Literature of Kievan Rus (XI - first third of the XIII century)

The “book teaching” started by Vladimir the Saint quickly achieved significant success. Numerous finds of birch bark letters and epigraphic monuments in Novgorod and other ancient Russian cities show a high level of literacy already in the 11th century. The oldest surviving book of Rus' is the Novgorod Codex (no later than the 1st quarter of the 11th century) - a triptych of three waxed tablets, found in 2000 during the work of the Novgorod archaeological expedition. In addition to the main text - two psalms, the codex contains "hidden" texts, scratched into wood or preserved as faint imprints on tablets under wax. Among the “hidden” texts read by A. A. Zaliznyak, especially interesting is a previously unknown composition of four separate articles about the gradual movement of people from the darkness of paganism through the limited benefit of the Law of Moses to the light of the teachings of Christ (tetralogy “From Paganism to Christ”).

According to the Tale of Bygone Years, Vladimir's son, Grand Duke of Kiev Yaroslav the Wise, organized translation and book-writing work in Kyiv. In the XI-XII centuries. in Ancient Rus' there were various schools and centers engaged in translations mainly from Greek. From this time, the following have been preserved: “The Miracles of Nicholas of Myra” (1090s) - the most revered saint in Rus', “The Life of Basil the New” (11th century), depicting vivid pictures of hellish torment, paradise and the Last Judgment, just like those Western European legends (like the “Vision of Tnugdal”, mid-12th century), which fed Dante’s “Divine Comedy”, the Northern Russian translation of “The Life of Andrei the Fool” (11th century or no later than the beginning of the 12th century), under the influence of which it was established in Rus' the feast of the Intercession of the Virgin in the 1160s, an outstanding work of world medieval literature “The Tale of Varlaam and Joasaph” (no later than the mid-12th century), possibly in Kyiv. Obviously, in the south-west of Rus', in the Principality of Galicia, a monument of ancient historiography was translated - “The History of the Jewish War” by Josephus (no later than the 12th century).

On East Slavic translations of the 11th-12th centuries. usually include the Byzantine heroic epic “The Deed of Devgenia” and the ancient Assyrian legend “The Tale of Akira the Wise” (from a Syrian or Armenian original). No later than the XII-XIII centuries. was translated from Greek “The Bee” - a popular collection of aphorisms from ancient, biblical and Christian authors, containing ethical instructions and expanding the historical and cultural horizons of the reader.

Translation work was apparently carried out at the metropolitan see, founded in 1037 in Kyiv. Translations of dogmatic, church teaching, epistolary and anti-Latin works by Metropolitans of Kyiv John II (1077-1089) and Nicephorus (1104-1121), Greeks by origin, who wrote in their native language, have been preserved. Nikifor's message to Vladimir Monomakh “about fasting and abstinence of feelings” is marked by high literary merits and professional translation techniques. In the first half of the 12th century. A notable scribe was Theodosius the Greek, who translated for the prince-monk Nicholas (Svyatosha) the message of Pope Leo I the Great about the Council of Chalcedon.

Under Yaroslav the Wise, the “Russian Truth” (Brief edition of the 1st half of the 11th century) began to take shape - the main written code of laws of Kievan Rus, the oldest chronicle code was compiled at the metropolitan department (1037 - early 1040s), appeared one of the most profound works of the Slavic Middle Ages is Hilarion’s “Sermon on Law and Grace” (between 1037-1050). Using the letter of the Apostle Paul to the Galatians (4: 21-31), Hilarion proves with dogmatic impeccability the spiritual superiority of the New Testament (Grace) over the Old Testament (Law). In a rhetorically sophisticated form, he writes about the global significance of the baptism of Rus', glorifies the Russian land, a full-fledged power in the family of Christian states, and its princes - Vladimir and Yaroslav. The work of Hilarion, who in 1051, with the support of Yaroslav the Wise, became the first Metropolitan of Kyiv from the Eastern Slavs, fully corresponds to the level of medieval Greek and Latin church eloquence. Even in ancient times, it became known outside of Rus' and influenced the work of the Serbian hagiographer Domentian (13th century).

The rhetorically decorated work of Jacob “Memory and Praise to the Russian Prince Vladimir” (11th century) is also dedicated to the solemn glorification of the Baptist of Rus'. Jacob had access to the chronicle that preceded the Primary Code and used its unique information.

The most important literary center was the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, which educated a bright galaxy of ancient Russian writers, preachers and educators. Quite early, in the second half of the 11th century, the monastery established book connections with Constantinople and, apparently, with the Sazavsky monastery - the last center of Slavic Glagolitic writing in the Czech Republic in the 11th century.

The life of one of the founders of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, Anthony (d. 1072-1073), is one of the earliest monuments of ancient Russian hagiography. Although it has not reached us, it was used in the Primary Chronicle. Anthony's student Theodosius of Pechersk (d. 1074), “the father of Old Russian monasticism,” was the author of church teaching and anti-Latin works, and the initiator of work on the translation of church and liturgical literature in the 1060s. in connection with the introduction in the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery (and after it throughout Rus') of the Constantinople Studite Charter: the charter itself, the catechumen teachings of Theodore the Studite, his life, etc.

Chronicles were kept in the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, the code of Nikon the Great (c. 1073) and the Initial Code (c. 1095) were compiled. Both of them were included in the “Tale of Bygone Years” (1110s) - a most valuable monument of ancient Russian culture and historical thought. The creator of its first edition (1110-1112 or 1113) is considered to be the Kiev-Pechersk monk Nestor. “The Tale of Bygone Years” is a complex collection of composition and sources. It includes warrior-epic legends (about the death of Prince Oleg the Prophet from the bite of a snake that crawled out of the skull of his beloved horse, under 912, about Princess Olga’s revenge on the Drevlyans under 945-946), folk tales (about an old man who saved Belgorod from the Pechenegs, around 997), toponymic legends (about the Kozhemyak youth who defeated the Pecheneg hero, around 992), stories of contemporaries (voivode Vyshata and his son, voivode Yan), treaties with Byzantium in 911, 944 and 971. , church teachings (a speech by a Greek philosopher under 986), hagiographic texts (about princes Boris and Gleb under 1015), military stories, etc. In its structure, presentation of material and events by year, “The Tale of Bygone Years” similar to the Latin annals and different from the Byzantine chronicles, which did not know weather records. “The Tale of Bygone Years” became a role model in the chronicle genre for centuries and was preserved in the later collections of the 14th-16th centuries.

The chronicle includes “The Tale of the Blinding of Prince Vasilko Terebovlsky” (1110s), which arose as an independent work, written with great literary skill by an eyewitness to the dramatic events Vasily. The genre is a historical story about princely crimes during the internecine wars of 1097-1100.

The Tale of Bygone Years includes the “Instruction” of Prince Vladimir Monomakh (d. 1125), created in several stages and consisting of an instruction for children, an autobiography - a chronicle of the life and military campaigns of Monomakh and a letter to his rival, Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich of Chernigov. The ideal of the “Instruction” is a wise and fair sovereign, sacredly faithful to treaties, a brave warrior prince and a pious Christian. Monomakh’s combination of teaching and autobiographical elements finds a striking parallel in the apocryphal “Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs,” known in medieval Byzantine, Latin and Slavic literature. The “Testament of Judas on Courage,” which is part of the apocrypha, had a direct influence on Monomakh.

Typologically, his work is close to medieval Western European teachings to children - heirs to the throne. It is included in the circle of such works as the “Testament”, attributed to the Byzantine emperor Basil I the Macedonian, monuments of Anglo-Saxon literature: “Instructions” of King Alfred the Great and “Paternal Instructions” (8th century) used for raising royal children, etc. Some of them Monomakh could know in an oral retelling. His mother came from the family of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh, and his wife was the daughter of the Anglo-Saxon king Harald Gita.

A prominent writer of the late 11th - early 12th centuries. there was a Kiev-Pechersk monk Nestor. His “Reading about the Life of Boris and Gleb”, together with other monuments of hagiography of the 11th-12th centuries. (the anonymous “The Tale of Boris and Gleb”, “The Tale of the Miracles of Roman and David”) form a widespread cycle about the bloody internecine war of the sons of Prince Vladimir the Saint for the Kiev throne. Boris and Gleb (baptized Roman and David), killed in 1015 on the orders of their elder brother the usurper Svyatopolk, are depicted as martyrs not so much of a religious as of a political idea. By their death they affirm the triumph of brotherly love and the need for the subordination of the younger princes to the eldest in the family in order to preserve the unity of the Russian land. The passion-bearing princes Boris and Gleb, the first canonized saints in Rus', became its heavenly patrons and protectors. “After the “Reading,” Nestor created the “Life of Theodosius of Pechersk,” which became a model in the genre of monastic life and was later included in the “Kievo-Pechersk Patericon.”

This last major work of pre-Mongol Rus' is a collection of short stories about the history of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, its monks, their ascetic life and spiritual exploits. The formation of the monument began in the 20-30s. XIII century It was based on the correspondence and writings of two Kiev-Pechersk monks Simon, who by that time had become the bishop of Vladimir-Suzdal, and Polycarp. The source of their stories about the events of the 11th - first half of the 12th century. Monastic and family traditions, folk tales, the Kiev-Pechersk chronicle, and the lives of Anthony and Theodosius of the Pechersk appeared. At the intersection of oral and written traditions (folklore, hagiography, chronicles, oratorical prose) the genre of patericon was formed in Ancient Rus'. The Old Slavic translated patericon served as a model for its creators. In terms of artistic merit, the “Kievo-Pechersk Patericon” is not inferior to the Skitsky, Sinai, Egyptian and Roman patericons translated from Greek, which were included in the golden fund of medieval Western European literature. Despite the constant success among readers, the “Kievo-Pechersk Patericon” did not create a special literary movement even 300 years before the appearance of the “Volokolamsk Patericon” in the 30s-40s. XVI century (see § 6.4), remained the only original monument of this genre in ancient Russian literature.

Apparently, on Mount Athos (or in Constantinople), pan-Orthodox cultural centers, through the joint works of Old Russian and South Slavic scribes, the Prologue was translated from Greek and supplemented with new articles. This hagiographic and church teaching collection, dating back to the Byzantine Synaxarion (the generic name is “collection”), contains brief editions of hagiographic texts arranged in the order of the church monthly (from September 1). The translation was carried out no later than the 12th century, so as the oldest surviving list (Sofia Prologue) dates back to the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th century. In Ancient Rus', the Prologue was repeatedly edited, supplemented with Russian and Slavic articles and generally belonged to the most popular reading circle, as evidenced by the large number of lists and editions of the monument that began in the 17th century. .

In the north of Rus', Novgorod was the literary and book center. Already in the middle of the 11th century. there, at the St. Sophia Cathedral, chronicles were written. At the end of the 1160s. priest German Voyata, having revised the previous chronicle, compiled an archbishop's codex. The Novgorod rulers not only supervised the chronicle work, but also were engaged in creative work. A monument to simple and unadorned church teaching eloquence is the short “Instruction to the Brethren” (30-50s of the 11th century) by Bishop Luke Zhidyata on the foundations of the Christian faith. (Luke’s nickname is an abbreviation of the Old Russian name Zhidoslav or George: Gyurgiy-Gyurata-Zhidyata.) Archbishop Anthony (in the world Dobrynya Yadrejkovich) in the “Book of the Pilgrim” described a journey to Constantinople before its capture by the crusaders in 1204. This event is dedicated to the testimony of an unknown eyewitness, included in the First Novgorod Chronicle, “The Tale of the Capture of Constantinople by the Friags.” Written with outward impartiality and objectivity, the story significantly complements the picture of the defeat of Constantinople by the crusaders of the Fourth Campaign, drawn by Latin and Byzantine historians and memoirists. By this time, the theme of the crusades and the genre of “walkings” had a hundred-year history in ancient Russian literature.

At the beginning of the 12th century. The abbot of one of the Chernigov monasteries, Daniel, visited the Holy Land, where he was warmly received by the King of Jerusalem Baldwin (Baudouin) I (1100-1118), one of the leaders of the First Crusade. In “The Walk,” Daniel portrayed himself as a messenger of the entire Russian land as a kind of political whole. His work is an example of pilgrimage notes, a valuable source of historical information about Palestine and Jerusalem. In form and content, it is reminiscent of numerous travel books of Western European pilgrims.

Daniel described in detail the route, the sights and shrines he saw, along the way retelling the church-canonical traditions and apocrypha associated with them.

Russian literature dates back to the 11th century.

Specific filling. There is no fiction in ancient Russian literature. (traditional), anonymous (leaving a name was not nice), bilingual (ancient Russian and Church Slavonic), symbolic (laughter is bad, from the devil, for example). Old Russian literature is religious. The main thing is a person’s worthy face before God. Literature – estate (2 estates: monks and warriors)

Among the ancients there is no division into philologists and historians.

In the texts of the corpus of ancient Russian literature one can see a moral guideline. The figure of the writer and the reader. A certain system of genres is formed here, which goes into the 18th, 19th, 20th centuries. It is difficult to break away from the system of ancient Russian genres.

We do not distinguish genres, but they distinguish us. All attempts to destroy the genre ended with the person leaving for the established genre.

Literature grows from rituals, it is our unconscious. Rituals are symbolic actions.

Neanderthals buried a person in the fetal position and laid down weapons. How did we know that if we walked around the phallic symbol, we would be lucky? We are not subject to ourselves, Freud's discovery later.

First, a system of genres is laid down - Byzantine first.

DRL periods

11th-13th Century

17 – Transition period

The Word on Law and Grace - 11th century. The first surviving work. Metropolitan Hilarion. Law is Judaism, grace is Christianity. Judaism is a law, an enslaving religion, do this and do that, it is not clear why. Thanks to Christ, grace became possible. Brings meaning to this religion. What was law became grace.

13th century Mongol-Tatar invasion, Kievan Rus: a complex state unit, the residence of the senior prince and metropolitan (viceroy, local church, accountable to the patriarch) 1589, the first patriarch in Rus' was elected, previously subordinate to Byzantium (ancient Greece). The residences were in Kyiv, but the power of Kyiv and the senior prince was weakening, he was distributing lands, he could not control - there were no means of communication, the state began to disintegrate, the territory was large. The role of appanage principalities is increasing. Nominally there is a prince and the principality of Kiev. But no one takes this into account. Therefore, it was possible to capture Rus' by the Mongol-Tarars. And in the 14th century, the same thing happened in the horde: great visibility.

The cultural heritage of Byzantium was felt not only in the church and the rest, but also in the genres: the following were borrowed:

Sermon (or word)

Lives (hagiography, hagios saint, grapho - I write) - everyday life about the deceased, canonized, canonized.

Walking

Chronicles are the trademark of DRL. The most interesting information. They described the history of the state, preserve the information and pass it on to descendants. The works were transmitted in lists (collections).

Writing material is very expensive, it saves space - they wrote together, and if there was space, they added another work, so they went on lists.

The teachings of Monomakh, the Prayer (word) of Daniel the Imprisoner - do not belong to any of the genres, two separate works.

He sits on a sleigh with one foot in the grave, preparing for death. Before leaving for another world, he leaves parting words for the children about what a prince should be.

Prayer is an even more unusual, humorous work. It's not customary to laugh, it's strange. It’s even more strange to write humor. He was like a soldier in prison - a prisoner, in captivity.

The story of evil wives is especially famous - from prayer.

“The Tale of Boris and Gleb” - martyrs are often found in the DRL, Boris and Gleb are passion-bearers, they were killed by adherents of their own faith. A Muslim kills a Christian - a martyr, from his faith - a passion-bearer. They were killed by brother Svyatopolk the Accursed, Boris and Gleb were born from a sanctified marriage and a Christian, Svyatopolk’s mother was a ragneda, the beautiful one was stolen from the monastery by Yaropolk, Vladimir liked the ragneda, Vladimir 1 was still a pagan, but our prince was struck by lust, raped, a vicious one is born Svyatopolk, Damned because he committed the same sin that Cain committed, kills the brothers. The greedy Svyatopolk wants power. Boris refuses to fight with his brother, asking only for the last prayer, complete imitation of Christ. You finish what you came for. Gleb is younger, begins to cry and beg, but then understands and accepts death about the soldiers sent by his brother. The cook kills him like a lamb (also a symbol of Jesus).

Passover (Easter) exodus of Jews from Egypt. On Passover, an animal is chosen. On whom all sins are laid, a lamb is laid. Jesus is like a lamb. The cook's name is Torchin 9Turk, another). Fear of the stranger and the other in each of us, religion unites people of the same faith, religion as a marker (race, nationality). Only a developed person can move away from the fact that there are friends and strangers. Therefore, it is he who kills Gleb. Yarosla, who became known as the Wise, stands up for the brothers. Svyatopolk runs, a terrible stench can be heard from his grave. The remains of B and D are incorrupt. B and D are not politicians, not princes, they did not go against their brother, the main thing is that they imitate Christ. They become saints and heroes of the work.

Introduction

The Russian people made a valuable contribution to world culture, creating hundreds of years ago works of literature, painting and architecture that have endured for centuries.

Acquaintance with the culture of Kievan Rus and the Russian principalities of the era of feudal fragmentation convinces us of the fallacy of the once-existing opinion about the original backwardness of Rus'.

Russian medieval culture X-XIII centuries. earned high praise from both contemporaries and descendants. Eastern geographers pointed out the routes to Russian cities and admired the art of Russian gunsmiths who prepared special steel (Biruni).

Western chroniclers called Kyiv the adornment of the East and the rival of Constantinople (Adam of Bremen). The learned presbyter Theophilus of Paderborn in his technical encyclopedia of the 11th century. admired the products of Russian goldsmiths - the finest enamels on gold and niello on silver. In the list of countries whose masters glorified their lands with one form of art or another, Theophilus put Rus' in a place of honor - only Greece was ahead of it.

The sophisticated Byzantine John Tsetzes was so fascinated by Russian bone carving that he sang in poetry about the pyxis (carved box) sent to him, comparing the Russian master with the legendary Daedalus.

The center of feudal culture was the city, which was, as it were, a collective fortified castle of the feudal lords of the entire principality. Here were the courtyard of the prince, the castle-yards of his relatives, the courtyards of the boyars; Some of the warriors who made up the standing army were stationed here. The courtyards were full of servants.

The main population of the city were artisans of various specialties: in large Russian cities of the X-XII centuries. over 60 different professions could be counted. Numerous archaeological excavations have led in recent years to a number of important discoveries that shed new light on urban culture.

Literacy, writing

Much new information has been added to the understanding of the level of Russian urban culture by findings indicating the widespread spread of literacy among the masses. There are inscriptions on spindle whorls, on clay vessels and wooden barrels, even on shoe lasts. The authors of the inscriptions are especially interesting: a Kiev potter who wrote on a still damp amphora “this pot is full of grace,” a Novgorod shoemaker who marked the block with the name of his customer, and townspeople girls who inscribed whorls, apparently so as not to confuse them at gatherings. In Smolensk, a pot with the inscription “Gorukhsha” was found in a mound of the first half of the 10th century, simultaneous with the first treaties with the Greeks.

An inexhaustible treasury of lively, sometimes humorous and playful inscriptions are the walls of ancient Russian churches, covered with writing on all sides by parishioners who, obviously, were not embarrassed by the liturgical purpose of the building. Next to the usual magical formula “Lord help...” we will find here the notes of travelers - “strange sinner Jan the Warrior” (Novgorod St. Sophia Cathedral, written in half Glagolitic), ridicule of the singers - “ho-ho-ho holy Kryloshan, Mother of God!” , over the neighbors - “Kuzma-porosa” (Kiev St. Sophia Cathedral), curses sent by someone to Procopius and Ulyana, or an epigram to a neighbor who fell asleep during the service - “Yakima stood asleep, art and did not grow on a stone.”

The discovery of birch bark documents from the 11th to 15th centuries in Novgorod in 1951 by Professor A.V. Artsikhovsky was extremely important. A whole new world opened up to researchers when studying these letters. Trade transactions, private letters, hasty notes sent by courier, reports on the completion of household work, reports on the campaign, invitations to funerals, riddles, poems and much, much more reveal to us these wonderful documents, again confirming the widespread development of literacy among Russian townspeople.

Soon after the baptism of Rus', which played a certain positive role in the rapprochement with Byzantine culture, a lot of work began on translation and rewriting of books in Kyiv and other cities. In a short time, the Russian church received liturgical books, and the princely-boyar milieu received a translation of the chronicle of George Amartol (made in the first half of the 11th century), “collections” of historical and philosophical works, as well as the Byzantine chivalric novel and other genres of the then world literature, calculated to an aristocratic environment. Russian scribes knew literature in Old Church Slavonic, Greek, Hebrew, and Latin. About the son of Yaroslav the Wise - Vsevolod - the chronicler says with respect that he “sitting at home, he was speechless.”

Native language

A significant difference between Russian culture and the culture of most countries of the East and West is the use of the native language. The Arabic language for many non-Arab countries and the Latin language for a number of Western European countries were alien languages, a monopoly that led to the fact that the popular language of the states of that era is almost unknown to us. The Russian literary language was used everywhere - in office work, diplomatic correspondence, private letters, in fiction and scientific literature. The unity of the national and state languages ​​was a great cultural advantage of Rus' over the Slavic and Germanic countries, in which the Latin state language dominated. Such widespread literacy was impossible there, since to be literate meant knowing Latin. For Russian townspeople, it was enough to know the alphabet in order to immediately express their thoughts in writing; This explains the widespread use in Rus' of writing on birch bark and on “boards” (obviously waxed).

Literature and chronicles

Russian literature XI-XIII centuries. came to us, of course, not completely. The medieval church, which jealously destroyed apocrypha and writings that mentioned pagan gods, probably had a hand in the destruction of manuscripts like “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” where the church is mentioned in passing, and the entire poem is full of Russian pagan deities. Not without reason until the 18th century. Only one copy of the Lay has survived, although we know that the Lay was read in various Russian cities. Individual quotes in surviving manuscripts, hints at the abundance of books and individual works - all this convinces us that many treasures of ancient Russian literature could have perished in the fire of internecine wars, Polovtsian and Tatar raids. But the surviving part is so valuable and interesting that it allows us to speak with great respect about the Russian people of the 10th-13th centuries, the creators of this literature.

The largest works of Russian literature created during this period, but which continued their literary life for many centuries, are: “The Tale of Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, “The Teaching” by Vladimir Monomakh, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik, "Kievo-Pechersk Patericon" and, of course, chronicles, among which Nestor's "Tale of Bygone Years" (early 12th century) occupies a prominent place.

In the era of the formation and initial development of the feudal formation, what was progressive was that which cleared the way for the new, strengthened it, and helped it develop. And Russian literature successfully contributed to the new feudal state, directing it primarily towards solving problems of national importance. Russian writers of the XI-XIII centuries. forced their readers and listeners (much was designed to be read aloud) to think about the fate of the Russian land, to know the positive and negative heroes of their native history, to feel and strengthen the unity of the entire ancient Russian people.

Historical works occupy a place of honor in this literature.

The chronicler's geographical horizons are very broad - he knows both Britain in the west of the Old World, noting some ethnographic remnants of the British, and China in the east of the Old World, where people live “at the ends of the earth.” Using Russian archives, folk tales and foreign literature, chroniclers created a broad and interesting picture of the historical development of the Russian state.

In addition to general historical works covering several centuries and weather chronicles, there were works dedicated to a single historical event. For example, the campaign of Vladimir Monomakh in 1111 against the Polovtsian encampments was glorified in a special legend, the author of which correctly assessed the significance of this first serious defeat of the Polovtsians not only for Rus', but also for Western Europe, declaring that the glory of Prince Vladimir’s victory would reach to Rome.

The era of feudal fragmentation was reflected in the emergence of regional literary forces; each new princely center kept its own chronicles, focusing mainly on local events, but never ceasing to be interested in all-Russian affairs. Literature grew in breadth. Chronicles appeared in Novgorod, Vladimir, Polotsk, Galich, Smolensk, Novgorod-Seversky, Pskov, Pereyaslavl and other cities. Russian historians of the XI-XIII centuries. introduced readers to world history both by translating the latest Byzantine works (Chronicles of John Malala and George Amartol), and by creating a creatively processed anthology from the works of ancient authors (Hellenic-Roman Chronicler). Russian chronicles report news about events outside Rus' (uprising in Poland, the Crusades, the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders, etc.). Russian chronicles are a great contribution to world science, as they reveal in detail the history of half of Europe over five centuries. For all the patriotism of Russian literature, we will not find in it even a trace of preaching aggressive actions. The fight against the Polovtsians is considered only as the defense of the Russian people from unexpected predatory raids. A characteristic feature is the absence of chauvinism, a humane attitude towards people of different nationalities: “Have mercy not only on your own faith, but also on others..., even if you are a Jew, or a Saracen, or a Bulgarian, or a heretic, or a Latin, or from all filth - Have mercy on everyone and deliver them from trouble" (Message of Theodosius of Pechersk to Prince Izyaslav, 11th century). In subsequent centuries, Russian literature had a great influence on the culture of South Slavic countries that did not know Latin as an official language.

The pearl of Russian literature of pre-Mongol times is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” (1187), standing in the first rank of masterpieces of world poetry next to the French “Song of Roland” and the Georgian poem by Rustaveli “The Knight in the Skin of a Tiger”. Ardent love for his native land, wise understanding of the most important historical tasks of the era, courage in addressing warring princes, amazing knowledge of chronicle history, folk poetry, nature, the romance of pagan mythology and brilliant mastery of the riches of Russian speech - all this made the “Word” immortal. The author - a patriot - seemed to challenge the old poet Boyan to a competition, who sang the great-grandfathers of the heroes of the Lay, and, of course, defeated the sweet-tongued court singer with the simplicity of his chiseled style, the breadth of his views, his ability to look at Rus' not from the windows of the prince's mansion, but with his eyes of the entire Russian people, who longed for the unity of the princes.

Architecture

Russian medieval architecture makes a serious contribution to the history of world culture. Having already had experience in the construction of fortresses, towers, palaces, and wooden pagan temples, Russian architects with amazing speed mastered the new Byzantine brick construction technique and decorated the largest Russian cities with magnificent monumental structures. Restoration work and studies of surviving monuments have helped in recent years to clarify the original form of buildings, and archaeological excavations in a number of ancient Russian cities have almost doubled the number of monuments available for study.

Research by N. N. Voronin and M. K. Karger showed the evolution of Russian architectural thought and its connection with the stages of development of feudal relations and with princely or boyar-posad elements in the city. In a number of cases, architecture very sensitively reflected the political history of the country: the short-term rivalry between Chernigov and Kyiv was reflected in the simultaneous construction of monumental cathedrals (Chernigov - 1036, Kyiv - 1037). The Novgorod uprising of 1136 suspended princely construction in Novgorod and opened the way for boyar construction.

The early isolation of the Principality of Polotsk was reflected in the construction of its own St. Sophia Cathedral there with an unusual layout. The full-blooded development of cities that competed with Kiev led to the flourishing of architecture and the creation of local architectural schools in Galich, Smolensk, Novgorod, Chernigov, Vladimir-on-Klyazma. With all that, Russian architecture of the 12th - 13th centuries. represents a certain unity. It cannot be said that Russian architecture of this time was under any influence or influence, although Rus' had the broadest connections with the East, West and Byzantium. Having learned at the turn of the 10th and 11th centuries. Byzantine form, Russian architects very quickly modified it, introduced their own features and created their own, all-Russian style, varying by region.

Appearance in the 12th century. tower-shaped, upwardly slender buildings (Chernigov, Smolensk, Polotsk, Pskov) especially clearly testified to the development of the Russian national style, born as a result of the influence of wooden construction. The unstable borders of feudal states were not barriers to mutual cultural communication. A striking indicator of such a common “style of the era”, indicating that Romanesque art is not so much a geographical as a chronological concept, is the white stone architecture of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' with its amazing proportions and fine decorative carvings, reminiscent of wonderful ivory products.

The buildings of Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest are completely Russian in their traditions and construction techniques, but in a number of details they are close to the Romanesque architecture of the 12th century. Researchers rightfully compare the white-stone churches of Vladimir with their lavish carved ornamentation in terms of their overall harmony and richness of plots with “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” where the folk, pagan, also overshadows the Christian.

A careful study of the proportions of ancient Russian buildings made it possible to reveal the peculiar geometric techniques of Russian architects of the 11th-12th centuries, which helped them create buildings that were amazing in the proportionality of their parts. Recent discoveries in Old Ryazan and Tmutarakan of geometric drawings from a system of inscribed squares and rectangles have made it possible to reveal another method of mathematical calculations, a method that goes back to Babylonian architecture and came to Rus' through Transcaucasia and Tmutarakan. Diverse and rich Russian architecture has retained its artistic influence for a long time.

painting

Russian painting and drawing have reached us in the form of frescoes, icons, and book miniatures. Restoration work, washing and clearing of painting monuments have revealed this section of Russian culture to us in a new way. “Not a single work that emerged from the depths of the Romanesque school can stand comparison with Kyiv painting of the 11th century,” writes researcher of Russian art V. N. Lazarev.

The high level of artistic expression achieved by Old Russian painting is partly explained by the fact that the perception of Byzantine craftsmanship was prepared by the development of Slavic folk art back in the pagan period.

Colorful combinations of patterns on fabrics, complex ornamental compositions of flowers, trees, birds and animals come from ancient times. The bulk of works of painting and sculpture that have survived to this day, unfortunately, belong to only one category - church art. Secular art is known to us only partially.

Each church building was a whole gallery of fresco painting, subordinated to a single complex design. There were sacred images in several tiers, which were supposed to instill in the Slavs superstitious fear and a sense of subordination to the gods of heaven and the princes of the earth. From the church frescoes, images of Christian saints in the robes of bishops, kings, warriors, and monks looked down at the ordinary people below.

The class essence of the feudal church was revealed in its entirety in relation to art, which the church sought to monopolize in order to influence the minds of the Russian people through its attractive power.

Russian medieval cathedrals, like the cathedrals of Western European countries, were examples of a very skillful and subtle use of all types of art in order to affirm the ideas of the feudal church. A Kievite or Novgorodian, entering a church, found himself in a special world of images, separated from the noisy city bargaining. The huge head of Jesus Christ seemed to float in the sky above the space of the dome filled with incense smoke. The stern “fathers of the church” appeared in a continuous row from behind the altar, ready to teach and punish. The Christian Mother of God reminded the Slav of the ancient pagan goddess of earth and fertility (Rozhanitsa, Beregynia) and thereby united the old and new cults in his mind. When, frightened and depressed by the grandeur of the temple depicted on the walls, the Slav left it, his last impression was the picture of the “Last Judgment” painted above the exit. He was returning from church to his world, and the church admonished him with images of terrible torment awaiting those who dared disobey church laws.

Folk life

Literary monuments and archaeological data depict to us the vivid and unique life of ancient Russian cities and partly villages. The capital city sparkles with golden domes and towers; Its stone towers are strong, its walls are impregnable, its ditches are deep. A diverse crowd is noisy at the markets, where you can buy anything - from products of local craftsmen to Chinese silk and Indian spices. Here they announce decrees, here they quarrel and take up swords, here beggars sing, begging for alms, here they look for a runaway servant or a stolen horse, here they gather at a meeting to decide the affairs of their city. Crowds of townspeople walk along the narrow cobbled streets past boyar courtyards and simple houses, towering over them are numerous horsemen in simple armor, in princely brocade cloaks, and in monastic robes. On holidays, rich women flaunted silver or gold “patterns”, where pearls framed flowery enamel, and velvety niello emphasized the shine of silver. A church procession could encounter a pagan game on the streets of the city, a cheerful crowd celebrating “mermaids”. Horse races and tournaments were held near the cathedral, attracting spectators. Life went on behind the mighty walls of the prince's court. Here, many servants and artisans prepared everything for their master, food was brought here from near and far villages - both for the needs of the princely court and for export to overseas countries. Here the trial took place, the punishments for the guilty smerda were determined according to the Russian Truth, and judicial duels or “God’s courts” were appointed. Here, in the wide walkways - "entry" - magnificent feasts were held: servants carried whole swans, bronze incense burners in the shape of animals burned with fragrant fire, guests washed their hands from figured aquarius, guslars sang the glory of the master of this house, sang the exploits of his ancestors; huge circular bowls passed from neighbor to neighbor. But here, in the basements of the prince’s court, next to the reserves of wine and honey, in special pits - “cuts” - the prince’s defeated rivals, his dangerous enemies, who were sometimes related to him by blood and had recently feasted at the same table, were kept.

The cities burned from fires, were plundered during princely strife and Polovtsian raids, but were rebuilt again, revived, and their population - artisans, traders, warriors - became more and more determined in curbing boyar whims, princely tyranny and internecine wars.

Russian cities - the focus of feudal culture - knew not only high art in its various forms. Social thought was seething here, and conflicting interests of classes, estates and groups collided. The standard of social life was also high.

We know about the ideological struggle of the Russian people against the claims of Byzantium to subjugate Rus'. Rus' defended both political and cultural independence. Having received baptism from the hands of the Greeks, having adopted a number of elements of Byzantine culture (which then had global significance and greatly influenced the entire Southern Europe), the Russian people did not fall under the withering influence of Byzantine churchism, but found their own path of cultural development in all areas. This is explained by the significant strength of the young Russian state, which fought against the nomads and maintained constant communication between the countries of the East and the regions of Northern and Central Europe, being a trade intermediary between them. Relying on the strength of this state, it was possible to fight for ideological independence from Byzantium. In the cities there was also a struggle against the lifeless asceticism that the Russian Church tried to promote, scourging games, music, theater, dancing, and singing. A healthy popular stream easily broke the fragile shell of ascetic sermons, and the cities lived a full-blooded, interesting life; The churches were often empty, and the “games” were crowded. The dominant theological form of ideology in the Middle Ages often caused protests. “The Life of Abraham of Smolensk” (beginning of the 13th century) tells us about the interesting sermons read by Abraham to the smerds and townspeople who came to him, sermons directed against the church authorities who wanted to burn Abraham or “devour him alive.” We know about the struggle between the central princely power and the boyars, who were not always aware of their own class interests. The class struggle, which intensified as feudal relations developed, was reflected in legislation (Russkaya Pravda, the Charter of Vladimir Monomakh), and in literature, and in folk art. It certainly had a progressive significance, although it did not set as its goal the complete overthrow of the then existing feudal system, which was just beginning its historical path and was quite progressive at that time. Undermining the foundations of feudalism would in those conditions mean a return to primitiveness, regression.

The objective significance of popular uprisings was that they were aimed at protecting the peasant and artisan from the exorbitant greed of secular and church feudal lords, from attempts to equate them with slaves, from such hardships that ruined their individual economy - the basis of feudal production. In the epics of the 11th century. we see a reflection of popular uprisings and the sympathy of the people for their participants and leaders. Russian medieval culture was born without the ancient heritage, in harsh conditions of continuous struggle with the steppe, which was advancing on agricultural tribes, with the constant danger of enslavement by Byzantium. The Russian feudal state grew stronger in this defensive struggle. Russian culture developed very quickly, using the rich potential of the Slavic farmers. The development of feudal relations and the emergence of cities accelerated the process of growth of the culture of the Old Russian people.

Conclusion

The XI-XIII centuries are a time of high development of Russian culture, when it reaches the level of culture of the advanced countries of Europe and influences dozens of peoples neighboring Russia. Humanity, patriotism, restraint, severity, constant consciousness of national tasks - these are the features of Russian culture.

Wide peaceful ties with East and West made Rus' an active participant in the common culture of the Old World that took shape in the Middle Ages, neglecting feudal boundaries.

The depth of folk culture allowed Rus' to survive the difficult times of the Tatar-Mongol yoke and retain inexhaustible strength to overcome the consequences of foreign domination. The people preserved their culture, the bearer of the advanced ideas of their time, and carried it through the centuries, repeating with love and respect: “O bright and beautifully decorated Russian land!”

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.L.Ya.Averyanov “History Reader” Moscow 1990

2. Source - http://www.i-u.ru/biblio/arhiv/books/aver_xrbfilosofy/ec90.html

3. B.A. RYBAKOV Culture of Rus' Infra 2000

Novak Irina

Presented is a presentation on how literature developed in the 10th to 13th centuries. It talks about the general rise of Rus' in the 11th century, the creation of centers of writing and literacy. The creators of writing, books, chronicles, and circulation are considered. They were: Abbot Daniel, Vladimir Monomakh, Monk Nestor and others. All this wealth of religious and theological thought also formed an integral part of general Russian culture. But, of course, the most vivid synthesis of Russian culture, the interweaving of pagan and Christian features, religious and secular, universal and national motives was heard in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” This is a poem of the era. The same is said about other poems and chronicles.

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Literature of the 10th - early 13th centuries.

Metropolitan Hilarion created the “Sermon on Law and Grace” in which he outlined his understanding of the place of Rus' in world history in a vivid journalistic form. The main theme was the idea of ​​equality of Rus' among other peoples and states. The author affirms the freedom of choice of Religion on the part of Rus'

Monk Jacob Wrote “Memory and Praise of Vladimir”, in which Hilarion’s ideas are further developed and applied to the historical figure of Vladimir Svyatoslavovich

Monk Nestor Created “Reading about the Lives of Boris and Gleb”; it contains ideas of the unity of Rus', pays tribute to its defenders and guardians. The chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years” was the final fundamental work

Vladimir Monomakh In his declining years, Vladimir Monomakh writes his famous “Instruction for Children,” which became one of the favorite readings of the Russian people of the early Middle Ages. His “Teaching” is a hymn to the righteous, rejection of evil and crafty people, faith in the triumph of good, in the meaninglessness and doom of evil.

Hegumen Daniil Hegumen Daniil creates his own, no less famous, “Hegumen Daniil’s Walk to Holy Places.” Daniel described in detail his entire journey, spoke about his stay at the court of the King of Jerusalem, about the campaign with him against the Arabs. Daniel prayed at the Holy Sepulcher, placed there a lamp from the entire Russian land: near the tomb of Christ he sang fifty liturgies “for the Russian princes and for all Christians.” Both “Teaching” and “Walking” were the first genres of their kind in Russian literature.

Daniil Sharpener Author of the 12th century. Wrote “The Word” and “The Prayer” Addressing his prince in the “Prayer,” Daniel says that a real man must combine the strength of Samson, the courage of Alexander the Great, the intelligence of Joseph, the wisdom of Solomon, and the cunning of David. Turning to biblical stories and ancient history helps him convey his ideas to the addressee. A person, according to the author, must strengthen his heart with beauty and wisdom, help his neighbor in sorrow, show mercy to those in need, and resist evil. The humanistic line of ancient Russian literature firmly asserts itself here too.

Metropolitan Klimenty Smolyatich Klimenty Smolyatich, in his “Message” to the priest Thomas, referring to the Greek philosophers Aristotle, Plato, and the work of Homer, also recreates the image of a highly moral person, alien to the love of power, love of money and vanity.

All this wealth of religious and theological thought also formed an integral part of general Russian culture. But, of course, the most vivid synthesis of Russian culture, the interweaving of pagan and Christian features, religious and secular, universal and national motives in it was heard in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” This is a poem of the era. This is her poetic figurative expression. This is not only an excited call for the unity of the Russian land, not only a proud story about the courage of the “Russians” and not only a cry for the dead, but also reflections on the place of Rus' in world history, on the connection of Rus' with the surrounding peoples. The centuries of “Trajan” and Chersonese, Venetians, Germans, Greeks - they are all connected with the fate of the Russian land, where only those who express its true interests are famous.

With the adoption of Christianity, Ancient Rus' was introduced to book culture. The development of Russian writing gradually became the basis for the emergence of literature and was closely connected with Christianity. Despite the fact that writing was known in Russian lands earlier, it was only after the baptism of Rus' that it became widespread. It also received a basis in the form of a developed cultural tradition of Eastern Christianity. Extensive translated literature became the basis for the formation of its own tradition.

The original literature of Ancient Rus' is characterized by great ideological richness and high artistic perfection. its prominent representative was Metropolitan Hilarion, the author of the famous “”, dating back to the mid-11th century. This work clearly demonstrates the idea of ​​the need for the unity of Rus'. Using the form of a church sermon, Hilarion created a political treatise, which reflected the pressing problems of Russian reality. Contrasting “grace” (Christianity) with “law” (Judaism), Hilarion rejects the concept of God’s chosenness inherent in Judaism and affirms the idea of ​​​​transferring heavenly attention and favor from one chosen people to all humanity, the equality of all peoples.

An outstanding writer and historian was the monk of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery Nestor. Preserved it « and the “Life of Theodosius”, valuable for the history of everyday life. “Reading” is written in a somewhat abstract style; edifying and ecclesiastical elements are strengthened in it.

An outstanding monument of ancient Russian chronicle dates back to approximately 1113 - "The Tale of Bygone Years", preserved as part of later chronicles of the XIV-XV centuries. This work is compiled on the basis of earlier chronicles - historical works dedicated to the past of the Russian land. The author of the Tale, monk Nestor, managed to vividly and imaginatively tell about the emergence of Rus' and connect its history with the history of other countries. The main attention in the “Tale” is paid to the events of political history, the actions of princes and other representatives of the nobility. The economic life and way of life of the people are described in less detail. The religious worldview of its compiler was also clearly evident in the chronicle: he sees the final cause of all events and people’s actions in the action of divine forces, “providence.” However, religious differences and references to the will of God often hide a practical approach to reality, the desire to identify real cause-and-effect relationships between events.

In turn, Theodosius, abbot of the Pechersk Monastery about whom Nestor also wrote, wrote several teachings and messages to Prince Izyaslav.

An outstanding writer was Vladimir Monomakh. His « » painted an ideal image of a prince - a just feudal ruler, touched upon pressing issues of our time: the need for strong princely power, unity in repelling the raids of nomads, etc. “Instruction” is a work of a secular nature. It is imbued with the spontaneity of human experiences, alien to abstraction and filled with real images and examples taken from life.

The question of princely power in the life of the state, its responsibilities and methods of implementation becomes one of the central ones in literature. The idea arises of the need for strong power as a condition for successfully fighting external enemies and overcoming internal contradictions. These reflections are embodied in one of the most talented works of the 12th-13th centuries, which has come down to us in two main editions, “The Lay” and “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik. A staunch supporter of strong princely power, Daniil writes with humor and sarcasm about the sad reality around him.

Occupies a special place in the literature of Ancient Rus' « » , dating from the end of the 12th century. It tells about the unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsians in 1185 by the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich. The description of this campaign serves the author only as a reason for thinking about the fate of the Russian land. The author sees the reasons for the defeats in the fight against the nomads, the reasons for the disasters of Rus' in princely civil strife, in the selfish policies of princes thirsting for personal glory. Central to the Lay is the image of the Russian land. The author belonged to the druzhina environment. He constantly used the inherent concepts of “honor” and “glory,” but filled them with broader, patriotic content. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” embodied the characteristic features of ancient Russian literature of that time: a living connection with historical reality, citizenship and patriotism.

Batu's invasion had a great influence on Russian culture. The first work dedicated to the invasion - « » . This word has not reached us completely. Also dedicated to Batu’s invasion « » - an integral part of a cycle of stories about the “miraculous” icon of St. Nicholas of Zaraisky.