions tell in detail and vividly about the life and exploits of the rulers of the state and generals against the background of the general history of the Turkic Kaganate.
The significance of these historical monuments for us also lies in the fact that they contain the first mention of the “Tatars”. In particular, representatives of the “Otuz-Tatars” (thirty Tatars) participated in the funeral of Bumyn Kagan and Istemi Kagan in the middle of the 6th century.
The ancient Turks achieved great skill in making stone sculptures. They depicted warriors killed in battles with weapons hanging from their belts and vessels in their hands. Rock art was also developed - warriors on horseback and various animals were depicted: leopards, mountain goats, camels and others.
The history of the Great Turkic Khaganate was filled with internal strife, external threats and conflicts. Chinese emperors from the Sui dynasty constantly interfered in the internal affairs of the Khaganate. As a result of all this, already at the beginning of the 7th century, the state split into two parts: the Western Turkic Khaganate and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate.
The Western Kaganate achieved power under the rule of Datou Kagan, the son of Istemi Kagan. After the formation of the Khazar Kaganate in the Caspian region western border Turkic Khaganate approached Aral Sea. In the second half VII century, a significant part of the Western Turkic Khaganate was occupied by Chinese troops. Although the Kaganate freed itself from foreign rule at the beginning of the 8th century, new invasions
His lands from neighboring tribes led to the fall of the state in 740.
The political history of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate was equally dramatic. He also had to fight endless wars with the Chinese Empire. Long time The Eastern Turkic Khaganate managed to restrain Chinese aggression. Big State and military talent Bilge Kagan (he ruled in 716-734) and his brother Kul-Tegin showed up in this confrontation.
The fall of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate occurred after 745 under the reign of the last Khagan Ozmysh-Tegin. That year, the troops of the Uyghur Khan Moyun-Chura inflicted heavy defeats on the Kaganate army, which consisted of Tatars and Oguzes. According to data extracted from the text on Moyun-Chura’s gravestone, 30 thousand Tatars fought on the battlefield. This figure speaks of the large number of Tatar tribes mentioned in the monuments of that time under the names “Otuz-Tatars” and “Tokuz-Tatars” (nine Tatars).
Document
From the inscription on the gravestone of the commander of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate Kul-Tegin (died in 731) about the peoples who arrived at the funeral of the rulers of the Turkic Khaganate Bumyn Khagan and Istemi Khagan (mid-6th century): “...They died. [As] crying and groaning [that is, to express condolences] [came] from the front, from [the country of] the sunrise, the people of the Bekmit steppe, [as well as] the Tabgach [Chinese], Tibetans, Avars and Rome [Byzantines], Kirghiz, Uchkurykans, Otuz-Tatars, Kytai [Kara-Kitai], Tata-Byts, how many peoples came, moaned and cried: They were such famous Khagans.”
In general, the Turkic Khaganate played an important role in the consolidation of the Turkic-speaking tribes. It should be emphasized that the Turkic Kaganate, especially the Eastern one, among whose population there were ancient Tatars, is, of course, the initial form of statehood of the Tatar people.
Kimak Khaganate
After the collapse of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, part of the Tatars and other Turkic tribes found themselves under the rule of the Uyghur khans. The other part moved to the northwest, to the region of Northern Altai and Western Siberia. Here in the 9th century they created a new union of tribes. These events were obviously reflected in the ancient Turkic legend about Shad, a retelling of which is contained in the book of the 11th century Persian historian al-Gardizi “The Beauty of Narratives”.
This is what the legend tells about.
The ruler of the Tatars died, leaving two sons; the eldest son took possession of the kingdom; the younger one began to envy him; the youngest's name was Shad. After an unsuccessful assassination attempt, he ran away from his brother, taking with him a slave-concubine. They came to a place through which a large river flowed. There were a lot of trees and
abundance of game. At this place, the prince brought his tent and began to live in peace. Every day he went hunting, and they ate meat, and their clothes were made from the fur of sables, squirrels and ermines.
One fine day, seven people from relatives of the Tatars came to them - their names were Imi, Imak, Tatar, Bayandar, Kipchak, Lanikaz, Ajlad. They wandered here in search of southern pastures. Seeing them, the slave said: “Ir-tesh”, which means “stop” - this is where the river got its name. Recognizing the woman, everyone stopped and pitched their tents.
Shad returned from hunting, brought a lot of prey and greeted the guests. There was a lot of grass here, and the newcomers stayed with their herds until the next spring. When the snow melted and the earth again dressed in beautiful outfits, one of them went to visit his relatives in the Tatar camp. When I arrived there, I saw that the area was devastated: the enemy had robbed and killed the people. The remnants of the Tatar tribe, seeing the messenger, came down from the mountains, and he told them about the new land of Shad. After that, they all headed to the Irtysh and, having arrived there, greeted Shad as their ruler and began to show him honor. Other people, having learned about all this, also began to come to them. Seven hundred people gathered. For a long time they remained in the service of Shad, then, when there were more of them, they settled in the mountains and formed seven tribes named after the seven people named...
It was on the basis of these tribes that a new Turkic state was formed on the Irtysh in the 9th century - the Kimak Kaganate. The main population of the Kaganate were the Kimaks, whose ancestors, under the name Yemeks, were part of the Western Turkic Kaganate in the 7th century. They then roamed north of Altai. After the collapse of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, they were joined by Tatars, Kipchaks, Bayandars and some other Turkic tribes, which is reflected in the above story.
The Kimak Kaganate, like others, was an early feudal state association at the turn of the 9th-10th centuries. The head of the state was a kagan with hereditary power. In addition to him, there were also hereditary prince-beks, there were 12 of them - in other words, the Kaganate consisted of 12 tribal principalities. The rulers of some of them, for example Kipchak, bore the title of khan. This means that the Kimak Kaganate was a fairly large early medieval state.
The capital of the state - the city of Imakia - was located on the Irtysh. A significant part of the population of the Kaganate, especially the Kimaks,
She had already begun to lead a semi-sedentary lifestyle and was familiar with agriculture. Medieval Arab geographers report that the Kimaks cultivated wheat, barley and even rice. The Kimak cities were well fortified, and Imakia had large bazaars and temples.
The Kimak army consisted of cavalry and foot soldiers. They were armed with straight broadswords and slightly curved sabers, spears and bows with arrows. Archaeological excavations have revealed, in addition to weapons, also various items everyday life, tools and decorations. Among the latter are metal mirrors, beads, pendants, ornamented plaques, remains of belts, and horse harnesses.
The Kimaks, like other Turkic-speaking peoples, had the custom of erecting stone statues of warrior heroes and leaders. These monuments were distinguished by their simplicity and schematic design.
Kimak society knew runic writing. This is evidenced by historical and archaeological sources. On one metal mirror found in a female burial in the upper reaches of the Irtysh, for example, the following saying is written: “A noble woman is freed from her [feelings of] envy. Her happy destiny is coming...”
The religious ideas of the Kimaks were very diverse and subject to change. They were for the most part pagans. They worshiped the Irtysh, believing that the river is the god of man. Fire, the sun, and stars were also revered. The Kimaks and Kipchaks, according to Arab geographers, were engaged in astrology; the traditions of Tengrism - the belief in the supreme creator - Tengri - were also strong.
Ideas and dogmas of new religious teachings, which at that time became widespread in South and Central Asia, penetrated Kimak society. We are talking about Manichaeism and Islam.
Terms
Manichaeism - religious doctrine founded in the 3rd century by Mani, who preached his faith in India, Persia and Central Asia!
This is a dualistic doctrine (from the Latin “dualis” - two
equality, equality of two principles) about the struggle between good and evil, light and
darkness. Manichaeism was the dominant religion in the neighboring Uyghurs
com kaganate.
Islam- one of the three world religions (along with Christianity and Buddhism) based on monotheism. Proclaimed in the 7th century by Muhammad Arabian Peninsula(modern Saudi Arabia). In the 7th-8th centuries, Islam became widespread in the countries of the Middle East, Central Asia, and North Africa.
The Kimak Khaganate, formed after the collapse of the Turkic Khaganate, left a noticeable mark on the ethnic and political history Tatar people, especially Siberian Tatars. One of the early, pre-Golden Horde components of the formation of the Siberian Tatars are the Kimaks and other Turkic tribes that were part of the Kimak Kaganate.
Khazar Khaganate
A brief history of the Khazars from their appearance in the steppes of the Caspian region and the North Caucasus to the creation of a separate state is outlined above. In the 7th century, the Khazars, together with other Turkic tribes - the Bulgarians, Barsils, Belengers, Savirs, created a large union of tribal principalities, which in the middle of the same century turned into a state - the Khazar Khaganate. By the 80s of the 7th century, the power of the Kaganate extended not only to the North Caucasian steppes between the Caspian and Azov, but also to the Black Sea region, right up to the Crimea.
In the 7th century, Khazaria entered into an acute and long-term rivalry with the Byzantine Empire and Arab Caliphate. In 731, the Khazars defeated the Arabs and penetrated into Transcaucasia. Caucasian Albania(present-day Azerbaijan) was forced to pay tribute to the Khazar Kagan. However, the Arabs did not accept this. In subsequent battles they defeated the Kaganate troops. A threat loomed over the Khazar capital in the Caucasus, Semender, and over the Kaganate as a whole. The Khazar Kagan was forced to convert to Islam, which the Arabs demanded.
As a result of these wars, a significant part of the Khazarin population went north - to the lower reaches of the Volga and to the Don. The capital of the state was moved to the city of Itil, located at the mouth of the Volga. The Khazars, having switched to sedentary life, began to engage in agriculture and commercial fishing. They cultivated wheat and rice, and grew watermelons and grapes.
By the end of the 8th century, the Khazar Khagans abandoned Islam. Wars with the Arabs for lands in Transcaucasia resumed.
Khazar Khaganate
in the 10th century (according to L.N. Gumilev)
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Byzantium helped the Khaganate in these wars, striving to spread Christianity among the Khazars. However, the Kagan and his entourage, wanting to preserve the independence of the state, refused to accept the Byzantine faith; they were looking for another form of religion. In the end, they settled on Judaism, which was brought to Khazaria by Jews expelled from Byzantium at the beginning of the 7th century.
However, only the top of Khazar society accepted Judaism; the bulk of the population remained Muslims and pagans, there were also many Christians. The religious diversity in the Kaganate and the religious tolerance of the Khazars were well known and aroused surprise. For example, there is a message that justice in the Kaganate was administered by seven highest judges: two representatives of Judaism, Islam, Christianity and one pagan.
Khazaria was a large and powerful early feudal state in Eastern Europe. Many neighboring peoples and states recognized the power of the Khazar Kagan over themselves and paid him tribute. A Kagan named Joseph in one of his letters named the Eastern Slavs among these peoples, Volga Bulgars, Bur-tas, Suvars, Cheremis and some others.
The Khazar Kaganate exchanged goods with many countries, exported large and small cattle, furs, slaves to them, and was famous for the sale of the so-called beluga glue - it was obtained from the swim bladder of sturgeon fish and was used for lightening grape wines. Honey and wax, expensive furs and leathers were brought from Rus' and Volga Bulgaria, and silk fabrics and spices were brought from the East.
Great development urban culture received in the Kaganate. Itil - one of the largest cities in Eastern Europe - was the capital of Khazaria in the 8th-10th centuries.
The city consisted of two parts. In the western one lived the Kagan and his followers.
The information is close, the administration and the garrison were located. Kagan lived in
stone palace. The rest are in adobe houses or yurts.
The eastern part was called Khazaran. Craftsmen, merchants and other city people lived here. The majority of the population were Muslims. Therefore, there were many mosques here - the cathedral mosque and 30 parish mosques; madrassas were opened at them. The city also had Christian churches, Jewish synagogues.
The head of state was called the Khazar Khakan. He was revered as a god. However, he was not directly involved in managing the affairs of the state. This was entrusted to the Khakan Bey. In foreign sources he was called malik, that is, king.
IN government there was a strict hierarchy inherent in eastern despotism. Khazar Khakan sat on a large throne, in a high place, and Khakan Bey sat lower, on his right side. The Kagan appeared to the people only three times a year. When he appeared, everyone had to fall face down to the ground, and it was forbidden to look at him - he was like the sun! From
No exception was made to this rule even during the battle: the battle on both sides stopped, and the warriors of the Kaganate fell face-to-face to the ground. The Kagan was also buried solemnly and mysteriously: over his grave they built Grand Palace, and those who did this were then killed.
From the book “Risala” (“Note”) by the early 10th century Arab traveler Ahmed ibn Fadlan:
“As for the king of the Khazars, whose title is Khakan, then... he is not
seems otherwise than [once] every four months, [appearing] in
[honorable] distance. He is called the “Big Khakan”, and his deputy is
name is Khakan-bek... The king of the Khazars [has] a huge city on the Atyl River
[Itil]. It consists of two sides, - in one of these sides [live] mu
Muslims, and on the other side - the king and his entourage... Muslims have
this city [has] the main mosque in which they pray... at
there is a tall minaret..."
The Khazar Khaganate ceased to exist in the 60s of the 10th century. The decisive blow was made in 965 by the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav.
Khazaria collapsed. IN Lower Volga region The influence of Volga Bulgaria increased. The lands in the Azov region, in the North Caucasus, and on the Don were occupied by the Pechenegs, who created a strong unification of tribal principalities here.
The collapse of the Khazar Kaganate was facilitated, in addition to Svyatoslav’s campaign, by internal strife and attacks by the nomadic tribes of the Pechenegs, Torks and others.
The Khazar Kaganate left a deep mark on the history of our country.
Questions and tasks
1. Describe the Turkic Kaganate. What peoples and tribes inhabited it? Name the rulers of this state.
2. How was the Kimak Kaganate formed? Who are the Kimaks and Kipchaks? Use the legend of Shad.
3. Tell us about the culture and religious belief kimakov.
4. Remember the history of the Khazars and tell us about the formation of their state.
5. What religions did the Khazars profess? What is the history of their adoption in Khazaria?
6. What peoples and tribes were part of the Khazar Kaganate?
7. Explain What this means: Otuz-Tatars, Tengrism, Tokuz-Tatars, Manichaeism, Kaganate, dualistic teaching, bek.
8. Remember what events occurred in the years listed below: 552, 731, 740, 745, 965.
Samanid
silver
10th century coins
Bulgarian
minted.
Based on materials
E. P. Kazakova
VOLGA BULGARIA
§ 6. Formation of the state of the Volga Bulgars
ABOUT we have already written above about the ancient Bulgars. In the 7th century, a large, strong Bulgarian union of tribes arose in the steppes of the Azov and Black Sea regions. The first to unite the Bulgarians was Prince Organa from the Dulo clan.
The head of the state, which went down in history as Great Bulgaria, became Khan Kubrat, Organa’s nephew, in 632. He managed to create a strong centralized state.
However, as often happened with early medieval states, Great Bulgaria did not long outlive its creator. Soon after Kubrat's death (according to some reports, in 642), the state collapsed. Under pressure from the Khazars, part of the Bulgarians, led by Kubrat's youngest son Asparukh, moved to the Danube and founded here, together with Slavic tribes, a new state - Danube Bulgaria with its capital in the city of Pliska (681).
Kubrat's eldest son Batbay remained on his lands in the North Caucasus and submitted to the Khazars. Gradually his Bulgarians began to be called “blacks”. Modern Karachais (Karachals) and Balkars - the peoples of the North Caucasus - are associated with them.
Another part of the Bulgarians moved to the Middle Volga at the end of the 8th - beginning of the 9th century. How many there were, who their leader was, whether they appeared here all together or in separate groups - there is no exact information.
But what prompted them to move, to change their former steppe spaces to the northern forest-steppe - there are interesting assumptions on this issue. Thus, S.A. Pletneva believes that the resettlement of the Bulgarians was associated with the adoption of Judaism and the turmoil that arose because of this in the Khazar Kaganate. Such a reason could indeed exist.
Obviously, the Bulgarians came to the Volga and Kama as part of a whole conglomerate of Turkic-speaking tribes. The Barsils, Belangers, and Savirs moved with them. Only in historical sources of the 10th century these tribes on the new land are named somewhat differently: Bersula, Ba-
renjars, suvars. There is another opinion regarding the suvars, which does not allow their identification with the savirs.
Of course, it cannot be said that the named tribes moved to the Middle Volga in their entirety, all without exception. A significant part of the Barsils, Belengers, and Savirs undoubtedly remained in their original place, making up a significant proportion of the population of the Khazar Kaganate.
The fact of the appearance in the Middle Volga region, in the territory approximately from the confluence of the Kama into the Volga to the Samara Luka, of the Azov Turkic tribes is confirmed by materials from archaeological excavations. In particular, burial grounds have been opened on the territory of Tatarstan, located near the villages of Bolshiye Tarkhany in Tetyushsky, Tankeyevki in Kuibyshevsky and Bolshiye Tigany in Alekseevsky districts, as well as a burial ground near the village of Kaibely in the Ulyanovsk region. According to R. G. Fakhrutdinov, the form of burials and things found in the graves of both regions - the southwestern proto-Bulgarian world and the new Bulgarian lands in the Middle Volga region - repeat each other or are very similar.
At the same time, in some burials items characteristic of Ugric group population of the Ural region. This suggests that the Ugrians noticeably wedged themselves into the Turkic world during the period of resettlement of the Huns. These Ugrians turned out to be heavily Turkified.
In addition to burial grounds, a number of other burial grounds have been studied in recent decades. archaeological sites, among them are the remains of open settlements and some ancient settlements. These monuments gave archaeologists completely new elements of material culture. Thus, among the pottery and molded ceramics, samples appear that differ from the ceramics of the southwestern Proto-Bulgarian burial grounds and settlements. These new forms are characteristic of the monuments of another, southeastern cultural world - the world of the Oguzes, Pechenegs, and Kipchaks. It follows that back in the 8th-9th centuries in the Middle Volga, in addition to the Bulgarian tribes, other ethnic Massifs appeared - the Trans-Ural Turkicized Ugrians and a little later - the Trans-Ural-Courtal Oguz-Kipchak tribes. Except
Moreover, even before the arrival of the Bulgarians, early Turkic and Finnish tribes lived here.
N. From the “Book of Precious Treasures” by the Arab writer, the first
Quote I half of the 10th century Ibn-Rust:
____________ / “The land of the Burtases lies between the Khazar and Bulgarian lands,
at a distance of fifteen days' journey from the first... Their land is spacious and replete with wooded places...
The Bulgarian land is adjacent to the land of the Burtases. The Bulgarians live on the banks of a river that flows into the Khazar [Caspian] Sea and is called Itil... Their country consists of swampy areas and dense forests, among which they live... The Bulgarians are divided into three parts: one part is called bersula, the other - Eseghel, and the third is Bulgarian: regarding the way of life, all three are on the same level.”
The arrival of the Bulgarians, who had some experience of statehood, gave a strong impetus to the processes of consolidation of a motley conglomerate of tribes and peoples and the formation of an early medieval state in the Middle Volga region.
This state, formed at the end of the 9th century, received the name Volga Bulgaria, and the people who created and led it began to be called the Volga Bulgars.
It is clear that the state of the Volga Bulgars was not created on one specific day by someone’s order, but was formed gradually. This was a fairly long process, during which the unification of various tribal principalities and the creation of centralized government bodies took place. An important place in this process was occupied by the transition from paganism and polytheism to a single faith based on monotheism. Islam became such a faith for the Volga Bulgars, which received VIII-IX centuries, widespread in Central Asia and Transcaucasia.
It was with the adoption of Islam as the official religion that the first appearance in historical sources of the head of state of Volga Bulgaria, Khan Almas, is associated. The Arab writer Ahmed ibn Fadlan, who visited this country as part of the embassy of the Baghdad Caliph in 922, reports about it in his “Notes”.
The fact is that Almas in 921 turned to the Caliph of all Muslims, al-Muqtadir, with a request to send him a fakih - a Muslim preacher, so that he would help him establish the laws of Islam in his country and teach his people the Muslim faith.
The request was granted, and on May 12, 922, an embassy headed by Ambassador Susan ar-Rassi with a secretary and translator Ahmed ibn Fadlan arrived from Baghdad to Bulgar. The ambassadors were given a ceremonial reception. The Arabs presented Almas with expensive gifts, including the Koran and a green banner - symbols of the patronage of the Baghdad caliph. A few days later, on Friday, a solemn service was held: they said the khutbah - Friday prayer, which is exceptional
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Kubrat Khan with his sons. Artist R. Zagidullin
but an important ritual in Muslim worship. Two months later, having convened an all-Bulgarian congress, Almas, in the presence of Baghdad ambassadors, publicly consolidated the official adoption of Islam.
The adoption of Islam had not only domestic political, but also great foreign policy significance. Khan Almas sought to enlist the support of the powerful Baghdad Caliphate in the fight against its dangerous neighbors, in particular the Khazar Khaganate, to which he had to pay tribute. These hopes were largely justified: the international position of the young state was strengthened, cultural and religious ties with the Arab East strengthened.
§ 7. Territory, population, neighbors
Volga Bulgaria occupied a relatively small territory. Its northern border is X-XI centuries ran along the right bank of the Kama, the western - along the Sviyaga, the eastern - along the Sheshma River, and the southern borders reached the Samarskaya Luka - a large bend of the Volga in the area of the modern Zhiguli Mountains.
In the 12th century, the borders of the state expanded: in the north - to the Kazanka River basin, in the southeast - to the upper reaches of the Bolshoi Cheremshan River, in the west - to the Sura River basin. Under control
The territory of Volga Bulgaria turned out to be significant territories in the southeast. The Russian Laurentian Chronicle, for example, talks about the battle of a Bulgar guard detachment with the Mongols in 1223 on the Yaike River (Ural).
The ethnic composition of the population of Volga Bulgaria in the initial period, in the 10th-11th centuries, was quite varied. In addition to the Bulgars, Bersuls, Barenjars, and Suvars already known to us, the sources also mention Esegels, or Eskels (Iskils). All these tribes were Turkic-speaking and stood at the same stage of social development. The names of the most important cities are associated with the names of some of the largest tribes: Bulgar, Suvar.
The famous Russian historian of the 18th century V.N. Tatishchev, who used sources that have not reached us, considered Bulyar to be a city of the Bilirov tribe. Regarding the latter, European sources report that some of them, led by Prince Hassan, moved to the territory of Hungary at the end of the 10th century and founded the city of Pest there - one of the two parts of ancient Budapest, the capital of this country.
The same Tatishchev wrote about the existence of the Chalmata tribe; The name of this tribe is usually associated with Chulman, the then name of the Kama River.
In sources of the 12th-13th centuries, the population of Volga Bulgaria was usually designated by one ethnonym - “Bulgars”. Obviously, at this time the previous tribal differences disappeared, and within the framework of the state a single nationality was formed - the Bulgar.
In the orbit of direct political, economic and
The cultural influence of the Volga Bulgaria were local tribes of the Finno-Ugric language group - the ancestors of the modern Mari, Udmurts, and Eastern Mordvins-Moksha. In the same
Some neighboring Turkic-speaking tribes also became dependent on the Bulgars. First of all, these were Madjars who lived east of Volga Bulgaria. These tribes later, already during the period of the Golden Horde, participated in the formation of the Tatar and Bashkir peoples.
Volga Bulgaria gradually expanded its influence to the north and northeast. At a distance of 20 days to one month of travel (one day of travel was approximately 35 kilometers) from the Bulgarian land in the north lived the Visu tribes. They are reported by many eastern travelers and geographers, starting from Ibn Ruste and Ibn Fadlan. The Arabic name “visu” corresponds to the “vesi” of Russian chronicles. Some of these tribes later Russified, while others retained their ethnic identity - these are modern Vepsians, belonging to the Baltic-Finnish subgroup of the Finno-Ugric group of peoples. Nowadays there are about 8 thousand Vepsians, they live in Karelia, partly in the Leningrad and Vologda regions.
And these tribes, still at the stage of the primitive communal system, recognized the power of the Volga Bulgaria over themselves and paid tribute to it. The Yura tribes were in the same relationship with the Volga Bulgars. Russian chronicles called them Ugra or Ugra. They lived in the far northeast, about three months' journey from Bulgaria. The Yuras are the ancestors of the modern Khanty (Ostyaks) and Mansi (Voguls).
In addition to collecting tribute (tenth part), the Bulgars also simply traded with these northern tribes. Trade was of an exchange nature. The fact is that commodity-money relations were still extremely undeveloped. Therefore, they carried out an exchange of goods in kind, in other words, they exchanged goods for goods, hence the name: barter trade.
Trade with the Visu and Yura was often called silent. This is because Information I that the northern forest people, due to fear of foreign buyers,
----------------- / the tsami did not meet with them personally, did not communicate, but traded “on
distance." This is how this trade took place. The Bulgars come to the country of Yura, leave the goods they brought to famous place and move away some distance. The Yura people approach, lay down their goods and, if they find the deal acceptable, take the things of the Bulgar merchants and leave, leaving theirs in place. If the Bulgarian goods do not suit them, then they do not take them, they simply move away and wait. Merchants come, add something else and leave again. This continues until the exchange of goods is completed to the mutual satisfaction of the parties.
Distant neighbors of the Bulgars in the west behind the Finno-Ugric
lands were Slavic tribes united at the turn
IX-X centuries in the early medieval state - Kievan Rus.
relations between the two states for many decades
Iletii were good neighbors. Only in 965 Kiev
n ide Svyatoslav made a military campaign against the Volga boulevards
Rus' at the beginning of the 9th century and its external relations (according to B. A. Rybakov)
gar and defeated them. Then he defeated the Khazar Kaganate.
In 985 Grand Duke Vladimir made a new campaign against Volga Bulgaria. Apparently, he failed to defeat the Bulgar army. Peace was concluded between him and the emir of Volga Bulgaria “on eternal times" According to legend, they swore on a bowl of water that this peace would be broken no earlier than the stone thrown into the bowl floated to the surface, and the hops sank to the bottom of the bowl.
Afterwards, new peace agreements and treaties were concluded between the Bulgars and Russians, for example a trade agreement 1006 year, according to which merchants of both sides could trade freely in the cities and villages of Volga Bulgaria and Kievan Rus.
Relations between Bulgaria and Rus' became more complex in the 12th century. We'll talk about this a little later.
§ 8. Economy, craft, military affairs
The main type of economy of the Volga Bulgars was arable farming. The land was cultivated with an iron plow (saban) and a plow with an iron coulter. They grew wheat, barley, millet, and lentils. It was these grain crops that the Arab writer of the first half of the 10th century, Ibn Ruste, indicated in his “Book of Precious Treasures.”
Another Arab, Ibn Fadlan, who, as we know, visited Volga Bulgaria, confirms the message of his compatriot: “The food of the Bulgars consists mostly of millet and horse meat, although their land produces a lot of wheat and barley.”
Let's pay attention to last words Ibn Fadlan: “A lot of wheat and barley will be born.” High grain yields were obviously associated both with good natural conditions and with a fairly high level of farming for that time.
Some scientists believe what in Volga Bulgaria used a steam farming system. Others are inclined to believe that it was not there yet, but was simply a fallow period.
Relog is a farming system in which, after several harvests, the land is left uncultivated for about ten years to restore soil fertility. Steam farming system is the use of crop rotation in which most of the arable land is usually occupied by grain crops, and soil fertility is restored in the so-called fallow field. It does not plant crops during the entire growing season. During this period, the fallow is kept loose and free of weeds.
News from Muslim republics
15.02.2014THE FIRST EARLY MEDIEVAL STATES OF THE TATAR PEOPLE
TURKIC KHAGANATE
...All the inhabitants of the city of Gunkhoy were exterminated by the young Khan Sarymbet, leaving only the beautiful Maya alive, whom he took with him to his hometown of Shibe and married her. True love arose between them. One day Maya told him that she would give the khan an heir, and she herself would die. She asked her husband to bury her after that in the steppe, on the high shore of Lake Kara-Kul.
Maya gave birth to a boy and died on the second day. Khan fulfilled her last request - he buried her near Lake Kara-Kul. Every morning Sarymbet went to her grave and mourned his Maya... Years passed, the khan grew old, but every day he visited the grave of his wife. Finally, he abdicated the throne in favor of his son, dressed as a dervish, took a purse and a staff, and left his hometown forever.
Sarymbet settled on the banks of the Kara-Kul near the grave of Maya and began to live there as a hermit. Years have passed. Became former khan a gray-haired, deep old man. People came to him - they came from afar to tell him their grief and learn wisdom from him.
Sarymbet dug a grave for himself next to Maya’s grave and slept in it. But one day, waking up in the morning, he saw in front of him the old Oloi Khan, the former ruler of Gunkhoi. Oloy told Sarymbet that although he had shed a lot of someone else’s blood - the blood of his tribe - he had now redeemed it with his asceticism. Sarymbet cried when he heard the words of his former enemy, remembered his destruction of Gonkhoy and the extermination of its inhabitants, and asked to be buried after his death here, next to Maya. The next day the hermit khan died, and Oloy fulfilled his request.
Since ancient times, on the shore of Lake Kara-Kul, two graves have risen side by side - Sarymbat and the beautiful Maya. People come there from far and wide to worship their ashes - they loved each other so much...
A hundred years later, the Gunkhoy tribe, led by their grandson Oloy Khan, attacked Shibe and destroyed the city. Everything was destroyed, burned and destroyed, except Maya's grave. The young khan came to inspect the holy place and shed tears. “Khan Sarymbat showed how to love,” he said. “Everything passes, is destroyed, disappears, and only love remains...”
So says the ancient legend, which was written down in the last century by the famous Russian writer D.I. Mamin-Sibiryak in Central Asia. It could have been created by the Kyrgyz, Kazakhs or other Turkic-speaking people. However, be that as it may, this legend has its roots in the distant times of the existence of the first official Turkic state. Although Turkic-speaking peoples lived there since ancient times and bore various names (“Xiongnu-Huns,” “Gaogyui,” “Tele,” etc.), they did not have a common state. The Turkic Kaganate became such a common state, which included the overwhelming majority of the Turkic-speaking population with the name “Turk” and received broad ethnic significance. It arose in 552, by the way, exactly 1000 years before the fall of the Kazan Khanate, one of the last nation states Tatar people.
Back in 460, the Hunnic tribe of the Ashina clan, already known to us, then living in the provinces of Western China, submitted to the Rourans (the Rourans are nomadic tribes of Central Asia). Soon they moved to Altai, where they formed an alliance of local tribes and adopted the name “Turk” (“Tukyu”, “Turkut”). In 545 they defeated the Uighurs, and in 551 the Rourans. And a year later, in 552, the Turkic Kaganate was created; sometimes it is called the Great Turkic Khaganate. Its first ruler Bumyn (in some sources - Tumyn) took the title “Il-khan” or “kahan” (khagan), which means great khan. However, Bumyn died in the same year 552. Representatives of numerous nations arrived at the funeral of Bumyn Kagan and a little later his brother Istemi Kagan, among them the tribal union “Otuz-Tatars” (thirty Tatars) - about them, as well as about the tribal union “Tokuz-Tatars” (nine Tatars) will be discussed in more detail below, in the section on the Golden Horde. Here we only note that these Tatar tribes are described in ancient Turkic written monuments-gravestones of the 7th-8th centuries. These are the first historical information about the Tatars.
By 555, many peoples and tribes of Central Asia found themselves subordinate to the Turkic Khaganate. In the 60s of the 6th century, the Turks defeated the Hephthalite state in Central Asia. In general, the Kaganate united many tribal unions Altai, Central and Central Asia. Soon the Turkic tribes captured all the Eurasian steppes. The eastern border of the Kaganate abutted the Chinese Empire, the western border reached almost to the Crimea.
In the Turkic Kaganate, early feudal relations arose from the moment of its formation, in contrast to the Hunnic Empire, which was at the stage of military democracy - at the last stage of decomposition primitive society and transforming it into a class system. Over time, the Chinese Empire of the Sui Dynasty began to interfere in the internal affairs of the Turkic Kaganate. Internal contradictions also arose in Turkic society itself. As a result of all this, at the beginning of the 7th century, the Khaganate split into two parts: the Western Turkic Khaganate and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate.
The Western one occupied mainly Central Asian lands and consisted of ten Turkic tribes. He achieved power under the reign of Datou Kagan, the son of the Istemi Kagan already known to us. After the formation of the Khazar Khaganate on the Eastern European steppes, the Turkic Khaganate lost its possessions in the west as far as the Crimea, but it restored its borders in Altai. By the end of the 60s of the 7th century, the main borders of the Western Turkic Kaganate were occupied by Chinese troops. Although the Kaganate had freed itself from the protectorate of China by the beginning of the 8th century, the invasion of its lands by new tribes from the north led to the fall of the state in 740.
The Eastern Turkic Khaganate had to defend itself even more from China due to its territorial proximity. At first he was able to defend his independence, but soon again became dependent on this empire. By the end of the 7th century, the Turks launched a major anti-Chinese uprising, and the Kaganate regained its power. At the end of the 7th and beginning of the 8th century, the borders of the state expanded significantly, reaching up to eastern regions Western Kaganate. However, relations with China worsened again, this time with the Tang Dynasty. In fierce battles that took place in the 30s of the 8th century, the Kaganate again managed to defend its independence. Bilge Kagan (he ruled in 716-734) and especially his brother Prince Kul-Tegin, an outstanding Turkic military leader of the early Middle Ages, showed great military leadership talent in these wars.
The fall of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate occurred in 745 under the reign of the last Khagan Ozmysh-Tegin in a major battle with the Uyghur Khaganate. This battle of the Kaganate army, consisting of ancient Tatar and Oghuz troops, is written on the tombstone of the Uyghur Khan Moyun-Chur. According to this monument, 30 thousand Tatars fought on the battlefield. This is a large number for those distant times.
A few words about the economy and culture of the Turkic Kaganate. The basis of his economy was nomadic cattle breeding. There was also early agriculture. The ancient Turks were also skilled metallurgists; in addition to various types of tools and weapons, the remains of metallurgical forges were found. The production of processing livestock products, for example, hides, skins, and wool, has reached a fairly high level of development. The development of production and trade led to money circulation. Since the end of the 7th century, Turkic rulers minted their own coins; there were, for example, the cities of Taraz, Suyab, Otrar, where such coins were minted. Yes, even then our distant ancestors had cities, so the early Turkic culture cannot be imagined only as a nomadic one.
The highest achievement of Turkic culture, especially the culture of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, was the appearance of writing. The first ancient Turkic, so-called. Runic inscriptions on gravestones in the Orkhon River valley in Northern Mongolia were discovered in the last century. The inscriptions on the gravestones of the above-mentioned Bilge Kagan and Kul-Tegin, as well as the adviser to the first rulers, have become very widely known in world science Eastern Khaganate Tonyukuka. These inscriptions tell in detail and vividly about the life and exploits of the heads of state and commanders against the background of the general history of the Turkic Kaganate.
The production of ancient Turkic stone sculptures also reached great perfection. They depict warriors with weapons suspended from their belts and vessels in their hands. These statues depict warriors who died in battle. The early Turks also developed the art of rock paintings, which depict warriors on horses, various animals - leopards, mountain goats, camels, etc. Various types of folk decorative art were characterized by rather rich floral patterns.
In general, the Turkic Khaganate, as is generally believed in historical science, played an important role in the consolidation and unification of Turkic-speaking tribes. It must be especially said that the Kaganate, especially the Eastern Kaganate, whose main population included ancient Tatars, is undoubtedly the initial form of statehood of the Tatar people.
KHAZAR KAGANATE
The Khazar Khaganate is the first early feudal state in Eastern Europe, which left a significant mark on the history of the peoples of the Volga region, the North Caucasus, and all of Central Eurasia. We have read above about the brief history of the Khazars from the moment they appeared in the Eastern European steppes until the creation of a separate state. In addition to the Khazars, Bulgarians, Barsils, Belengers, Savirs, as well as Alans, or rather, that part, were also named there northern Alans, which turned out to be heavily Turkicized, constantly living among the mentioned Turkic-speaking tribes. And so, around the beginning of the 7th century, they all created a federation - the Khazar Union of Tribes, which soon turned, from the middle of the same century, into a real state - the Khazar Kaganate. By the 80s of the 7th century, the rule of the Kaganate spread not only to the North Caucasian steppes between the Caspian Sea and Azov, but also to the Black Sea region up to the Crimea.
In the 8th century, especially in the second half, Khazaria waged constant wars with Byzantium and the Arab Caliphate for Crimea and Transcaucasia. In 731, the Khazars defeated the Arab garrison and forced Albania to pay yasak, which began to pursue an independent policy (here by Albania we mean the so-called Caucasian Albania, the ancestor of modern Azerbaijan). In response to this, the Caliph sent a large army, the Arabs defeated the Khazars and began to occupy their lands in the south. With great difficulty, the Kagan managed to stop the Arabs. Six years later the Arabs attacked again. A serious threat loomed over the Khazar capital in the Caucasus, Semender, and, in general, over the independent existence of the Kaganate. The Khazar Kagan was forced to convert to Islam, which the Arabs demanded of him.
As a result of these wars, many tribes of Khazaria went north to the lower reaches of the Volga and to the banks of the Don. The capital of the state was moved at the beginning of the 8th century to the city of Itil, located at the mouth of the Volga, closer to the Caspian Sea. The Khazars, having switched to sedentary life, began to engage in agriculture and commercial fishing. A rich and distinctive culture was born. Its basis was the so-called. Saltovo-Mayatskaya archaeological culture. Although they call her state culture Khazar Khaganate, however, in its creation and development big role Bulgarians and Alans played. We will talk about this culture in a little more detail in the next paragraph. Now let's look at the further course of political events.
By the end of the 8th century, the Khazar Khagan abandoned Islam. Wars with the Arabs for lands in Transcaucasia resumed. Byzantium helped the Khaganate in this war; it did this mainly with the aim of spreading Christianity among the Khazars. However, the Kagan and his associates, in order to ensure the independence of the state, were looking for a different form of religion. This became Judaism, borrowed from the Jews who moved to Khazaria at the beginning of the 7th century from the same Byzantium. At the same time, only the Khazar aristocracy accepted Judaism, the bulk of the population remained Muslims and pagans; There were also many Christians. The religious diversity in the Kaganate and the religious tolerance of the Khazars were well known and found significant coverage in the Arab-Persian historical geography of the 9th-10th centuries. There is even a somewhat anecdotal message that has survived: Savirs (Khazars) go to the mosque on Friday, to the synagogue on Saturday, and to church on Sunday. This, of course, does not mean that one and the same person is simultaneously a Muslim, a Jew, and a Christian. This means that among the Khazars there are both, and others - in a word, in Khazar society any religion was allowed. Democracy also existed in government affairs: justice was administered by seven judges - two each from Judaism, Islam, Christianity and one pagan. If there were more Muslims in Itil, then in Semender there were more Christians.
We already know that the Khazars, unlike the population of many previous states, were able to create a truly class, early feudal society. Khazaria was large state association throughout Eastern Europe, she was considered by many medieval states and peoples. Moreover, a number of them were subordinate to the Kaganate. Kievan Rus, for example, at first paid him tribute, even the first Russian (Slavic) princes were called Kahans (Khakans). An interesting list of countries and peoples is given by the Khazar Kagan Joseph in his letter to Hasdai ibn Shafrut, the vizier of Cordoba, that is, the Arab-Spanish caliph. At first, Hasdai himself addressed Joseph with a message in which he said that he had heard from Persian merchants about a hitherto unknown “kingdom of the Jews” not far from Byzantium. This Hasdai, although he had a Muslim name, was a Jew and, naturally, became interested in his co-religionists in the northern country, so he asked the Khazar Kagan to tell him more about his country, what peoples inhabit it, etc. In his reply letter, Joseph kindly and spoke in great detail, not even without boasting, about the power of Khazaria, about its cities, about the history of this country, about its population, about the peoples and tribes subject to him, Joseph. Here is an excerpt from this letter:
“I inform you that I live by a river named Itil, at the end of the G-r-gana river. The beginning of [this] river faces east for a 4-month journey. Near [this] river there are numerous nations in villages and towns, some in open areas, and others in walled cities. Here are their names: Bur-t-s, Bul-g-r, S-var, Arisu, Ts-r-mis, V-n-n-tit, S-v-r, S-l-viyun. Every nation is not amenable to [exact] investigation and there is no number of them. They all serve me and pay tribute.”
The names of localities and tribes from this letter require, of course, clarification. Itil is the Volga, you know about it. G-r-gana is Gurgan, in Arabic Jurjan, an area adjacent to the southeastern coast of the Caspian Sea, which was therefore called the Gurgan, Jurjan (or Khazar) Sea. The expression “at the end of the G-r-gana river” in the short version of the letter reads “near the river adjacent to the G-r-gana sea.” You ask, Dear Guys, why it is written there that the beginning of the Volga faces the east, while it flows from the northwest. The fact is that in eastern geography, the upper course of this river was considered not the modern Volga above the mouth of the Kama, but this Kama and then its left tributary Belaya, flowing precisely from the east, because these rivers also had the name Itil (in the modern sound “Idel” ) with the adjectives “Kara” (“Black”) and “Ak” (“White”).
Now about the tribes. Bur-t-s are, undoubtedly, Burtases; Bul-g-r - Bulgars; S-var - suvars. Here we are talking about the Bulgars and Suvars as the population of Volga Bulgaria in the Middle Volga region (more on this in the next section). Some researchers consider the Arisu tribe to be the Mordovian Erzya tribe, while others consider it to be “Arami,” i.e., Udmurts. Further: Ts-r-mis - Cheremis, i.e. Mari; the question of the V-n-n-tit people has still not been resolved - some historians consider them Votyaks, i.e. the same Udmurts, others see them as Ugric tribes of the north, and still others call them Vyatichi, i.e. one of Slavic tribes; S-v-is also considered Slavic northerners. There have been many disputes in science regarding the last name - S-l-viyun; this issue has not yet been finally resolved, but many believe that these are Slavs, that is, Eastern Slavs, Slavic-Russian tribes in general.
Of course, by calling all these peoples his subjects, Joseph boasted a little to foreigners. He wrote about the former greatness of the Kaganate, for by his time many of these tribes and peoples had already emerged from the subordination of Khazaria. Nevertheless, this information is very important for presenting the Khazar federation during the period of glory and power of this state in the 8th-9th centuries.
The Khazar Kaganate conducted international trade with many countries and peoples, exported large and small livestock, furs abroad, transported slaves, and was famous for the sale of the so-called. beluga glue - it was obtained from the swim bladder of sturgeon fish and was used to clarify good grape wines. They brought honey and wax, expensive furs from the Russian and Volga Bulgars, and textile goods from the East. The Khazars cultivated wheat and rice, grew watermelons and grapes.
Urban culture developed greatly in the Kaganate. Itil is one of the largest cities in Eastern Europe, the capital of Khazaria in the 8th-10th centuries. The city consisted of two parts. In the western one lived the Kagan, the Bek and their entourage, the administration and the garrison were located. The Kagan lived in a stone palace. Most of the houses are either adobe or yurts. The eastern part was called Khazaran (or Khazar) - a city of artisans, traders and other urban people, a city of Muslims. There was a cathedral mosque, 30 parish mosques, and many madrasahs - primary and secondary schools. Christians, Jews and pagans also lived here.
The head of state was the Kagan, his name was also Khazar Khakan. However, his power was only nominal; all affairs were ruled by his deputy, the bek (or khakanbek). In some sources he is also called malik, i.e. king. Despite this, he went to the Kagan, taking off his shoes.
Although the Kagan lacked true power, his cult was great. Here he sits on a large throne, in a high place, and the bek’s place is lower, on his right side. The Kagan appears to the people only three times a year. When he appears, everyone must fall face down to the ground, while it is forbidden to look at him - he is like the sun! When the Kagan arrives at the site of a battle between the Khazars and their enemies, his warriors must lie down on the ground, and the enemy must stop the war. The Kagan is buried very solemnly and at the same time mysteriously: a large palace is built over his grave, the grave is carefully hidden in it, and those who do this are then killed.
The Khazar Khaganate ceased to exist in the 60s of the 10th century. The decisive blow was made in 965 by the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav. The Khazar lands became part of other states and tribal unions. In the Lower Volga region, the influence of the Volga Bulgaria increased, and the lands in the Azov region, the Don region and the North Caucasus submitted to the newly formed Pecheneg association. The collapse of the Khazar Khaganate, in addition to Svyatoslav, was also facilitated by internal contradictions and the increasing frequency of raids by other nomadic tribes from the north.
GREAT BULGARIA
The Azov Bulgarians and other related tribes were subjugated by the Turkic Khaganate in the 80s of the 6th century. However, in the fight against these eastern Turks, the Bulgarians, united together, managed to create a large and strong union of tribes, known in history as Great Bulgaria. The first to unite the Bulgarians was Prince Organa from the Dulo clan (by the way, the formidable Attila, the leader of the Huns, once belonged to the same clan). The head of the state of Great Bulgaria, its khan, became in 632 Kubrat, Organa’s nephew. In some sources, for example, in the chronicle of the Byzantine historian John of Nikuis, Kubrat is called baptized and raised in Byzantium at the court of Emperor Heraclius.
However, some researchers cast doubt on this message and say that it was not Kubrat, but his uncle Organa, who was baptized and lived in Constantinople. Kubrat, obviously, remained in paganism, like all the Turks of that time, he believed in “Tengri” (“Tengrianism” is the initial form of monotheism), because it was not without reason that he received the Turkic title “khan” and his name was Turkic. Being a skillful politician and talented commander, Kubrat managed to create a centralized state, which was not without reason called “Great” in the sources of that time.
Great Bulgaria occupied territory in the Azov region, the lower reaches of the Don and on the Taman Peninsula. The capital was Fanagouris (Phanagoria), a former Greek port city on Taman. One of big cities There was also Tamatarkha - later, already in the Russian period, it became known under the name Tmutarakan.
The population of the state led a semi-nomadic lifestyle. Summer nomadic camps were located along the banks of the Don; some of them reached quite large sizes up to one or one and a half kilometers long along the river. But people lived mainly in settlements, both open and fortified with earthen ramparts. Among the fortified settlements there were real fortresses with stone walls sometimes up to 7 m thick. People lived both in yurts and in real houses, and yurts were characteristic not only of nomads, but also of other settlements, even cities - this was the case throughout the semi-nomadic medieval world.
These settlements and dwellings with all other remains of material culture constitute the Saltovo-Mayatsk archaeological culture. This culture was given two names famous monument: Saltovsky burial ground in Kharkov region Ukraine and the Mayatskoe ancient settlement in Voronezh region. Although the Saltovo-Mayatskaya (or simply Saltovka) culture is the state culture of the Khazar Khaganate, it is believed that it was created mainly by the early Bulgarians and Alans, so it is equally considered the culture of Great Bulgaria. This culture, in addition to settlements and dwellings, is also represented by a considerable number of burial grounds and a wide variety of tools and weapons, household items, bronze, silver and gold jewelry, clay and glass vessels, children's toys, etc. All of them indicate a fairly rich agricultural and steppe culture, a developed economy, a high level of weapons and military affairs. The ancient Bulgarians also had runic writing, which penetrated there through Khazaria from the Turkic Khaganate. Although rare, coins are also found - these are mainly Arab dirhems and partly Byzantine coins of the 8th-early 10th centuries. The Saltovo-Mayak culture dates back to the 8th-9th centuries.
The culture we briefly described is the largest archaeological culture of Turkic early medieval Eurasia. Later it became one of the foundations of the culture of the Volga Bulgars. This will already be discussed in the next section, and now let’s return to further political events in Great Bulgaria.
Kubrat died in the 50s and early 60s of the 7th century (some note an earlier and more precise date - 642). His death was the actual end of the existence of the association he created. In general, such fleeting states, even with loud names, were supported only by the power of a powerful monarch and, as a rule, disintegrated after his death. This is what happened with Great Bulgaria.
The chronicle of the Byzantine monk Theophan the Confessor, compiled in 810-815, cites an ancient Bulgarian legend, according to which Kubrat left behind five sons. He bequeathed to them never to be separated from each other and to live together so that they would rule over everyone and would not fall into slavery to others. This legend was widespread later in orally in the West. The following episode is given there: the dying khan called his sons, ordered them to bring a bunch of flexible rods and ordered everyone to try to break it. None of them could do this. Then Kubrat took one of the rods from the bundle and easily broke it. Here, he said, a young, strong warrior could not overcome the bundle, while a single rod was easily broken by a weak, dying old man. And in life it’s like this: the Bulgarians gathered together will be invincible, and each horde that stands out will be easily defeated and conquered by their enemies...
The legend names the names of Kubrat's three sons: the eldest was called Batbay, the second was Kotrag, the third was Asparukh (the names of the last two are not indicated). However major researchers history of the Khazars and Proto-Bulgarians M.I. Artamonov and S.A. Pletneva argue that, according to historical sources, Kubrat had only two sons: Batbay and Asparukh. They associate the name Kotrag with one of the Bulgarian tribes - the Kotrags. In general, information about the five sons reflects the inclusion of five ethnic groups, i.e., large tribes, into Great Bulgaria.
By this time, the territory of Great Bulgaria was significantly reduced by the Khazars attacking from the east. Kubrat's sons remained masters only southern regions along the Caucasian foothills: Batbai received lands along the Kuban, Asparukh - the upper reaches of this river and the hills of modern Stavropol.
The Khazars increasingly pressed the Bulgarians. Asparukh with the Onagur tribe went west: first he reached the mouth of the Danube River, here he was joined by other Bulgarian tribes that had arrived there earlier - the Kutrigurs, as well as the Slavs, who appeared in those parts relatively recently. The strong paramilitary organization of the Bulgarians included the Slavs, and they, together forming a strong alliance, soon defeated the 50,000-strong Byzantine army - the largest regular army of that time. This happened in 679, and two years later, in 681, a new Bulgarian state was created in the west - Danube Bulgaria with its capital in the city of Pliska.
The dominant position in the country for almost 200 years was occupied by the dynasty of Bulgarian khans: first - Asparukh (until 816), then - Omutarkha. However, the Slavicization of the Bulgarians gradually intensified; already under the Slavic Tsar Boris (852-889) Christianity was adopted in 865, and in 894 the Slavic written language, created there by the brothers Cyril and Methodius, was adopted. Slavic language became the official language of church and state. The ethnic distinction between the Turkic-speaking Bulgarians and the South Slavs gradually disappeared. In essence, the Bulgarians were absorbed by the more numerous Slavs, but left behind them their ethnonym, that is, their self-name.
Kubrat's eldest son Batbay remained on his lands in the North Caucasus and submitted to the Khazars. Gradually, his Bulgarians, i.e. Kuban, began to be called “black”. Modern Karachais (Karachals) and Balkars are associated with them - pay attention to the proximity of the words “Bulgar” and “Balkar”. And the word “kara” generally formed part of the ethnonyms of a number of Turkic-speaking peoples, thereby emphasizing that they were dark and dark-skinned. In addition to the Karachaly, there were, for example, the Kara-Nogai, the Kara-Khazars already known to us, the Kara-Kitai (the Kara-Kitai are not Chinese, but Turkic tribes that lived in the 6th-8th centuries in Northeast China). It should also be noted that the name of Batbai is associated with the scientifically known Pereshchepkinsky treasure of gold and silver dishes, precious weapons, jewelry, including the gold rings of his father Kubrat and his cousin Organa. The treasure was found near the village. Malaya Pereshchepina, Poltava region.
Previously they wrote that the third group of Bulgarians, led by the legendary Kotrag, after the death of Kubrat, headed to. Middle Volga. The fact that there was no such khanzade (prince), but a tribe of Kotrags existed, has already been scientifically proven, and we said this above. In addition, archaeological research has shown that the Bulgarians did not appear in our area immediately after the described events of the mid-7th century. All the Bulgarians who remained in the Azov region and adjacent areas entered the Khazar Union of Tribes and created, together with them and especially the Alans, the above-mentioned Saltov archaeological culture and existed there almost until the end of the 8th century.
The Bulgarians appeared in the Middle Volga region, on the territory of our Tatarstan and adjacent lands to the south and southwest, precisely somewhere at the end of the 8th - beginning of the 9th centuries.
DOCUMENTS AND MATERIALS
From the inscription on the monument to the commander of the Eastern Turkic Kaganate Kul-Tegin (died in 731) about the peoples who arrived at the funeral of the rulers of the Turkic Kaganate Bumyn Kagan and Iste-mi Kagan (mid-6th century):
About the Otuz-Tatars
“...they died. [As] those crying and moaning (i.e., to express condolences) [came] from the front, from [the country of] the sunrise, the people of the Beklian steppe, [as well as] the Tabgach (Chinese), Tibetans, Avars and Rome (Byzantines), Kirghiz, Uch-Kurykans (?), Otuz-Tatars, Kytai (Kara-Kitai), Ta-Tabyans (?), how many peoples came, moaned and cried: they were such famous kagans.”
From the “History” of the outstanding Byzantine historian of the 6th century Procopius of Caesarea about the Khazars-Savirs:
About Savirs
“This tribe is very numerous, divided, as expected, into many independent tribes. From ancient times their leaders were friends with some - with the Roman emperor, others - with Persian king. Of these rulers, each usually sent a certain amount of gold to his allies, but not every year, but as needed.”
From the book “Risala” (“Note”) by the Arab traveler of the early 10th century Ahmed ibn Fadlan:
ABOUT Khazar Khaganate and about the city of Itil
“As for the king of the Khazars, whose title is Khakan, then, really, he does not appear except [once] every four months, [appearing] at an [honorable] distance. He is called the “great Khakan,” and his deputy is called Khakan-bek... The Khazar king [has] a huge city on the Atyl River. It consists of two sides, in one of these sides Muslims [live], and on the other side - the king and his entourage... Muslims in this city [have] a cathedral mosque in which they pray and are present in it Friday days. It [has] a tall minaret...”