Entry text:
1. Psychology of sensations.
1. Psychology of sensations.
The simplest mental process from which a person’s cognition of the surrounding world begins is sensation. In the evolution of living beings, sensations arose on the basis of primary irritability, which is the property of living matter to selectively respond to biologically significant changes in the environment. Subsequently, these functions were taken over by the nervous system. A stimulus (visual, auditory, etc.) affects the sense organs, resulting in nerve impulses that enter the brain along nerve pathways and are processed there to form individual sensations. Sensation is the primary “building” material on the basis of which a holistic reflection in consciousness of the complexity and versatility of the surrounding world, the image of one’s bodily and mental “I” is built. Sensations are essentially subjective images of the objective world - the external and internal states of the body.
Sensation is a mental process of reflecting individual properties of objects and phenomena during their direct impact on the senses.
Since the time of Aristotle, five types (modalities) of sensations have traditionally been distinguished that inform a person about changes in the environment: touch, taste, smell, hearing and vision.
It has now been established that there are also many other types of sensations, and the body is equipped with very complex mechanisms that ensure the interaction of the senses with each other. Thus, the sense of touch, along with tactile sensations (touch sensations), includes a completely independent type of sensation - temperature, which is a function of a special temperature analyzer. Vibration sensations occupy an intermediate position between tactile and auditory sensations. The sensations of balance and acceleration associated with the functions of the vestibular apparatus play a large role in a person’s orientation. Pain sensations that signal the destructive power of the stimulus are also common to different analyzers.
Depending on the type and location of the receptors, all sensations are usually divided into three groups:
1) exteroceptive (exteroceptive), reflecting the properties of objects and phenomena of the external environment and having receptors on the surface of the body;
2) interoceptive (interoceptive), having receptors located in the internal organs and tissues of the body and reflecting the state of the internal environment of the body;
3) proprioceptive (proprioceptive), whose receptors are located in muscles, ligaments, joints and provide information about the movement and position of the body. Motion sensitivity is also often called kinesthesia, and the corresponding receptors are kinesthetic.
Exteroceptive sensations can be divided into two more groups: contact(e.g. tactile, gustatory) and distant(e.g. visual, auditory). Contact receptors transmit irritation upon direct contact with an object, and distant receptors react to irritation emanating from a distant object.
For most created by the end of the 19th century. Psychological laboratories are characterized by reducing the main problems of experimental research to the study of elementary mental processes - sensations and perceptions. Until the beginning of the 20th century. The leading centers of world experimental psychology were the laboratories of V. Wundt in Germany (1879) and V.M. Bekhterev in Russia (1886 - in Kazan, 1894 - in St. Petersburg). The work of scientists in these laboratories on studying the mechanisms of perception prepared the subsequent experimental study of emotions, associations and memory, and then thinking.
2. General patterns of sensations
Sensations are a form of reflection of adequate stimuli. Thus, an adequate stimulus for visual sensation is electromagnetic waves in the range of 380-770 mm. Auditory sensations arise under the influence of sound waves with a frequency of 16 to 20,000 Hz. Other sensations also have their own specific stimuli. However, different types of sensations are characterized not only by specificity, but also by properties common to all of them. These properties include quality, intensity, duration and spatial location.
Quality- this is the main feature of a given sensation, distinguishing it from other types of sensations and varying within a given type of sensation (one modality). Auditory sensations, for example, differ in pitch, timbre, and volume, while visual sensations differ in saturation and color tone.
Intensity sensation is its quantitative characteristic and is determined both by the strength of the stimulus and the functional state of the receptor.
Duration sensations are also determined by the intensity of the effect on the receptor, its functional state, but mainly by the time of action on the receptor.
When a stimulus is applied, the sensation does not occur immediately, but after some time. For painful sensations, the latent period is 370 ms, for tactile sensations - 130, and the taste sensation occurs within 50 ms after the application of a chemical irritant to the tongue.
Just as a sensation does not arise simultaneously with the onset of the stimulus, it does not disappear immediately after the cessation of its effect. This inertia of sensations is called aftereffect. For example, the trace of a stimulus in the visual analyzer remains in the form sequential image, first positive and then negative. A positive sequential image does not differ in lightness and color from the original image (in cinema, this property of the visual analyzer is used to create the illusion of movement), and then a negative image appears, and color sources of color are replaced by complementary colors.
If you look at the red color first, then the white surface will appear green. If the original color was blue, then the sequential image will be yellow, and if you initially look at a black surface, then the sequential image will be white.
Auditory sensations can also be accompanied by sequential images. For example, everyone is well aware of the phenomenon of “ringing in the ears” after exposure to deafening sounds.
A similar effect is typical for the muscular system. Stand in the doorway and strongly “push” the doorframes away from you with your hands; After this, moving to the side and relaxing the muscles of your arms, you will feel that your arms are rising up by themselves.
Academician D.N. Uznadze (1963) asked subjects to touch a large ball with their right hand and a small ball with their left, and then balls of the same size 10-15 times. It turned out that the ball felt with the right hand seemed smaller in contrast, and the ball felt with the left hand seemed larger.
3. Basic characteristics of sensations
1. Sensitivity range . A stimulus is capable of causing a sensation only when it reaches a certain magnitude or strength.
The lower absolute threshold of sensation(J0) is the minimum force (intensity, duration, energy or area) of impact that causes a barely noticeable sensation. The lower J0, the higher the sensitivity of the analyzer to the stimulus. For example, the lower limit (threshold) of sensitivity for pitch of sound is 15 Hz, for light - 0.001 light. etc.
Stimuli of lesser strength are called subliminal(subsensory), and signals about them are not transmitted to the cerebral cortex. If the light intensity is reduced so much that a person can no longer tell whether he saw a flash of light, then a galvanic skin response is nevertheless recorded by hand at that moment. This suggests that the light signal, although not realized, was processed by the nervous system. The operation of a “lie detector” is based on this procedure.
The transition from a subthreshold sensation occurs abruptly: if the impact has almost reached the threshold value, then a barely noticeable increase in its strength is enough for the stimulus to immediately become completely felt. Subthreshold impulses are not indifferent to the body. This is confirmed by numerous facts obtained in clinics of nervous diseases and psychiatry, when it is weak, subthreshold stimuli coming from the external or internal environment that create a dominant focus in the cerebral cortex and contribute to the emergence of “deceptions of the senses” - hallucinations.
Some scientists note the similarity between subliminal perception (sensation) and extrasensory perception, when we are also talking about signals that are too weak to reach the level of consciousness, but are still picked up by some people at a certain time and in a certain state. Extrasensory perception includes clairvoyance (the ability to see things that cannot be seen at a distance), telepathy (obtaining information about a person who is far away, transmitting thoughts), precognition (the ability to guess the future).
The border zone of psychology, studying the so-called psi phenomena, arose in the early 1930s (L.L. Vasiliev in the USSR and J. Rhine in the USA), although in scientific circles this work began to be openly discussed only in recent decades. The Parapsychological Association, which studied “anomalous” phenomena, was admitted to the American Association for Scientific Progress in 1969. This area, recently recognized as a scientific discipline, is called parapsychology in Germany and the USA, metapsychology in France, and bioinformatics in Russia. Its new general name is psychology. The main difficulty in fully recognizing the results in this area is that it is not always possible to reproduce the phenomena being studied, which is certainly necessary for facts that claim to be scientific.
Upper absolute threshold of sensation(Jmax) is the maximum value of the stimulus that the analyzer is capable of adequately perceiving. Impacts exceeding Jmax cease to be differentially felt or cause pain; Jmax is much more variable between individuals and ages than J0. The interval between J0 and Jmax is called sensitivity range.
2. Differential (difference) sensitivity threshold . With the help of our senses, we can not only ascertain the presence or absence of a particular stimulus, but also distinguish between stimuli by their strength and quality. The minimum magnitude of the difference in the strength of two homogeneous stimuli that a person is able to feel is called threshold of discrimination(aJ). The lower the difference threshold value, the higher the ability of this analyzer to differentiate irritation.
The German physiologist E. Weber established that an increase in the intensity of a stimulus, capable of causing a barely noticeable increase in the intensity of sensation, always constitutes a certain part of the initial value of the stimulus. Thus, an increase in pressure on the skin is already felt if the load is increased by only 3% (3 g should be added to a weight weighing 100 g, and 6 g should be added to a weight weighing 200 g, etc.). This dependence is expressed by the following formula: dJ/J = const, where J is the strength of the stimulus, dJ is its barely noticeable increase (discrimination threshold), const is a constant value (constant), different for different sensations (pressure on the skin - 0.03, vision - 0.01, hearing - 0.1, etc.).
3. Operational signal discernibility threshold - this is the value of discrimination between signals at which the accuracy and speed of discrimination reach their maximum. The operational threshold is 10-15 times higher than the differential threshold.
4. Psychophysical Weber-Fechner law - describes the dependence of the intensity of sensation (E) on the strength of the stimulus (J).
German physicist, psychologist and philosopher G.T. Fechner (1801-1887) expressed this dependence, which was first discovered by E. Weber, with the following formula (basic psychophysical law): E = k . logJ + c (the intensity of the sensation increases in proportion to the logarithm of the stimulus strength), where k is the proportionality coefficient; c is a constant that is different for sensations of different modalities.
The American scientist S. Stevens believes that the basic psychophysical law is better expressed not by a logarithmic, but by a power function. However, in any case, the strength of sensation increases significantly more slowly than the magnitude of physical stimuli. These patterns are associated with the characteristics of the electrochemical processes occurring in the receptors when converting the effect into a nerve impulse.
5. Time threshold - the minimum duration of exposure to the stimulus required for the occurrence of sensations. For vision it is 0.1-0.2 s, and for hearing - 50 ms.
6. Spatial threshold - determined by the minimum size of a barely perceptible stimulus. For example, visual acuity is expressed by the ability of the eye to distinguish small details of objects. Their sizes are expressed in angular values, which are related to linear sizes by the formula tgC/2=h/2L, where C is the angular size of the object, h is the linear size, L is the distance from the eye to the object. With normal vision, the spatial threshold of visual acuity is 1", but the minimum acceptable dimensions of image elements for confident identification of objects should be 15" for simple objects, and at least 30-40 for complex ones.
7. Latent period of reaction - the period of time from the moment the signal is given to the moment the sensation occurs. It is different for sensations of different modalities. For example, for vision it is 160-240 ms. It should also be remembered that after the end of the stimulus, the sensations do not disappear immediately, but gradually (the inertia of vision is 0.1-0.2 s), therefore the duration of the signal and the interval between appearing signals must be no less than the time the sensations persist.
When designing modern technology, engineers need to know and take into account the psychological capabilities of a person to receive information. The main characteristics of analyzers can be found in the relevant manuals and reference books on engineering psychology.
4. Changes in sensitivityand processes of interaction between analyzers
There are two main forms of change in the sensitivity of the analyzer - adaptation and sensitization.
Adaptation called a change in the sensitivity of the analyzer under the influence of its adaptation to the current stimulus. It can be aimed at either increasing or decreasing sensitivity. For example, after 30-40 minutes of being in the dark, the sensitivity of the eye increases by 20 thousand times, and subsequently by 200 thousand times. The eye adapts (adapts) to the dark within 4-5 minutes - partially, 40 minutes - enough and 80 minutes - completely. Such an adaptation, which leads to an increase in the sensitivity of the analyzer, is called positive.
Negative adaptation accompanied by a decrease in the sensitivity of the analyzer. So, in the case of constant stimuli, they begin to be felt weaker and disappear. For example, it is a common fact for us that the olfactory sensations noticeably disappear soon after we enter an atmosphere with an unpleasant odor. The intensity of the taste sensation also weakens if the corresponding substance is kept in the mouth for a long time. Close to what is described is the phenomenon of dulling of sensation under the influence of a strong stimulus. For example, if you come out of the darkness into bright light, then after “blinding” the sensitivity of the eye sharply decreases, and we begin to see normally.
The phenomenon of adaptation is explained by the action of both peripheral and central mechanisms. When mechanisms regulating sensitivity act on the receptors themselves, they speak of sensory adaptation. In the case of more complex stimulation, which, although captured by receptors, is not so important for activity, central regulation mechanisms come into play at the level of the reticular formation, which blocks the transmission of impulses so that they do not “clutter” consciousness with excess information. These mechanisms underlie habituation-type adaptation to stimuli ( habituations).
Sensitization - increased sensitivity to the effects of a number of stimuli. Physiologically it is explained by an increase in the excitability of the cerebral cortex to certain stimuli as a result of exercise or interaction of analyzers. According to I.P. Pavlov, a weak stimulus causes an excitation process in the cerebral cortex, which easily spreads (irradiates) throughout the cortex. As a result of the irradiation of the excitation process, the sensitivity of other analyzers increases. On the contrary, under the influence of a strong stimulus, an excitation process occurs, which tends to concentrate, and, according to the law of mutual induction, this leads to inhibition in the central sections of other analyzers and a decrease in their sensitivity. Thus, when a quiet tone of equal intensity is sounded and at the same time the rhythmic impact of light on the eye, it will seem that the tone also changes its intensity. Another example of the interaction of analyzers is the well-known fact of increased visual sensitivity with a weak taste sensation of sour in the mouth. Knowing the patterns of changes in the sensitivity of the sensory organs, it is possible to sensitize a particular analyzer by using specially selected side stimuli. Sensitization can also be achieved as a result of exercise. These data have important practical applications, for example, in cases where it is necessary to compensate for sensory defects (blindness, deafness) at the expense of other, intact analyzers or in the development of pitch hearing in children involved in music.
Thus, the intensity of sensations depends not only on the strength of the stimulus and the level of adaptation of the receptor, but also on the stimuli currently acting on other sense organs. A change in the sensitivity of the analyzer under the influence of irritation of other sense organs is called interaction of sensations. The interaction of sensations, like adaptation, appears in two opposite processes: an increase and a decrease in sensitivity. Weak stimuli, as a rule, increase, and strong ones decrease, the sensitivity of analyzers
The interaction of analyzers is also manifested in the so-called synesthesia . With synesthesia, the sensation occurs under the influence of irritation characteristic of another analyzer. Visual-auditory synesthesia most often occurs when visual images (“color hearing”) appear under the influence of auditory stimuli. Many composers possessed this ability - N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, A.N. Scriabin et al. Auditory-gustatory and visual-gustatory synesthesia, although they are much less common, we are not surprised by the use in speech of expressions like: “sharp taste”, “sweet sounds”, “screaming color”, etc.
5. Disorders of sensations
Sensory disturbances are very numerous. However, in most cases, all observed sensation disorders can be classified into one of three main groups: hyperesthesia, hypoesthesia and paresthesia.
Hyperesthesia - increased sensitivity to real ordinary or even weak influences. In these cases, both external and intero- and proprioceptive stimuli cause an extremely intense reaction due to a sharp decrease in the lower absolute thresholds of sensations. For example, the sound of a typewriter deafens the patient (acoustic hyperesthesia), a burning candle blinds (optical hyperesthesia), and a shirt adjacent to the body irritates so much that it seems to be made “of barbed wire” (hyperesthesia of the skin sense), etc. Such mental hyperesthesia is observed in neuroses, intoxication with certain substances, in the initial stages of clouding of consciousness, and in acute psychoses.
Hypesthesia - decreased sensitivity to real stimuli, increased lower absolute thresholds of sensations. In this case, the patient almost does not react to an injection, to a fly crawling on his face, etc. Reduced sensitivity to temperature stimuli can lead to accidents - burns and frostbite. In extreme cases of hypoesthesia, the analyzer is completely unable to respond to stimulation, and this phenomenon is called anesthesia. Anesthesia usually occurs with a complete anatomical interruption of one of the peripheral nerve trunks or destruction of the central part of the analyzer. Loss of sensation usually extends to tactile, pain and temperature sensitivity (total anesthesia) or only to certain types of it (partial anesthesia). Neurologists distinguish radicular anesthesia, in which sensitivity in the zone of innervation of a certain dorsal root of the spinal cord is completely impaired, and segmental, in which disorders occur in the innervation zone of a certain segment of the spinal cord. In the latter case, anesthesia can be as follows: total, so dissociated, in which the absence of pain and temperature sensitivity is combined with the preservation of proprioceptive sensitivity or vice versa. In some diseases, such as leprosy (leprosy), specific damage to skin receptors occurs with a subsequent weakening and loss of temperature, then pain, and then tactile sensitivity (proprioceptive sensitivity is preserved for the longest time during leprosy anesthesia).
At mental hypoesthesia and anesthesia the corresponding analyzer is anatomically and physiologically formally preserved. Thus, hypoesthesia and anesthesia can be instilled in a person in a hypnotic sleep. Mental amblyopia (blindness), mental anosmia (insensitivity to smells), mental ageusia (loss of the sense of taste), mental acusia (deafness), mental tactile and pain anesthesia are often found in hysterical neurotic disorders. Within the framework of hysterical anesthesia, disorders of pain sensitivity of the “stockings” and “gloves” type are described, i.e., from the point of view of neurologists, patients develop areas of insensitivity to pain with clear boundaries that do not correspond to the zones of innervation of certain roots or nerves.
Paresthesia . If hypoesthesia and hyperesthesia can be qualified as quantitative disorders of sensitivity, then paresthesia is associated with qualitative changes (distortion) of information coming from the receptor to the cortical part of the analyzer. Probably everyone knows about the sensations that arise from prolonged compression of a nerve by an uncomfortable position - “I rested my arm,” “I spent my time on my leg.” When conduction along the nerve is disrupted, sensations of “crawling goosebumps”, skin tightening, tingling, burning appear (these are peculiar fluctuations in the modality of sensation). Paresthesia is often a sign of neurological or vascular damage.
They are close to paresthesia and senesthopathy, but occupy an intermediate position with visceral hallucinations, since they are even less associated with any real irritation of the peripheral part of the analyzer.
Senestopathies, “psychosomatic sensations”, or “sensations” - vague, often migrating, very unpleasant and painful sensations that are projected inside the body (inside the bodily “I”): squeezing and stretching, rolling and trembling, “suction”, “sticking” etc. They never have a clear localization, and patients are not even able to describe them correctly. Senestopathies occur in many mental illnesses. They can be constant or episodic. Sometimes they occur in the form of attacks, acute attacks, which allows us to talk about senestopathic crises. They are often accompanied by panic reactions, autonomic disorders, fear of madness, expressive postures and gestures. There are different approaches to assessing the clinical significance of senestopathy and their classification. So, A.K. Anufriev (1978) distinguishes five types of senestopathy for latent depression: cardiovascular, central neurological, abdominal, musculoskeletal, and skin-subcutaneous.
List of used literature
1. Ananyev B.G. Theory of sensations. – L.: Lenizdat, 1961.
2. Luria A.R. Sensation and perception. – M.: Education, 1978.
3. Sidorov P.I., Parnyakov A.V. Clinical psychology. – 3rd ed., revised. and additional – M.: GEOTAR-Media, 2008.
Human life is filled with different experiences that come through sensory systems. The simplest phenomenon of all mental processes is sensation. There is nothing more natural for us when we see, hear, feel the touch of objects.
The concept of sensation in psychology
Why is the topic: “Sensation” relevant? In psychology, this phenomenon has been studied for quite a long time, trying to give a more precise definition. Today, scientists are still trying to understand the depth of the inner world and human physiology. Sensation is, in general psychology, the process of displaying individual qualities, as well as features of objects and phenomena of reality under conditions of direct impact on the senses. The ability to gain such experience is characteristic of living organisms that have a nervous system. And for conscious sensations, living beings must have a brain.
The primary stage, before the appearance of such a mental process, was characterized by simple irritability, due to which a selective response to important influences from the external or internal environment occurred. The reaction was accordingly accompanied by changes in the state and behavior of the living organism, which was noticed by general psychology.
Sensation is in psychology the first link in a person’s knowledge of the external and internal world. There are different types of this phenomenon, depending on the stimuli that produce them. These objects or phenomena are connected with different types of energy and, accordingly, give rise to sensations of different quality: auditory, skin, visual. Psychology also distinguishes feelings associated with the muscular system and internal organs. Such phenomena are not realized by humans. The only exception is pain that comes from the internal organs. They do not reach the sphere of consciousness, but are perceived by the nervous system. A person also receives sensations that are associated with concepts such as time, acceleration, vibration and other vital factors.
The stimuli for our analyzers are electromagnetic waves that fall within a certain range.
Characteristics of types of sensations
Psychology provides a description of their various types. The first classification dates back to the ancient period. It is based on analyzers that determine such types as smell, taste, touch, vision and hearing.
Another classification of sensations in psychology is presented by B. G. Ananyev (he identified 11 types). There is also a systematic typology authored by the English physiologist C. Sherrington. It includes interoceptive, proprioceptive and exteroceptive types of sensations. Let's take a closer look at them.
Interoceptive type of sensation: description
This type of sensation gives signals from different organs and systems, which are characterized by certain indicators. Receptors receive signals from the digestive system (through the walls of the stomach and intestines), the cardiovascular system (the walls of blood vessels and the heart), from muscle tissue and other systems. Such nerve formations are called receptors of the internal environment.
These sensations belong to the most ancient and primitive group. They are characterized by unconsciousness, diffuseness and are very close to the emotional state. Another name for these mental processes is organic.
Proprioceptive type of sensation: description
Information about the state of our body is given to a person by proprioceptive sensation. In psychology, there are several subtypes of this type, namely: a sense of statics (balance) and kinesthetics (movements). Muscles and joints (tendons and ligaments) are the locations of receptors. The name of such sensitive areas is quite interesting - Paccini corpuscles. If we talk about peripheral receptors of proprioceptive sensations, they are localized in the tubules of the inner ear.
The concept of sensation in psychology and psychophysiology has been studied quite well. This was done by A. A. Orbeli, P. K. Anokhin, N. A. Bernstein.
Exteroceptive type of sensation: description
These sensations support a person’s connection with the outside world and are divided into contact (taste and tactile) and distant (auditory, olfactory and visual sensations in psychology).
The olfactory sensation in psychology is controversial among scientists because they do not know exactly where to place it. The object that emits the smell is at a distance, but the aroma molecules have contact with the nasal receptors. Or it happens that the object is no longer there, but the smell still hangs in the air. Olfactory sensations are also important in eating food and determining the quality of products.
Intermodal sensations: description
As with the sense of smell, there are other senses that are difficult to categorize. For example, this is vibration sensitivity. It includes sensations from the auditory analyzer, as well as from the skin and muscular system. According to L. E. Komendantov, vibration sensitivity is one of the forms of sound perception. Its enormous importance in the lives of people with limited or absent hearing and voice has been proven. Such people have a high level of development of tactile-vibrational phenomenology and can identify a moving truck or other car even at a long distance.
Other classifications of sensations
Also subject to study in psychology is M. Head, who substantiated the genetic approach to the division of sensitivity. He identified two types of it - protopathic (organic sensations - thirst, hunger, primitive and physiological) and epicritic (this includes all sensations known to scientists).
B. M. Teplov also developed a classification of sensations, distinguishing two types of receptors - interoreceptors and exteroceptors.
Characteristics of the properties of sensations
It should be noted that sensations of the same modality can be completely different from each other. The properties of such a cognitive process are its individual characteristics: quality, intensity, spatial localization, duration, sensation thresholds. In psychology, these phenomena were described by physiological scientists who were the first to begin to deal with such a problem.
Quality and intensity of sensation
In principle, any indicators of phenomena can be divided into quantitative and qualitative types. The quality of the sensation determines its differences from other types of this phenomenon and carries basic information from the stimulator. It is impossible to measure quality using any numerical instruments. If we take the visual sensation in psychology, then its quality will be color. For taste and olfactory sensitivity, this is the concept of sweet, sour, bitter, salty, aromatic, and so on.
The quantitative characteristic of a sensation is its intensity. This property is necessary for a person, since it is important for us to determine loud or quiet music, as well as whether it is light or dark in a room. Intensity is experienced differently depending on the following factors: the strength of the current stimulus (physical parameters) and the functional state of the receptor that is affected. The greater the indicators of the physical characteristics of the stimulus, the greater the intensity of the sensation.
Duration and spatial localization of sensation
Another important characteristic is duration, which indicates the temporary indicators of sensation. This property is also subject to the action of objective and subjective factors. If the stimulus acts for a long time, then the sensation will be long-lasting. This is an objective factor. Subjective lies in the functional state of the analyzer.
Stimuli that irritate the senses have their location in space. Sensations help determine the location of an object, which plays a significant role in human life.
Thresholds of sensations in psychology: absolute and relative
The absolute threshold is understood as those physical parameters of the stimulus in a minimal amount that cause sensation. There are stimuli that are lower than the absolute threshold level and do not cause sensitivity. But the human body is still influenced by these patterns of sensations. In psychology, researcher G. V. Gershuni presented the results of experiments in which it was found that sound stimuli that were lower than the absolute threshold caused certain electrical activity in the brain and pupil enlargement. This zone is a subsensory area.
There is also an upper absolute threshold - this is an indicator of a stimulus that cannot be adequately perceived by the senses. Such experiences cause pain, but not always (ultrasound).
In addition to properties, there are also patterns of sensations: synesthesia, sensitization, adaptation, interaction.
Characteristics of perception
Sensation and perception in psychology are the primary cognitive processes in relation to memory and thinking. We have given a brief description of this mental phenomenon, and now let’s move on to perception. This is a mental process of a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena of reality in their direct contact with the sense organs. Sensation and perception in psychology were studied by physiologists and psychologists L. A. Venger, A. V. Zaporozhets, V. P. Zinchenko, T. S. Komarova and other scientists. The process of collecting information provides a person with orientation in the outside world.
It should be noted that perception is characteristic only of humans and higher animals that are capable of forming images. This is a process of objectification. Delivery of information about the properties of objects to the cerebral cortex is a function of sensations. In the psychology of perception, they distinguish the formation of an image obtained on the basis of collected information about an object and its properties. The image is obtained as a result of the interaction of several sensory systems.
Types of perception
In perception there are three groups. Here are the most common classifications:
Properties of perception
S. L. Rubinstein states that people’s perceptions are generalized and directed.
So, the first property of this process is considered to be objectivity. Perception is impossible without objects, because they have their own specific colors, shape, size and purpose. We define a violin as a musical instrument, and a plate as a cutlery.
The second property is integrity. Sensations convey to the brain the elements of an object, its certain qualities, and with the help of perception these individual features are combined into a holistic image. At an orchestra concert, we listen to the music as a whole, and not to the sounds of each musical instrument separately (violin, double bass, cello).
The third property is constancy. It characterizes the relative constancy of shapes, shades of color and quantities that we perceive. For example, we see a cat as a certain animal, regardless of whether it is in the dark or in a bright room.
The fourth property is generality. It is human nature to classify objects and assign them to a certain class, depending on the characteristics that are present.
The fifth property is meaningfulness. When we perceive objects, we relate them to our experience and knowledge. Even if the object is unfamiliar, the human brain tries to compare it with familiar objects and identify common features.
The sixth property is selectivity. First of all, objects that have a connection with a person’s personal experience or activity are perceived. For example, while watching a play, an actor and a stranger will experience what is happening on stage differently.
Each process can occur both normally and in pathology. consider hyperesthesia (increased sensitivity to ordinary environmental stimuli), hypoesthesia (decreased level of sensitivity), agnosia (impaired recognition of objects in a state of clear consciousness and a slight decrease in general sensitivity), hallucinations (perception of non-existent objects in reality). Illusions are characterized by an erroneous perception of objects that exist in reality.
Finally, I would like to say that the human psyche is a rather complex device, and a separate consideration of processes such as sensation, perception, memory and thinking is artificial, because in reality all these phenomena occur in parallel or sequentially.
(recognition).
In the Soviet-Russian psychological school it is customary to consider sensation and feeling as synonyms, but this is not always true for other psychological schools. Other equivalents to the term "sensations" are sensory processes and sensitivity.
Sensory sensations
The minimum amount of stimulation that causes a barely noticeable sensation is called the absolute lower threshold of sensation. The ability to sense these weakest stimuli is called absolute sensitivity. It is always expressed in absolute numbers. For example, to create a sensation of pressure, an effect of 2 mg per 1 sq. mm of skin surface is sufficient.
The upper absolute threshold of sensation is the maximum value of irritation, a further increase in which causes the disappearance of sensation or pain. For example, an ultra-loud sound causes pain in the ears, and an ultra-high sound (oscillation frequency above 20,000 Hz) causes the sensation to disappear (the audible sound turns into ultrasound). A pressure of 300 g/mm2 causes pain.
Along with absolute sensitivity, one should distinguish between relative sensitivity - sensitivity to distinguishing the intensity of one effect from another. Relative sensitivity is characterized by a discrimination threshold.
The discrimination threshold, or differential threshold, is a barely perceptible minimum difference in the strength of two stimuli of the same type.
The discrimination threshold is a relative value (fraction) that shows what part of the initial strength of the stimulus must be added (or subtracted) in order to obtain a subtle sensation of change in the strength of these stimuli.
So, if you take a load of 1 kg and then add another 10 g, then no one will be able to feel this increase; to feel an increase in weight gain, you need to add 1/30 of the original weight, that is, 33 g. Thus, the relative threshold for distinguishing gravity is equal to 1/30 of the strength of the original stimulus.
The relative threshold for distinguishing light brightness is 1/100; sound strength - 1/10; taste effects - 1/5. These regularities were discovered by Bouguer and Weber (Bouguer-Weber law).
The Bouguer-Weber law applies only to the average zone of stimulus intensity. In other words, relative thresholds lose significance for very weak and very strong stimuli. This was established by Fechner.
Fechner also established that if the intensity of the stimulus is increased in geometric progression, then the sensation will increase only in arithmetic progression. (Fechner's Law).
The lower and upper absolute thresholds of sensations (absolute sensitivity) characterize the limits of human sensitivity. But each person's sensitivity varies depending on different conditions.
Thus, when entering a poorly lit room, we initially do not distinguish objects, but gradually, under the influence of these conditions, the sensitivity of the analyzer increases.
If we are in a smoky room or in a room with any odors, after a while we stop noticing these odors (the sensitivity of the analyzer decreases).
When we move from a poorly lit space to a brightly lit one, the sensitivity of the visual analyzer decreases.
A change in the sensitivity of the analyzer as a result of its adaptation to existing stimuli is called adaptation.
Different analyzers have different speeds and different ranges of adaptation. Adaptation to some stimuli occurs more quickly, to others - more slowly. Olfactory and tactile analyzers adapt more quickly. Full adaptation to the smell of iodine occurs in one minute. After three seconds, the sensation of pressure reflects only 1/5 of the strength of the stimulus (searching for glasses pushed onto the forehead is one example of tactile adaptation). The auditory, gustatory and visual analyzers adapt even more slowly. It takes 45 minutes to completely adapt to the dark. After this period, visual sensitivity increases 200,000 times (the highest range of adaptation).
The phenomenon of adaptation has expedient biological significance. It helps to reflect weak stimuli and protects the analyzers from excessive exposure to strong stimuli.
Sensitivity depends not only on the influence of external stimuli, but also on internal states.
Increasing the sensitivity of analyzers under the influence of internal (mental) factors is called sensitization. For example, weak taste sensations increase visual sensitivity. This is explained by the interconnection of these analyzers and their systematic operation.
Sensitization, an aggravation of sensitivity, can be caused not only by the interaction of sensations, but also by physiological factors, the introduction of certain substances into the body. For example, vitamin A is essential for increasing visual sensitivity.
Sensitivity increases if a person expects one or another weak stimulus, when he is faced with a special task of distinguishing between stimuli. The sensitivity of the individual is improved as a result of the exercise. Thus, tasters, by specially exercising their taste and olfactory sensitivity, distinguish between various types of wines and teas and can even determine when and where the product was made.
In people deprived of any type of sensitivity, compensation (compensation) for this deficiency is carried out by increasing the sensitivity of other organs (for example, increasing auditory and olfactory sensitivity in the blind).
The interaction of sensations in some cases leads to sensitization, to an increase in sensitivity, and in other cases to its decrease, that is, to desensitization. Strong excitation of some analyzers always reduces the sensitivity of other analyzers. Thus, increased noise levels in “loud workshops” reduce visual sensitivity.
One of the manifestations of the interaction of sensations is the contrast of sensations.
Contrast of sensations is an increase in sensitivity to one properties under the influence of other, opposite properties of reality.
For example, the same gray figure appears dark on a white background, but light on a black background.
Sometimes one type of sensation can cause additional sensations. For example, sounds can cause color sensations, yellow color - a feeling of sourness. This phenomenon is called synesthesia.
Notes
see also
Links
- Types of sensations 2. Smell, touch, vibration and proprioceptive sensations
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Synonyms:See what “Sensation” is in other dictionaries:
Reflection of the properties of objects in the objective world, resulting from their impact on the senses and stimulation of the nerve centers of the cerebral cortex. O. the starting point of knowledge, its indecomposable element. Highlighting the reflection of quality... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
feeling- reflection of the properties of objects in the objective world, arising from their direct impact on receptors. Within the framework of the reflex concept of I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov, studies were carried out that showed that, according to their physiological ... Great psychological encyclopedia
Feeling- Sensation ♦ Sensation Elementary perception or an element of possible perception. A sensation occurs when some physiological change, most often of an external nature, excites one of our senses. For example, the impact... ... Sponville's Philosophical Dictionary
We learn about the world around us, its beauty, sounds, colors, smells, temperature, size and much more thanks to our senses. With the help of the senses, the human body receives in the form of sensations a variety of information about the state of the external and internal environment.
FEELING is a simple mental process, which consists of reflecting individual properties of objects and phenomena in the surrounding world, as well as internal states of the body during the direct action of stimuli on the corresponding receptors.
The sense organs are affected by stimuli. It is necessary to distinguish between stimuli that are adequate for a particular sensory organ and those that are inadequate for it. Sensation is the primary process from which knowledge of the surrounding world begins.
SENSATION is a cognitive mental process of reflection in the human psyche of individual properties and qualities of objects and phenomena with their direct impact on his senses.
The role of sensations in life and knowledge of reality is very important, since they constitute the only source of our knowledge about the external world and about ourselves.
Physiological basis of sensations. The sensation arises as a reaction of the nervous system to a particular stimulus. The physiological basis of sensation is a nervous process that occurs when a stimulus acts on an analyzer adequate to it.
The sensation is reflexive in nature; physiologically it provides the analytical system. An analyzer is a nervous apparatus that performs the function of analyzing and synthesizing stimuli that come from the external and internal environment of the body.
ANALYZERS- these are the organs of the human body that analyze the surrounding reality and highlight in it certain types of psychoenergy.
The concept of an analyzer was introduced by I.P. Pavlov. The analyzer consists of three parts:
The peripheral section is a receptor that converts a certain type of energy into a nervous process;
Afferent (centripetal) pathways, transmitting excitation that arose in the receptor in the higher centers of the nervous system, and efferent (centrifugal), through which impulses from higher centers are transmitted to lower levels;
Subcortical and cortical projective zones, where the processing of nerve impulses from peripheral parts occurs.
The analyzer constitutes the initial and most important part of the entire path of nervous processes, or reflex arc.
Reflex arc = analyzer + effector,
The effector is a motor organ (a specific muscle) that receives a nerve impulse from the central nervous system (brain). The interconnection of the elements of the reflex arc provides the basis for the orientation of a complex organism in the environment, the activity of the organism depending on the conditions of its existence.
For sensation to arise, the entire analyzer as a whole must work. The action of an irritant on a receptor causes irritation.
Classification and types of sensations. There are various classifications of the sensory organs and the body’s sensitivity to stimuli entering the analyzers from the outside world or from within the body.
Depending on the degree of contact of the sense organs with stimuli, sensitivity is distinguished between contact (tangential, gustatory, pain) and distant (visual, auditory, olfactory). Contact receptors transmit irritation upon direct contact with objects that affect them; These are the tactile and taste buds. Distant receptors react to stimulation * that comes from a distant object; distance receptors are visual, auditory, and olfactory.
Since sensations arise as a result of the action of a certain stimulus on the corresponding receptor, the classification of sensations takes into account the properties of both the stimuli that cause them and the receptors that are affected by these stimuli.
Based on the placement of receptors in the body - on the surface, inside the body, in muscles and tendons - sensations are distinguished:
Exteroceptive, reflecting the properties of objects and phenomena of the external world (visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory)
Interoceptive, containing information about the state of internal organs (hunger, thirst, fatigue)
Proprioceptive, reflecting the movements of the body organs and the state of the body (kinesthetic and static).
According to the analyzer system, there are the following types of sensations: visual, auditory, tactile, pain, temperature, gustatory, olfactory, hunger and thirst, sexual, kinesthetic and static.
Each of these types of sensation has its own organ (analyzer), its own patterns of occurrence and functions.
The subclass of proprioception, which is sensitivity to movement, is also called kinesthesia, and the corresponding receptors are kinesthetic, or kinesthetic.
Independent sensations include temperature, which is the function of a special temperature analyzer that carries out thermoregulation and heat exchange between the body and the environment.
For example, the organ of visual sensations is the eye. The ear is the organ of perception of auditory sensations. Tactile, temperature and pain sensitivity is a function of organs located in the skin.
Tactile sensations provide knowledge about the degree of equality and relief of the surface of objects, which can be felt while touching them.
Painful sensations signal a violation of the integrity of the tissue, which, of course, causes a defensive reaction in a person.
Temperature sensation - a feeling of cold, warmth, it is caused by contact with objects that have a temperature higher or lower than body temperature.
An intermediate position between tactile and auditory sensations is occupied by vibration sensations, signaling the vibration of an object. The vibration sense organ has not yet been found.
Olfactory sensations signal the state of the food’s suitability for consumption, whether the air is clean or polluted.
The organ of taste is special cones, sensitive to chemical stimuli, located on the tongue and palate.
Static or gravitational sensations reflect the position of our body in space - lying, standing, sitting, balance, falling.
Kinesthetic sensations reflect the movements and states of individual parts of the body - arms, legs, head, body.
Organic sensations signal such states of the body as hunger, thirst, well-being, fatigue, pain.
Sexual sensations signal the body's need for sexual release, providing pleasure due to irritation of the so-called erogenous zones and sex in general.
From the point of view of the data of modern science, the accepted division of sensations into external (exteroceptors) and internal (interoceptors) is insufficient. Some types of sensations can be considered externally internal. These include temperature, pain, taste, vibration, muscle-articular, sexual and static di and ammic.
General properties of sensations. Sensation is a form of reflection of adequate stimuli. However, different types of sensations are characterized not only by specificity, but also by common properties. These properties include quality, intensity, duration and spatial location.
Quality is the main feature of a certain sensation, which distinguishes it from other types of sensations and varies within a given type. Thus, auditory sensations differ in pitch, timbre, and volume; visual - by saturation, color tone, and the like.
The intensity of sensations is its quantitative characteristic and is determined by the strength of the stimulus and the functional state of the receptor.
The duration of a sensation is its temporal characteristic. it is also determined by the functional state of the sensory organ, but mainly by the time of action of the stimulus and its intensity. During the action of a stimulus on a sense organ, sensation does not arise immediately, but after some time, which is called the latent (hidden) period of sensation.
General patterns of sensations. The general patterns of sensations are sensitivity thresholds, adaptation, interaction, sensitization, contrast, synesthesia.
Sensitivity. The sensitivity of a sense organ is determined by the minimum stimulus, which, under specific conditions, becomes capable of causing a sensation. The minimum strength of the stimulus that causes a barely noticeable sensation is called the lower absolute threshold of sensitivity.
Stimuli of lesser strength, so-called subthreshold, do not cause sensations, and signals about them are not transmitted to the cerebral cortex.
The lower threshold of sensations determines the level of absolute sensitivity of this analyzer.
The absolute sensitivity of the analyzer is limited not only by the lower, but also by the upper threshold of sensation.
The upper absolute threshold of sensitivity is the maximum strength of the stimulus at which sensations adequate to the specific stimulus still occur. A further increase in the strength of stimuli acting on our receptors causes only a painful sensation in them (for example, an extremely loud sound, dazzling brightness).
The difference in sensitivity, or sensitivity to discrimination, is also inversely related to the value of the discrimination threshold: the greater the discrimination threshold, the smaller the difference in sensitivity.
Adaptation. The sensitivity of analyzers, determined by the value of absolute thresholds, is not constant and changes under the influence of a number of physiological and psychological conditions, among which the phenomenon of adaptation occupies a special place.
Adaptation, or adjustment, is a change in the sensitivity of the senses under the influence of a stimulus.
There are three types of this phenomenon:
Adaptation as a complete disappearance of sensation during the prolonged action of a stimulus.
Adaptation as a dulling of sensation under the influence of a strong stimulus. The two types of adaptation described can be combined with the term negative adaptation, since it results in a decrease in the sensitivity of the analyzers.
Adaptation as an increase in sensitivity under the influence of a weak stimulus. This type of adaptation, inherent in some types of sensations, can be defined as positive adaptation.
The phenomenon of increasing the sensitivity of the analyzer to a stimulus under the influence of attentiveness, focus, and attitude is called sensitization. This phenomenon of the senses is possible not only as a result of the use of indirect stimuli, but also through exercise.
The interaction of sensations is a change in the sensitivity of one analyzing system under the influence of another. The intensity of sensations depends not only on the strength of the stimulus and the level of adaptation of the receptor, but also on the irritations that affect other sense organs at that moment. Change in the sensitivity of the analyzer under the influence of irritation of other sense organs. name for the interaction of sensations.
In this case, the interaction of sensations, as well as adaptation, will result in two opposite processes: an increase and decrease in sensitivity. The general rule here is that weak stimuli increase, and strong ones decrease, the sensitivity of sex analyzers through their interaction.
A change in the sensitivity of the analyzers can cause the action of other signal stimuli.
If you carefully, attentively peer, listen, savor, then sensitivity to the properties of objects and phenomena becomes clearer, brighter - objects and their properties are much better distinguished.
The contrast of sensations is a change in the intensity and quality of sensations under the influence of a previous or accompanying stimulus.
When two stimuli are applied simultaneously, a simultaneous contrast occurs. This contrast can be clearly seen in visual sensations. The figure itself will seem lighter on a black background, and darker on a white background. A green object on a red background is perceived as more saturated. Therefore, military objects are often camouflaged so that there is no contrast. This includes the phenomenon of sequential contrast. After a cold one, a weak warm stimulus will seem hot. The feeling of sour increases sensitivity to sweets.
Synesthesia of feelings is the occurrence of sex through the outpouring of a stimulus from one analyzer. which are typical for another analyzer. In particular, during the action of sound stimuli, such as airplanes, rockets, etc., visual images of them arise in a person. Or someone who sees a wounded person also feels pain in a certain way.
The activities of the analyzers will interact. This interaction is not isolated. It has been proven that light increases auditory sensitivity, and faint sounds increase visual sensitivity, cold washing of the head increases sensitivity to the color red, and the like.
Sensations are the source of our knowledge about the world and ourselves. All living beings with a nervous system have the ability to sense sensations. Conscious sensations are present only in living beings that have a brain and cerebral cortex. On the one hand, sensations are objective, since they always reflect an external stimulus, and on the other hand, sensations are subjective, since they depend on the state of the nervous system and the individual characteristics of a person.
Objects and phenomena of reality that affect our senses are called irritants. Stimuli cause excitation in nervous tissue. The sensation arises as a reaction of the nervous system to a particular stimulus and, like any mental phenomenon, has a reflex nature.
Sensations can be classified on different grounds. According to the leading modality (qualitative characteristics of sensations), the following sensations are distinguished: visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, motor, internal (sensations of the internal state of the body).
Visual sensations are a reflection of both achromatic (white, black and intermediate shades of gray) and chromatic (various shades of red, yellow, green, blue) colors. Visual sensations are caused by exposure to light, i.e. electromagnetic waves emitted (or reflected) by physical bodies to the visual analyzer. The external perceptive “device” is the retina of the eye.
Auditory sensations are a reflection of sounds of different heights (high - low), strength (loud - quiet) and different qualities (musical sounds, noises). They are caused by the influence of sound waves created by vibrations of bodies.
Olfactory sensations are a reflection of smells. Olfactory sensations arise due to the penetration of particles of odorous substances spreading in the air into the upper part of the nasopharynx, where they affect the peripheral endings of the olfactory analyzer, embedded in the nasal mucosa.
Taste sensations are a reflection of certain chemical properties of flavoring substances dissolved in water or saliva. The sense of taste plays an important role in the eating process, in distinguishing between different types of food.
Tactile sensations are a reflection of the mechanical properties of objects that are detected when touched, rubbed, or struck. These sensations also reflect the temperature of environmental objects and external pain.
Said sensations are called exteroceptive and form a single group based on the type of analyzers located on or near the surface of the body. Exteroceptive sensations are divided into contact and distant. Contact sensations are caused by direct touching the surface of the body (taste, touch), distant- irritants acting on the senses at some distance (vision, hearing). Olfactory sensations occupy an intermediate position between them.
The next group consists of sensations that reflect the movements and states of the body itself. They are called motor or proprioceptive. Motor sensations reflect the position of the limbs, their movements and the degree of effort applied. Without them, it is impossible to perform movements normally and coordinate them. Feel provisions(equilibrium) along with motor sensations play an important role in the process of perception (for example, stability).
In addition, there is a group of organic sensations - internal (interoceptive). These sensations reflect the internal state of the body. These include feelings of hunger, thirst, nausea, internal pain, etc.
Different types of sensations are common to them properties . These properties include:
quality- an essential feature of sensations that allows one to distinguish one type of sensation from another (for example, auditory from visual), as well as various variations of sensations within a given type (for example, by color, saturation);
intensity - a quantitative characteristic of sensations, which is determined by the strength of the current stimulus and the functional state of the receptor;
duration - temporal characteristics of sensations. It is determined by the functional state of the sense organs, the time of exposure to the stimulus and its intensity.
The quality of sensations of all types depends on the sensitivity of the appropriate type of analyzers.
The intensity of sensations depends not only on the strength of the stimulus and the level of adaptation of the receptors, but also on the irritations currently affecting other sense organs. A change in the sensitivity of analyzers under the influence of irritation of other sense organs is called interaction of sensations. The interaction of sensations is manifested in an increase and decrease in sensitivity: weak stimuli increase the sensitivity of the analyzers, and strong ones decrease it.
The interaction of sensations is manifested in the phenomena of sensitization and synesthesia. Sensitization(Latin sensibilis - sensitive) - increased sensitivity of nerve centers under the influence of a stimulus. Sensitization can develop not only through the use of side stimuli, but also through exercise. Thus, musicians develop high auditory sensitivity, tasters develop olfactory and gustatory sensations. Synesthesia- this is the occurrence, under the influence of irritation of a certain analyzer, of a sensation characteristic of another analyzer. Thus, when exposed to sound stimuli, a person may experience visual images.
3. Perception: concept, types. Basic properties of perception.
Perception- This is a reflection of integral objects and phenomena with their direct impact on the senses. In the course of perception, individual sensations are ordered and combined into holistic images of things. Unlike sensations, which reflect individual properties of the stimulus, perception reflects the object as a whole, in the totality of its properties.
Representatives of Gestalt psychology interpret perception as a kind of holistic configuration - Gestalt. Integrity, according to Gestalt psychology, is always the selection of a figure from the background. Details, parts, properties can only be separated from the whole image later. Gestalt psychologists have established many laws of perceptual organization, completely different from the laws of associations, according to which elements are connected into a coherent structure (laws of proximity, isolation, good form, etc.). They convincingly proved that the holistic structure of the image influences the perception of individual elements and individual sensations. The same element, being included in different images of perception, is perceived differently. For example, two identical circles appear different if one is surrounded by large circles and the other by small ones, etc.
The main ones are identified features (properties) perception:
1) integrity and structure - perception reflects a holistic image of an object, which, in turn, is formed on the basis of generalized knowledge about the individual properties and qualities of the object. Perception is capable of capturing not only individual parts of sensations (individual notes), but also a generalized structure woven from these sensations (the entire melody);
2) constancy- preservation of certain properties of the image of an object that seem constant to us. (When the conditions of perception change.) Thus, an object known to us (for example, a hand), distant from us, will seem to us exactly the same size as the same object that we see close. The property of constancy is involved here: the properties of the image approach the true properties of this object. Our perceptual system corrects the inevitable errors caused by the infinite diversity of the environment and creates adequate images of perception. When a person puts on glasses that distort objects and finds himself in an unfamiliar room, he gradually learns to correct the distortions caused by the glasses, and finally ceases to notice these distortions, although they are reflected on the retina. So, the constancy of perception that is formed during life in the process of objective activity is a necessary condition for a person’s orientation in a changing world;
3) objectivity of perception - this is an act of objectification, i.e., attributing information received from the external world to this world. There is a certain system of actions that provides the subject with the discovery of the objectivity of the world, and the main role is played by touch and movement. Objectivity also plays a big role in regulating behavior. Thanks to this quality, we can distinguish, for example, a brick from a block of explosives, although they will be similar in appearance;
4) meaningfulness. Although perception arises as a result of the direct impact of a stimulus on receptors, perceptual images always have a certain semantic meaning. Perception is thus related to with thinking and speech. We perceive the world through the prism of meaning. To consciously perceive an object means mentally naming it and attributing the perceived object to a certain group, class of objects, and generalizing it in words. For example, when we look at a watch, we do not see something round, shiny, etc., we see a specific object - a watch.
5) activity. During the process of perception, the motor components of the analyzers are involved (hand movements during touch, eye movements during visual perception, etc.). In addition, it is necessary to be able to actively move your body during the process of perception;
6) property of apperception. The perceptual system actively “builds” the image of perception, selectively using not all, but the most informative properties, parts, elements of the stimulus. In this case, information from memory and past experience is also used, which is added to sensory data (apperception). During the process of formation, the image itself and the actions to build it are constantly adjusted through feedback, and the image is compared with the reference one. Influence installations perception is reflected in Gogol’s comedy “The Inspector General”.
Thus, perception depends not only on irritation, but also on the perceiving object itself - a specific person. Perception is always affected by the personality characteristics of the perceiver, his attitude towards what is perceived, needs, aspirations, emotions at the time of perception, etc. Perception is thus closely related to the content of a person’s mental life.
Classification of perception.
At the core one of the classifications of perception, as well as sensations, lie differences in analyzers involved in perception. In accordance with which analyzer plays the predominant role in perception, visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic, olfactory and gustatory perceptions are distinguished.
Typically, the perception process is carried out by a number of analyzers interacting with each other. Motor sensations are involved to one degree or another in all types of perceptions. An example is tactile perception, which involves tactile and kinesthetic analyzers. Similarly, the motor analyzer is also involved in auditory and visual perception.
Different types of perception are rarely found in their pure form; they are usually combined, and as a result complex types of perceptions arise. Thus, a student’s perception of text in a lesson includes visual, auditory and kinesthetic perception.
basis second classification are forms of existence of matter. Distinguishes the perception of space, time and movement.
Perception of space This is the perception of shape, size, relative position of objects, their relief, distance and direction. In the perception of the spatial properties of things, tactile and kinesthetic sensations play a certain role, but the basis is visual data.
Two mechanisms play a significant role in the perception of magnitude: accommodation and convergence. The perception of depth and distance is achieved through binocularity. Perception of the direction in which objects are located is possible not only with the help of the visual, but also with the help of the auditory, motor and olfactory analyzer.
Perception of time- reflection of the objective duration, speed and sequence of phenomena of reality. This type of perception is based on a rhythmic change of excitation and inhibition in the central nervous system. Kinesthetic and auditory sensations are involved in the perception of time.
The perception of time is determined by the content that fills it. So, busy with interesting activities, we do not notice the passage of time. While idle, we, on the contrary, do not know how to kill time. However, when we remember, we will evaluate the first interval as longer than the second. This phenomenon reveals the law of the filled time period. The perception of time is also influenced by a person's emotions. The waiting time for a desired event is tedious, but for an unwanted, painful event, it is reduced.
Motion perception- this is a reflection of the change in position that objects occupy in space. There are two ways to perceive movement:
1. When the image of an object on the retina remains more or less motionless.
2. The eye remains relatively motionless, and the image of the object is mixed on the retina.
There are real and apparent movements.
An example of apparent movement is stroboscopic movement, on the principle of which cinema is based. It is known that the visual sensation does not disappear immediately, so we do not see flickering, but see a stable image.
Illusions of perception
The Ebbinghaus illusion (1902).
Which circle is bigger? The one surrounded by small circles
or the one that is surrounded by large ones?
They are identical.
Muller-Lyer illusion (Franz Muller-Lyer, 1889)
(transferring the properties of a whole figure to its individual parts) 
Which of the horizontal segments is longer?
...................................
Wife or mother-in-law (two picture options). 
Who do you see here?
A young girl or a sad old woman?