From a physiological point of view, the process of thinking represents. Physiological basis of thinking

Russian physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936), characterizing thinking, wrote: “Thinking is a tool for a person’s highest orientation in the world around him and in himself.” From a physiological point of view, the thinking process is a complex analytical and synthetic activity of the cortex cerebral hemispheres brain. For the thinking process, first of all, those complex temporary connections that are formed between the brain ends of the analyzers are important. According to Pavlov: “Thinking... does not represent anything else but associations, first elementary, standing in connection with external objects, and then chains of associations. This means that every small, first association is the moment of the birth of thought.” Thus, these naturally caused external stimuli communications ( associations) and make up physiological basis of the thinking process.

Issues to discuss:

• 1. Thinking as a subject of study of psychology and logic.
• 2. Psychological concepts the study of thinking and their philosophical basis.
• 3. Psychological essence thinking and features of its course.
• 4. Physiological basis thinking.

Forms of thinking

IN psychological science distinguish such logical forms of thinking as:

• · concepts;
• · judgments;
• · inferences.

Concept- this is a reflection in the human mind of the general and essential properties of an object or phenomenon. A concept is a form of thinking that reflects the individual and the particular, which is at the same time universal. The concept acts both as a form of thinking and as a special mental action. Behind each concept there is a special objective action hidden. Concepts can be:

• · general and individual;
• · concrete and abstract;
• · empirical and theoretical.

General concept there is a thought that reflects the general, essential and distinctive (specific) characteristics of objects and phenomena of reality. Single concept there is a thought that reflects the inherent only a separate subject and signs of the phenomenon.

Depending on the type of abstraction and generalizations underlying them, concepts are empirical or theoretical. Empirical concept fixes identical items in each individual subject class based on comparison. Specific content theoretical concept there appears an objective connection between the universal and the individual (whole and different). Concepts are formed in socio-historical experience. A person acquires a system of concepts in the process of life and activity.

The content of concepts is revealed in judgments, which are always expressed in verbal form - oral or written, out loud or silently. Judgment- the main form of thinking, during which connections between objects and phenomena of reality are affirmed or denied. Judgment is a reflection of the connections between objects and phenomena of reality or between their properties and characteristics. For example, the proposition: “Metals expand when heated” expresses the relationship between changes in temperature and the volume of metals.

Judgments are formed in two main ways:

• · directly, when they express what is perceived;
• · indirectly - through inferences or reasoning.

In the first case we see, for example, a table Brown and express the simplest judgment: “This table is brown.” In the second case, with the help of reasoning, one deduces from some judgments and obtains other (or other) judgments. For example, Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev, based on what he discovered periodic law purely theoretically, only with the help of inferences he deduced and predicted some properties of chemical elements still unknown in his time.

Judgments can be:

• · true;
• · false;
• · general;
• · private;
• · single.

True judgments- this is objective correct judgments. False judgments- these are inappropriate judgments objective reality. Judgments can be general, particular and individual. IN general judgments something is affirmed (or denied) regarding all objects of a given group, of this class, for example: “All fish breathe through gills.” IN private judgments affirmation or denial no longer applies to all, but only to some subjects, for example: “Some students are excellent students.” IN single judgments- to only one, for example: “This student did not learn the lesson well.”

Inference- is the derivation of a new judgment from one or more judgments. The initial judgments from which another judgment is derived are called premises of the inference. The simplest and typical form a conclusion based on particular and general premises is a syllogism. An example of a syllogism is the following reasoning: “All metals are electrically conductive. Tin is a metal. Therefore, tin is electrically conductive.” There are inferences:

• · inductive;
• · deductive;
• · Similarly.

Inductive is called such an inference in which reasoning proceeds from individual facts to general conclusion. Deductive called such an inference in which the reasoning is carried out in reverse order induction, i.e. from general facts to a single conclusion. By analogy is an inference in which a conclusion is made on the basis of partial similarities between phenomena, without sufficient examination of all conditions.

Thinking- this is a socially conditioned, inextricably linked with speech, mental process of searching and discovering something essentially new, a process of mediated and generalized reflection of reality in the course of its analysis and synthesis. Thinking arises from practical activities from sensory knowledge and goes far beyond its limits.

Physiological basis of thinking are temporary nerve connections ( conditioned reflexes), which are formed in the cerebral cortex. These conditioned reflexes arise under the influence of second signals (words, thoughts), reflecting reality, but necessarily arise on the basis of the first signal system (sensations, perceptions, ideas).

In psychology, a common classification of types of thinking is: 1) visual-effective, 2) visual-figurative and 3) abstract (theoretical) thinking.

Visual-effective thinking . In the course of historical development, people solved the problems facing them first in terms of practical activity, only then did theoretical activity emerge from it. For example, at first our distant ancestor learned to measure practically (in steps, etc.) land, and only then, on the basis of the knowledge accumulated in the course of this practical activity, geometry gradually emerged and developed as a special theoretical science.

Visual-figurative thinking. IN simplest form visual-figurative thinking occurs predominantly in preschool children, i.e., at the age of four to seven years. Although the connection between thinking and practical actions is preserved, it is not as close, direct and immediate as before. During the analysis and synthesis of a cognizable object, a child does not necessarily and does not always have to touch the object that interests him with his hands. In many cases, systematic practical manipulation (action) with an object is not required, but in all cases it is necessary to clearly perceive and visually represent this object.

Abstract thinking. Based on practical and visual-sensory experience in children in school age abstract thinking develops - first in its simplest forms, i.e. thinking in the form of abstract concepts.

Verbal-logical thinking - one of the types of thinking, characterized by the use of concepts and logical structures. Verbal-logical thinking operates on the basis linguistic means and represents the latest stage in the historical and ontogenetic development of thinking. In the structure of verbal-logical thinking, the different kinds generalizations.

P. A. Rudik, "Psychology"
State educational and pedagogical Publishing house of the Ministry of Education of the RSFSR, M., 1955.

From the physiological side, the thinking process is a complex analytical and synthetic activity of the cerebral cortex. The entire cortex takes part in the implementation of thinking processes, and not just any special departments her.

What matters most for the thinking process are the complex temporary connections that are formed between the brain ends of the analyzers. The previously existing idea of ​​the exact boundaries of the central sections of the analyzers in the cerebral cortex is refuted latest achievements physiological science. “The limits of the analyzers are much greater, and they are not so sharply demarcated from each other, but they overlap each other, interlock with each other.”

This “special design” of the cortex facilitates the establishment of connections in the activities of a wide variety of analyzers. The cerebral cortex must be considered as a grandiose mosaic of countless nerve points with a specific physiological role for each of them; at the same time, the bark is the most complex dynamic system, constantly striving for unification, to establish a single, general communication, says I.P. Pavlov.

Since the activity of individual areas of the cortex is always determined by external stimuli, the nerve connections formed with the simultaneous stimulation of these areas of the cortex reflect the actual connections in things. These temporary neural connections, or associations, naturally caused by external stimuli, constitute the physiological basis of the thinking process. “Thinking,” said I.P. Pavlov, “...represents nothing else but associations, first elementary, standing in connection with external objects, and then chains of associations. This means that every small, first association is the moment of the birth of a thought.”

The resulting temporary connections, or associations, are initially of a generalized nature, reflecting real connections in their most general and undifferentiated form, and sometimes even incorrectly, based on random, insignificant characteristics. Only in the process of repeated stimulation does differentiation of these temporary connections occur, they are clarified, consolidated and become the physiological basis of more or less accurate and correct knowledge about the external world.

These temporary neural connections arise primarily under the influence of primary signal stimuli that evoke in us the corresponding sensations, perceptions and ideas about the external environment. The actual interactions and interconnections of these stimuli determine the peculiarity of the corresponding temporary neural connections of the first signaling system.

However, thinking fundamentally presupposes not only primary signal connections; it necessarily presupposes the activity of the second signaling system in its inextricable connection with the first signaling system. With the help of words, secondary signal connections are formed, reflecting the relationships that exist between objects.

Unlike sensations, perceptions and ideas, which are determined by the impact on us specific items the surrounding world, speech, being directly connected with thinking, allows us to reflect in words the interconnection and interdependence of phenomena; this turns out to be possible because words, as stimuli, are not just substitutes, signals of objects, but “signals of signals,” i.e., generalized stimuli to which systems of temporary connections correspond.

“These new signals eventually came to mean everything that people directly perceived from both the external and internal inner world, and were used by them not only in mutual communication, but also alone with themselves,” says I. P. Pavlov. Their peculiarity is that they “represent an abstraction from reality and allow for generalization, which constitutes our superfluous, specifically human, higher thinking“, creating first universal human empiricism, and finally science - a tool for a person’s higher orientation in the world around him and in himself,” says I. P. Pavlov.

Thinking can be correct only when the second signaling system is inextricably linked with the activities of the first signaling system. Words are always only second signals, “signals of signals.” If they lose connection with the primary signal reflections of reality, they lose their cognitive meaning, and thinking acquires a character divorced from reality, leading to useless, formal or purely verbal knowledge that does not give a correct and clear understanding of reality.

The second signaling system by itself, without support from the first signaling system, cannot serve as the basis for correct thinking. The latter is carried out in the interaction of the first and second signaling systems. However, in this interaction the main role belongs to the second signaling system.

In view of generalized nature secondary signal stimuli - words that make it possible to reflect objective connections in their general form, the second signaling system acquires leading value in complex nervous processes, subordinating the activities of the first signaling system. The interaction of the first and second signaling systems in the processes of thinking consists in the fact that the second signaling system in this unity occupies a dominant position and directs the processes of the first signaling system, “keeps it under wraps,” in the words of I. P. Pavlov.

The second signaling system is specifically human. It arises in a person in connection with his labor activity and the need to communicate with other people caused by it, but it still arises on the basis of the first signaling system and is in organic connection with it.

Already in the processes of perception, any image of an object that arises as a result of the influence of direct stimuli on us is necessarily associated with a verbal designation of this subject. This significantly distinguishes the first human signaling system from the first animal signaling system.

In humans, perceptions and ideas associated with words reflect the social meaning of the corresponding objects for a person, and therefore the first signaling system is socially determined and always functions in connection with the second signaling system.

Already in the processes of perception, the second signaling system acquires leading importance. But it plays its main role in the processes of thinking, relegating to the background and subordinating the activity of the first signaling system. Man everything complex connections and the relationship is reflected with the help of the second signaling system that underlies verbal thinking.

The word transforms primary signal nerve connections into generalized images of reality, which allows us, in the processes of thinking, to break away from the specific features of perceived phenomena and think existing connections in their generalized form, in the form of concepts, and not in the form of perceptions and ideas.

Thinking- process cognitive activity, a generalized and indirect reflection of reality ( outside world and internal experiences).

Human mental activity is inextricably linked with the II signaling system. At the heart of thinking, two processes are distinguished: the transformation of thought into speech (written or oral) and the extraction of thought, content from a certain verbal form messages. Thought is a form of the most complex generalized abstract reflection of reality, conditioned by certain motives, a specific process of integration of certain ideas, concepts in specific conditions social development. Therefore, thought as an element of the highest nervous activity is the result of social historical development the individual being brought to the fore linguistic form information processing.

Human creative thinking is associated with the formation of ever new concepts. A word as a signal of signals denotes a dynamic complex of specific stimuli, generalized in a concept expressed by a given word and having a broad context with other words, other concepts. Throughout life, a person continuously replenishes the content of the concepts he develops by expanding the contextual connections of the words and phrases he uses. Any learning process, as a rule, is associated with expanding the meaning of old and the formation of new concepts.

Basic forms of thinking :

• concrete-figurative(sensations, perceptions, ideas) - the first stage of development of thinking in a child;
• abstract(verbal-logical) - manifests itself in the form of concepts, judgments, conclusions and is a later stage of development. There are two forms of using concepts in judgments and inferences: induction(from specific to general - left hemisphere first analyzes the information, and then the right synthesizes); deduction(from general to specific - carried out in the right hemisphere).

Role different structures brain Vproviding thinking :

• the generation of stimulus-independent (spontaneous) thoughts is associated with activation of the anterior zones of the frontal cortex; this department is also involved in volitional control when performing a task;
• the frontal and temporal cortex are involved in recognition and decision making;
• the search for a strategy for solving a problem is performed by the parieto-occipital regions of the cortex;
• establishing compliance decision taken The chosen strategy is carried out by the frontal, temporal and limbic parts of the brain, with the leading role of the frontal cortex.

Functional asymmetry of the hemispheres in the process of thinking :

• right hemisphere (especially the parietal-temporal cortex) provides concrete-figurative thinking (signal system I), The best decision visual-spatial tasks, one-time holistic processing of information, intuitive thinking;
• left hemisphere(especially the frontal cortex) provides abstract thinking (signal system II), best opportunities according to time assessment, analytical, step-by-step processing of information, awareness of information (“cognitive” mediators - dopamine, acetylcholine, GABA - predominate in the left hemisphere).

Interaction of hemispheres during decision different tasks can be carried out in the form of antagonism, synergy, sequential processing of information.

Forms of thinking disorders. There are three main types of thinking disorders:

• disturbances in thinking operations. These violations can be reduced to two extreme options, taking as a basis a person’s ability to generalize: a decrease in the level of generalization and distortion of generalization processes. Reduced level of generalization when various diseases, accompanied by a decrease intellectual activity(oligophrenia, encephalitis, atherosclerosis, etc.), is characterized by the fact that patients find it difficult to determine the essential signs of objects and phenomena, their abstraction processes are disrupted. Distortion of the generalization process is most characteristic of schizophrenia. At the same time, patients are often guided by signs and associations that are inadequate real relationships between objects and phenomena. The purposefulness of thinking may be grossly disrupted;
• disturbances in the dynamics of thinking. In the very general view they can be divided into two types: changes in the speed of thinking and inertia of thinking. The speed of thinking in pathology can accelerate or slow down. In psychiatric practice there are:
• - spasmodic thinking, characterized along with an acceleration of the pace of flow thought processes instability of goals. It is observed during the manic phase of manic-depressive psychosis (“jumping ideas”) and in some organic diseases of the brain;
• - accelerated thinking is characterized by rapid, accelerated flow associations, superficiality of judgment, increased distractibility to random stimuli external environment. Occurs in manic-depressive psychosis, schizophrenia, organic diseases of the brain;
• - slow thinking, which, along with a slower pace, is characterized by a decrease in the number of ideas and ideas. It is often difficult for the patient to complete his reasoning. Slowness of thinking is usually combined with slowness of speech, motor skills, and affective reactions. Characteristic for depressive states of any origin. Can be observed in schizophrenia, parkinsonism.

Inertia of thinking is characterized by insufficient mobility mental processes. Inert thinking includes:

• - viscous thinking - a tendency to excessive detail, inability to highlight the main thing, stiffness, torpidity. Viscous thinking is most typical of epileptic dementia;
• - perseverative thinking - a tendency to “get stuck” in the patient’s mind of thoughts, images, phrases, words, etc. regardless of the changing situation. Targets have also been weakened. mental activity. Observed in severe organic pathology of the brain (atherosclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, Pick's disease, etc.);
• - thinking with stereotypes - repetition of the same acts mental activity, not related to the solution of any problem (the “gramophone record” symptom). Occurs in schizophrenia, organic brain damage;
• violations of forms of thinking. These types of pathology of thinking are the most diverse. These include:
• - ambivalent thinking - simultaneous coexistence in the mind of contradictory, mutually exclusive thoughts;
• - paralogical thinking - the unification of contradictory ideas and images, the substitution of some concepts for others. The speech of patients may be inaccessible to the understanding of others, since with external correct construction it is devoid of semantic meaning;
• - autistic thinking - the patient’s judgments are determined by the world of his internal experiences and are divorced from reality;
• - broken thinking - an incorrect, unusual, paradoxical combination of ideas. The patient’s thoughts flow as if at random (“verbal okroshka”);
• - resonant thinking - empty, sterile, verbose and banal judgments.

The listed pathologies of thinking are characteristic of schizophrenia, although they can also be observed in other mental illness and organic diseases of the brain.

Forms of thinking disorders can be identified using various, quite informative methods.