Our article is devoted to the history of creation and general principles of synthesis of such a device, sometimes called hydrogen. Instead of releasing explosive energy by splitting the nuclei of heavy elements like uranium, it generates even more energy by fusing the nuclei of light elements (such as isotopes of hydrogen) into one heavy one (such as helium).
Why is nuclear fusion preferable?
In a thermonuclear reaction, which consists of the fusion of nuclei participating in it chemical elements, significantly more energy is generated per unit mass of a physical device than in a pure atomic bomb implementing a nuclear fission reaction.
In an atomic bomb, fissile nuclear fuel quickly, under the influence of the energy of detonation of conventional explosives, combines in a small spherical volume, where its so-called critical mass is created, and the fission reaction begins. In this case, many neutrons released from fissile nuclei will cause the fission of other nuclei in the fuel mass, which also release additional neutrons, leading to a chain reaction. It covers no more than 20% of the fuel before the bomb explodes, or perhaps much less if conditions are not ideal: as in the atomic bombs Little Kid dropped on Hiroshima and Fat Man that hit Nagasaki, efficiency (if such a term can be applied to them) apply) were only 1.38% and 13%, respectively.
The fusion (or fusion) of nuclei covers the entire mass of the bomb charge and lasts as long as neutrons can find thermonuclear fuel that has not yet reacted. Therefore, the mass and explosive power of such a bomb are theoretically unlimited. Such a merger can theoretically continue indefinitely. Indeed, the thermonuclear bomb is one of the potential doomsday devices that could destroy all human life.
What is a nuclear fusion reaction?
The fuel for the thermonuclear fusion reaction is hydrogen isotopes deuterium or tritium. The first differs from ordinary hydrogen in that its nucleus, in addition to one proton, also contains a neutron, and the tritium nucleus already has two neutrons. In natural water, there is one deuterium atom for every 7,000 hydrogen atoms, but from its quantity. contained in a glass of water, as a result of a thermonuclear reaction, the same amount of heat can be obtained as from the combustion of 200 liters of gasoline. At a meeting in 1946 with politicians, the father of the American hydrogen bomb Edward Teller pointed out that deuterium provides more energy per gram of weight than uranium or plutonium, but costs twenty cents per gram compared to several hundred dollars per gram of fuel for nuclear fission. Tritium does not occur in nature in a free state at all, so it is much more expensive than deuterium, with a market price of tens of thousands of dollars per gram, however greatest number energy is released precisely in the reaction of fusion of deuterium and tritium nuclei, in which the nucleus of a helium atom is formed and a neutron is released, carrying away excess energy of 17.59 MeV
D + T → 4 He + n + 17.59 MeV.
This reaction is shown schematically in the figure below.
Is it a lot or a little? As you know, everything is learned by comparison. So, the energy of 1 MeV is approximately 2.3 million times more than that released during the combustion of 1 kg of oil. Consequently, the fusion of only two nuclei of deuterium and tritium releases as much energy as is released during the combustion of 2.3∙10 6 ∙17.59 = 40.5∙10 6 kg of oil. But we're talking about only about two atoms. You can imagine how high the stakes were in the second half of the 40s of the last century, when work began in the USA and the USSR, which resulted in a thermonuclear bomb.
How it all began
As early as the summer of 1942, at the beginning of the atomic bomb project in the United States (the Manhattan Project) and later in a similar Soviet program, long before a bomb based on the fission of uranium nuclei was built, the attention of some participants in these programs was drawn to the device, which can use a much more powerful nuclear fusion reaction. In the USA, a supporter of this approach, and even, one might say, its apologist, was the above-mentioned Edward Teller. In the USSR, this direction was developed by Andrei Sakharov, a future academician and dissident.
For Teller, his fascination with thermonuclear fusion during the years of creating the atomic bomb played a more important role disservice. As a participant in the Manhattan Project, he persistently called for the redirection of funds to implement his own ideas, the goal of which was a hydrogen and thermonuclear bomb, which did not please the leadership and caused tension in relations. Since at that time the thermonuclear direction of research was not supported, after the creation of the atomic bomb Teller left the project and took up teaching activities, as well as studies of elementary particles.
However, the outbreak of the Cold War, and most of all the creation and successful testing of the Soviet atomic bomb in 1949, became a new chance for the ardent anti-communist Teller to realize his scientific ideas. He returns to the Los Alamos laboratory, where the atomic bomb was created, and, together with Stanislav Ulam and Cornelius Everett, begins calculations.
The principle of a thermonuclear bomb
In order for the nuclear fusion reaction to begin, the bomb charge must be instantly heated to a temperature of 50 million degrees. Scheme thermo nuclear bomb, proposed by Teller, uses for this the explosion of a small atomic bomb, which is located inside the hydrogen casing. It can be argued that there were three generations in the development of her project in the 40s of the last century:
- Teller's variation, known as the "classic super";
- more complex, but also more realistic designs of several concentric spheres;
- the final version of the Teller-Ulam design, which is the basis of all thermonuclear weapon systems operating today.
The thermonuclear bombs of the USSR, whose creation was pioneered by Andrei Sakharov, went through similar design stages. He, apparently, completely independently and independently of the Americans (which cannot be said about the Soviet atomic bomb, created by the joint efforts of scientists and intelligence officers working in the USA) went through all of the above design stages.
The first two generations had the property that they had a succession of interlocking "layers", each of which enhanced some aspect of the previous one, and in some cases established Feedback. There was no clear division between the primary atomic bomb and the secondary thermonuclear one. In contrast, the Teller-Ulam thermonuclear bomb diagram sharply distinguishes between a primary explosion, a secondary explosion, and, if necessary, an additional one.
The device of a thermonuclear bomb according to the Teller-Ulam principle
Many of its details still remain classified, but it is reasonably certain that all thermonuclear weapons currently available are based on the device created by Edward Telleros and Stanislaw Ulam, in which an atomic bomb (i.e. the primary charge) is used to generate radiation, compresses and heats fusion fuel. Andrei Sakharov in the Soviet Union apparently independently came up with a similar concept, which he called the "third idea."
The structure of a thermonuclear bomb in this version is shown schematically in the figure below.
It was cylindrical in shape, with a roughly spherical primary atomic bomb at one end. The secondary thermonuclear charge in the first, not yet industrial samples, was made of liquid deuterium, a little later it became solid from chemical compound called lithium deuteride.
The fact is that industry has long used lithium hydride LiH for balloon-free hydrogen transportation. The developers of the bomb (this idea was first used in the USSR) simply proposed taking its isotope deuterium instead of ordinary hydrogen and combining it with lithium, since it is much easier to make a bomb with a solid thermonuclear charge.
The shape of the secondary charge was a cylinder placed in a container with a lead (or uranium) shell. Between the charges there is a neutron protection shield. The space between the walls of the container with thermonuclear fuel and the bomb body is filled with special plastic, usually polystyrene foam. The bomb body itself is made of steel or aluminum.
These shapes have changed in recent designs such as the one shown below.
In it, the primary charge is flattened, like a watermelon or an American football ball, and the secondary charge is spherical. Such shapes fit much more efficiently into the internal volume of conical missile warheads.
Thermonuclear explosion sequence
When a primary atomic bomb detonates, in the first moments of this process a powerful X-ray radiation (neutron flux) is generated, which is partially blocked by the neutron shield, and is reflected from the inner lining of the housing surrounding the secondary charge, so that the X-rays fall symmetrically across its entire length
On initial stages In a thermonuclear reaction, neutrons from an atomic explosion are absorbed by a plastic filler to prevent the fuel from heating up too quickly.
X-rays initially cause the appearance of a dense plastic foam that fills the space between the housing and the secondary charge, which quickly turns into a plasma state that heats and compresses the secondary charge.
In addition, the X-rays evaporate the surface of the container surrounding the secondary charge. The substance of the container, evaporating symmetrically relative to this charge, acquires a certain impulse directed from its axis, and the layers of the secondary charge, according to the law of conservation of momentum, receive an impulse directed towards the axis of the device. The principle here is the same as in a rocket, only if you imagine that the rocket fuel scatters symmetrically from its axis, and the body is compressed inward.
As a result of such compression of thermonuclear fuel, its volume decreases thousands of times, and the temperature reaches the level at which the nuclear fusion reaction begins. A thermonuclear bomb explodes. The reaction is accompanied by the formation of tritium nuclei, which merge with deuterium nuclei initially present in the secondary charge.
The first secondary charges were built around a rod core of plutonium, informally called a "candle", which entered into a nuclear fission reaction, i.e., another, additional nuclear explosion in order to further raise the temperature to ensure the start of the nuclear fusion reaction. It is currently believed that more efficient systems compression eliminated the "candle", allowing further miniaturization of the bomb design.
Operation Ivy
This was the name given to the tests of American thermonuclear weapons in the Marshall Islands in 1952, during which the first thermonuclear bomb was detonated. It was called Ivy Mike and was built by standard scheme Teller-Ulama. Its secondary thermonuclear charge was placed in a cylindrical container, which was a thermally insulated Dewar flask with thermonuclear fuel in the form of liquid deuterium, along the axis of which a “candle” of 239-plutonium ran. The Dewar, in turn, was covered with a layer of 238-uranium weighing more than 5 metric tons, which evaporated during the explosion, providing symmetrical compression of thermonuclear fuel. The container containing the primary and secondary charges was housed in a steel casing 80 inches wide by 244 inches long with walls 10 to 12 inches thick, the largest example of wrought iron up to that time. Inner surface The housing was lined with sheets of lead and polyethylene to reflect radiation after the explosion of the primary charge and create plasma that heats the secondary charge. The entire device weighed 82 tons. A view of the device shortly before the explosion is shown in the photo below.
The first test of a thermonuclear bomb took place on October 31, 1952. The power of the explosion was 10.4 megatons. Attol Eniwetok, where it was produced, was completely destroyed. The moment of the explosion is shown in the photo below.
The USSR gives a symmetrical answer
The US thermonuclear championship did not last long. On August 12, 1953, the first Soviet thermonuclear bomb RDS-6, developed under the leadership of Andrei Sakharov and Yuli Khariton, was tested at the Semipalatinsk test site. From the description above, it becomes clear that the Americans at Enewetok did not explode the bomb itself, as a type of ready-to-use ammunition, but rather a laboratory device, cumbersome and very imperfect. Soviet scientists, despite the small power of only 400 kg, tested a completely finished ammunition with thermonuclear fuel in the form of solid lithium deuteride, and not liquid deuterium, like the Americans. By the way, it should be noted that only the 6 Li isotope is used in lithium deuteride (this is due to the peculiarities of thermonuclear reactions), and in nature it is mixed with the 7 Li isotope. Therefore, special production facilities were built to separate lithium isotopes and select only 6 Li.
Reaching Power Limit
What followed was a decade of continuous arms race, during which the power of thermonuclear munitions continually increased. Finally, on October 30, 1961, in the USSR over the Novaya Zemlya test site in the air at an altitude of about 4 km, the most powerful thermonuclear bomb that had ever been built and tested, known in the West as the “Tsar Bomba,” was exploded.
This three-stage munition was actually developed as a 101.5-megaton bomb, but the desire to reduce radioactive contamination of the area forced the developers to abandon the third stage with a yield of 50 megatons and reduce the design yield of the device to 51.5 megatons. At the same time, the power of the primary explosion was 1.5 megatons. atomic charge, and the second thermonuclear stage was supposed to give another 50. The actual power of the explosion was up to 58 megatons. The appearance of the bomb is shown in the photo below.
Its consequences were impressive. Despite the very significant explosion height of 4000 m, the incredibly bright fireball bottom edge almost reached the Earth, and at the top rose to a height of more than 4.5 km. The pressure below the burst point was six times higher than the peak pressure of the Hiroshima explosion. The flash of light was so bright that it was visible at a distance of 1000 kilometers, despite the cloudy weather. One of the test participants saw a bright flash through dark glasses and felt the effects of the thermal pulse even at a distance of 270 km. A photo of the moment of the explosion is shown below.
It was shown that the power of a thermonuclear charge really has no limitations. After all, it was enough to complete the third stage, and the calculated power would be achieved. But it is possible to increase the number of stages further, since the weight of the Tsar Bomba was no more than 27 tons. The appearance of this device is shown in the photo below.
After these tests, it became clear to many politicians and military men both in the USSR and in the USA that the limit of the race had come nuclear weapons and she needs to be stopped.
Modern Russia inherited the nuclear arsenal of the USSR. Today, Russia's thermonuclear bombs continue to serve as a deterrent to those seeking global hegemony. Let's hope they only play their role as a deterrent and never get blown up.
The sun as a fusion reactor
It is well known that the temperature of the Sun, or more precisely its core, reaching 15,000,000 °K, is maintained due to the continuous occurrence of thermonuclear reactions. However, everything that we could glean from the previous text speaks of the explosive nature of such processes. Then why doesn't the Sun explode like a thermonuclear bomb?
The fact is that with a huge share of hydrogen in the solar mass, which reaches 71%, the share of its isotope deuterium, the nuclei of which can only participate in the thermonuclear fusion reaction, is negligible. The fact is that deuterium nuclei themselves are formed as a result of the merger of two hydrogen nuclei, and not just a merger, but with the decay of one of the protons into a neutron, positron and neutrino (so-called beta decay), which is a rare event. In this case, the resulting deuterium nuclei are distributed fairly evenly throughout the volume of the solar core. Therefore, given its enormous size and mass, individual and rare centers of thermonuclear reactions are relatively small. high power as if smeared throughout its entire core of the Sun. The heat released during these reactions is clearly not enough to instantly burn out all the deuterium in the Sun, but it is enough to heat it to a temperature that ensures life on Earth.
During the construction of the site for nuclear tests At the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site, on August 12, 1953, I had to survive the explosion of the first hydrogen bomb on the globe with a power of 400 kilotons; the explosion occurred suddenly. The earth shook beneath us like water. Wave earth's surface passed and raised us to a height of more than a meter. And we were about 30 kilometers away from the epicenter of the explosion. A barrage of air waves threw us to the ground. I rolled over it for several meters, like wood chips. There was a wild roar. Lightning flashed dazzlingly. They inspired animal terror.
When we, observers of this nightmare, stood up, a nuclear mushroom was hanging above us. Warmth emanated from it and a cracking sound was heard. I looked enchanted at the stem of a giant mushroom. Suddenly a plane flew up to him and began making monstrous turns. I thought it was a hero pilot taking samples of radioactive air. Then the plane dived into the mushroom stem and disappeared... It was amazing and scary.
There were indeed planes, tanks and other equipment on the training ground. But later inquiries showed that not a single plane took air samples from the nuclear mushroom. Was this really a hallucination? The mystery was solved later. I realized that this was a chimney effect of gigantic proportions. There were no planes or tanks on the field after the explosion. But experts believed that they evaporated due to high temperature. I believe that they were simply sucked into the fire mushroom. My observations and impressions were confirmed by other evidence.
On November 22, 1955, even more were produced powerful explosion. The charge of the hydrogen bomb was 600 kilotons. The site for this new explosion we prepared 2.5 kilometers from the epicenter of the previous nuclear explosion. The melted radioactive crust of the earth was buried immediately in trenches dug by bulldozers; They were preparing a new batch of equipment that was supposed to burn in the flame of a hydrogen bomb. The head of the construction of the Semipalatinsk test site was R. E. Ruzanov. He left a evocative description of this second explosion.
Residents of “Bereg” (testers’ residential town), now the city of Kurchatov, were woken up at 5 o’clock in the morning. It was -15°C. Everyone was taken to the stadium. Windows and doors in the houses were left open.
At the appointed hour, a giant plane appeared, accompanied by fighters.
The flash of the explosion occurred unexpectedly and frighteningly. She was brighter than the Sun. The sun has dimmed. It disappeared. The clouds have disappeared. The sky turned black and blue. There was a blow terrible power. He reached the stadium with the testers. The stadium was 60 kilometers from the epicenter. Despite this, the air wave knocked people to the ground and threw them tens of meters towards the stands. Thousands of people were knocked down. There was a wild cry from these crowds. Women and children were screaming. The entire stadium was filled with groans of injury and pain, which instantly shocked the people. The stadium with the testers and residents of the town drowned in dust. The city was also invisible from the dust. The horizon where the training ground was was boiling in clouds of flame. Leg atomic mushroom also seemed to be seething. She was moving. It seemed as if a boiling cloud was about to approach the stadium and cover us all. It was clearly visible how tanks, planes, and parts of destroyed structures specially built on the training ground began to be drawn into the cloud from the ground and disappeared into it. The thought drilled into my head: we too will be drawn into this cloud! Everyone was overcome by numbness and horror.
Suddenly, the stem of a nuclear mushroom came off the boiling cloud above. The cloud rose higher, and the leg sank to the ground. Only then did people come to their senses. Everyone rushed to the houses. There were no windows, doors, roofs or belongings. Everything was scattered around. Those injured during the tests were hastily collected and sent to the hospital...
A week later, officers who arrived from the Semipalatinsk test site spoke in whispers about this monstrous spectacle. About the suffering that people endured. About tanks flying in the air. Comparing these stories with my observations, I realized that I had witnessed a phenomenon that can be called the chimney effect. Only on a gigantic scale.
During the hydrogen explosion, huge thermal masses were torn off from the surface of the earth and moved towards the center of the mushroom. This effect arose due to the monstrous temperatures produced by a nuclear explosion. In the initial stage of the explosion, the temperature was 30 thousand degrees Celsius. In the leg of the nuclear mushroom it was at least 8 thousand. A huge, monstrous suction force arose, drawing any objects standing at the test site into the epicenter of the explosion. Therefore, the plane that I saw during the first nuclear explosion was not a hallucination. He was simply pulled into the stem of the mushroom, and he made incredible turns there...
The process that I observed during the explosion of a hydrogen bomb is very dangerous. Not only by its high temperature, but also by the effect I understood of the absorption of gigantic masses, be it the air or water shell of the Earth.
My calculation in 1962 showed that if a nuclear mushroom pierced the atmosphere to a great height, it could cause a planetary catastrophe. When the mushroom rises to a height of 30 kilometers, the process of absorption of water will begin. air masses Earth to space. The vacuum will begin to work like a pump. The earth will lose air and water shells along with the biosphere. Humanity will perish.
I calculated that for this apocalyptic process, an atomic bomb of only 2 thousand kilotons is enough, that is, only three times more powerful than the second one. hydrogen explosion. This is the simplest man-made scenario for the death of humanity.
At one time I was forbidden to talk about it. Today I consider it my duty to speak about the threat to humanity directly and openly.
Huge reserves of nuclear weapons have been accumulated on Earth. Reactors are working nuclear power plants Worldwide. They can become prey for terrorists. The explosion of these objects can reach a power greater than 2 thousand kilotons. Potentially, the scenario for the death of civilization has already been prepared.
What follows from this? Needs to be protected nuclear facilities from possible terrorism so thoroughly that they would be completely inaccessible to him. IN otherwise planetary catastrophe is inevitable.
Sergey Alekseenko
construction participant
Semipolatinsk Nuclear
Atomic energy is released not only during the fission of atomic nuclei of heavy elements, but also during the combination (synthesis) of light nuclei into heavier ones.
For example, the nuclei of hydrogen atoms combine to form the nuclei of helium atoms, and more energy is released per unit weight of nuclear fuel than when uranium nuclei fission.
These nuclear fusion reactions, which occur at very high temperatures, measured in tens of millions of degrees, are called thermonuclear reactions. Weapons based on the use of energy instantly released as a result of a thermonuclear reaction are called thermonuclear weapons.
Thermonuclear weapons, which use hydrogen isotopes as a charge (nuclear explosive), are often called hydrogen weapons.
The fusion reaction between hydrogen isotopes - deuterium and tritium - is particularly successful.
Lithium deuterium (a compound of deuterium and lithium) can also be used as a charge for a hydrogen bomb.
Deuterium, or heavy hydrogen, occurs naturally in trace amounts in heavy water. Ordinary water contains about 0.02% heavy water as an impurity. To obtain 1 kg of deuterium, it is necessary to process at least 25 tons of water.
Tritium, or superheavy hydrogen, is practically never found in nature. It is obtained artificially, for example, by irradiating lithium with neutrons. Neutrons released in nuclear reactors can be used for this purpose.
Practically device hydrogen bomb one can imagine in the following way: Next to a hydrogen charge containing heavy and superheavy hydrogen (i.e., deuterium and tritium), there are two spaced hemispheres of uranium or plutonium (atomic charge).
To bring these hemispheres closer together, charges made from conventional explosives (TNT) are used. Exploding simultaneously, the TNT charges bring the hemispheres of the atomic charge closer together. At the moment of their connection, an explosion occurs, thereby creating conditions for a thermonuclear reaction, and consequently, an explosion of the hydrogen charge will occur. Thus, the reaction of a hydrogen bomb explosion goes through two phases: the first phase is the fission of uranium or plutonium, the second is the fusion phase, in which helium nuclei are formed and free neutrons great energy. Currently, there are schemes for constructing a three-phase thermonuclear bomb.
In a three-phase bomb, the shell is made of uranium-238 (natural uranium). In this case, the reaction goes through three phases: the first fission phase (uranium or plutonium for detonation), the second - thermonuclear reaction in lithium hydrite and the third phase is the fission reaction of uranium-238. The fission of uranium nuclei is caused by neutrons, which are released in the form of a powerful stream during the fusion reaction.
Making a shell from uranium-238 makes it possible to increase the power of a bomb using the most accessible atomic raw materials. According to foreign press reports, bombs with a yield of 10-14 million tons or more have already been tested. It becomes obvious that this is not the limit. Further improvement of nuclear weapons is carried out both through the creation of especially high-power bombs and through the development of new designs that make it possible to reduce the weight and caliber of bombs. In particular, they are working on creating a bomb based entirely on fusion. There are, for example, reports in the foreign press about the possibility of using a new method of detonating thermonuclear bombs based on the use of shock waves of conventional explosives.
The energy released by the explosion of a hydrogen bomb can be thousands of times greater than the energy of an atomic bomb explosion. However, the radius of destruction cannot be as many times greater than the radius of destruction caused by the explosion of an atomic bomb.
The radius of action of a shock wave during an air explosion of a hydrogen bomb with a TNT equivalent of 10 million tons is approximately 8 times greater than the radius of action of a shock wave formed during the explosion of an atomic bomb with a TNT equivalent of 20,000 tons, while the power of the bomb is 500 times greater, tons . i.e. by the cubic root of 500. Accordingly, the destruction area increases by approximately 64 times, i.e., in proportion to the cubic root of the coefficient of increase in the power of the bomb squared.
According to foreign authors, with a nuclear explosion with a capacity of 20 million tons, the area of complete destruction of ordinary ground-based structures, according to American experts, can reach 200 km 2, the zone of significant destruction - 500 km 2 and partial - up to 2580 km 2.
This means, foreign experts conclude, that the explosion of one bomb of similar power is enough to destroy a modern large city. As you know, the occupied area of Paris is 104 km2, London - 300 km2, Chicago - 550 km2, Berlin - 880 km2.
The scale of damage and destruction from a nuclear explosion with a capacity of 20 million tons can be presented schematically in the following form:
The area of lethal doses of initial radiation within a radius of up to 8 km (over an area of up to 200 km 2);
Area of damage by light radiation (burns)] within a radius of up to 32 km (over an area of about 3000 km 2).
Damage to residential buildings (glasses broken, plaster crumbling, etc.) can be observed even at a distance of up to 120 km from the explosion site.
The given data from open foreign sources are indicative; they were obtained during testing of lower-yield nuclear weapons and through calculations. Deviations from these data in one direction or another will depend on various factors, and primarily on the terrain, the nature of the development, meteorological conditions, vegetation cover, etc.
The damage radius can be changed to a large extent by artificially creating certain conditions that reduce the effect of the damaging factors of the explosion. So, for example, you can reduce lethal effect light radiation, reduce the area where people can be burned and objects can ignite by creating a smoke screen.
Experiments carried out in the USA to create smoke screens for nuclear explosions in 1954-1955. showed that with a curtain density (oil mists) obtained with a consumption of 440-620 liters of oil per 1 km 2, the impact of light radiation from a nuclear explosion, depending on the distance to the epicenter, can be weakened by 65-90%.
Other smokes also weaken the damaging effects of light radiation, which are not only not inferior, but in some cases superior to oil fogs. In particular, industrial smoke, which reduces atmospheric visibility, can reduce the effects of light radiation to the same extent as oil mists.
It is much possible to reduce the damaging effect of nuclear explosions through the dispersed construction of settlements, the creation of forest areas, etc.
Of particular note is the sharp decrease in the radius of destruction of people depending on the use of certain protective equipment. It is known, for example, that even at a relatively small distance from the epicenter of the explosion, a reliable shelter from the effects of light radiation and penetrating radiation is a shelter with a layer of earthen covering 1.6 m thick or a layer of concrete 1 m thick.
Asylum light type reduces the radius of the affected area by six times compared to an open location, and the affected area is reduced by tens of times. When using covered slots, the radius of possible damage is reduced by 2 times.
Consequently, with the maximum use of all available methods and means of protection, it is possible to achieve a significant reduction in the impact of the damaging factors of nuclear weapons and thereby reduce human and material losses during their use.
Speaking about the scale of destruction that can be caused by explosions of high-power nuclear weapons, it is necessary to keep in mind that damage will be caused not only by the action of a shock wave, light radiation and penetrating radiation, but also by the action of radioactive substances falling along the path of movement of the cloud formed during the explosion , which includes not only gaseous explosion products, but also solid particles of various sizes, both in weight and size. Especially a large number of Radioactive dust is formed during ground explosions.
The height of the cloud and its size largely depend on the power of the explosion. According to foreign press reports, during tests of nuclear charges with a capacity of several million tons of TNT, which were carried out by the United States in the Pacific Ocean in 1952-1954, the top of the cloud reached a height of 30-40 km.
In the first minutes after the explosion, the cloud has the shape of a ball and over time it stretches in the direction of the wind, reaching a huge size (about 60-70 km).
About an hour after the explosion of a bomb with a TNT equivalent of 20 thousand tons, the volume of the cloud reaches 300 km 3, and with the explosion of a bomb of 20 million tons, the volume can reach 10 thousand km 3.
Moving in the direction of the flow of air masses, an atomic cloud can occupy a strip several tens of kilometers long.
From the cloud, as it moves, after rising to the upper layers of the rarefied atmosphere, within a few minutes radioactive dust begins to fall to the ground, contaminating an area of several thousand square kilometers along the way.
At first, the heaviest dust particles fall out, which have time to settle within a few hours. The bulk of coarse dust falls in the first 6-8 hours after the explosion.
About 50% of the particles (the largest) of radioactive dust fall out during the first 8 hours after the explosion. This loss is often called local in contrast to general, widespread.
Smaller dust particles remain in the air for various heights and fall to the ground within about two weeks after the explosion. During this time, the cloud can circle the globe several times, capturing wide strip parallel to the latitude at which the explosion took place.
Small particles (up to 1 μm) remain in upper layers atmosphere, distributed more evenly around the globe, and fall over the next number of years. According to scientists, the fallout of fine radioactive dust has continued everywhere for about ten years.
The greatest danger to the population is radioactive dust falling in the first hours after the explosion, since the level radioactive contamination is so high that it can cause fatal injuries to people and animals who find themselves in the area along the path of the radioactive cloud.
The size of the area and the degree of contamination of the area as a result of the fall out of radioactive dust largely depend on meteorological conditions, terrain, explosion height, bomb charge size, nature of the soil, etc. The most important factor, which determines the size of the contamination area and its configuration, is the direction and strength of the winds prevailing in the area of the explosion at various heights.
To determine the possible direction of cloud movement, it is necessary to know in which direction and at what speed the wind is blowing at various altitudes, starting from a height of about 1 km and ending at 25-30 km. To do this, the weather service must conduct continuous observations and measurements of wind using radiosondes at various altitudes; Based on the data obtained, determine in which direction the radioactive cloud is most likely to move.
During the explosion of a hydrogen bomb carried out by the United States in 1954 in the central Pacific Ocean (on Bikini Atoll), the contaminated area of the territory had the shape of an elongated ellipse, which extended 350 km downwind and 30 km against the wind. The greatest width of the strip was about 65 km. The total area of dangerous contamination reached about 8 thousand km 2.
As is known, as a result of this explosion, the Japanese fishing vessel Fukuryumaru, which was at that time at a distance of about 145 km, was contaminated with radioactive dust. The 23 fishermen on board the ship were injured, one of them fatally.
The radioactive dust that fell after the explosion on March 1, 1954 also exposed 29 American employees and 239 residents of the Marshall Islands, all of whom were injured at a distance of more than 300 km from the explosion site. Other ships that were in the area were also infected. Pacific Ocean at a distance of up to 1500 km from Bikini, and part of the fish near the Japanese coast.
The contamination of the atmosphere with explosion products was indicated by the rains that fell in May on the Pacific coast and Japan, in which greatly increased radioactivity was detected. The areas where radioactive fallout occurred during May 1954 cover about a third of Japan's entire territory.
The above data on the scale of damage that can be inflicted on the population by the explosion of large-caliber atomic bombs show that high-power nuclear charges (millions of tons of TNT) can be considered radiological weapons, i.e. weapons that damage more with the radioactive products of the explosion than with the impact wave, light radiation and penetrating radiation acting at the moment of explosion.
Therefore, in the course of preparing populated areas and national economic facilities for civil defense, it is necessary to provide everywhere for measures to protect the population, animals, food, fodder and water from contamination by the products of the explosion of nuclear charges, which may fall along the path of the radioactive cloud.
It should be borne in mind that as a result of the fallout of radioactive substances, not only the surface of the soil and objects will be contaminated, but also the air, vegetation, water in open reservoirs, etc. The air will be contaminated as during the period of sedimentation radioactive particles, and subsequently, especially along roads during traffic or in windy weather, when settled dust particles will again rise into the air.
Consequently, unprotected people and animals may be affected by radioactive dust that enters the respiratory system along with the air.
Food and water contaminated with radioactive dust, which, if ingested, can cause serious disease, sometimes with fatal consequences. Thus, in the area where radioactive substances formed during a nuclear explosion fall out, people will be exposed not only to external radiation, but also when contaminated food, water or air enters the body. When organizing protection against damage from the products of a nuclear explosion, it should be taken into account that the degree of contamination along the trail of the movement of the cloud decreases with distance from the explosion site.
Therefore, the danger to which the population located in the area of the contamination zone is exposed is not the same at different distances from the explosion site. The most dangerous areas will be the areas close to the explosion site and areas located along the axis of the cloud movement (the middle part of the strip along the trail of the cloud movement).
The unevenness of radioactive contamination along the path of cloud movement is to a certain extent natural. This circumstance must be taken into account when organizing and conducting measures for radiation protection of the population.
It is also necessary to take into account that some time passes from the moment of explosion to the moment radioactive substances fall out of the cloud. This time increases the further you are from the explosion site, and can amount to several hours. The population of areas remote from the explosion site will have sufficient time to take appropriate protective measures.
In particular, provided that warning means are prepared in a timely manner and the relevant civil defense units work efficiently, the population can be notified of the danger in about 2-3 hours.
During this time, with advance preparation of the population and high level of organization, a number of measures can be carried out to provide fairly reliable protection against radioactive damage to people and animals. The choice of certain measures and methods of protection will be determined by the specific conditions of the current situation. However general principles must be determined and civil defense plans developed in advance accordingly.
It can be considered that, under certain conditions, the most rational should be the adoption, first of all, of protective measures on the spot, using all means and. methods that protect both from the entry of radioactive substances into the body and from external radiation.
As is known, the most effective means of protection from external radiation are shelters (adapted to meet the requirements of nuclear protection, as well as buildings with massive walls, built from dense materials (brick, cement, reinforced concrete, etc.), including basements, dugouts , cellars, covered spaces and ordinary residential buildings.
When assessing the protective properties of buildings and structures, you can be guided by the following indicative data: a wooden house weakens the effect of radioactive radiation depending on the thickness of the walls by 4-10 times, a stone house - by 10-50 times, cellars and basements in wooden houses - by 50-100 times, a gap with an overlap of a layer of earth of 60-90 cm - 200-300 times.
Consequently, civil defense plans should provide for the use, if necessary, first of all of structures with more powerful protective means; upon receiving a signal about the danger of destruction, the population must immediately take refuge in these premises and remain there until further actions are announced.
The length of time people stay in the premises intended for shelter will depend mainly on the extent to which the area where the settlement is located is contaminated, and the rate at which the radiation level decreases over time.
So, for example, in populated areas located at a considerable distance from the explosion site, where the total radiation doses that unprotected people will receive can become safe within a short time, it is advisable for the population to wait this time in shelters.
In areas of severe radioactive contamination, where the total dose that unprotected people can receive will be high and its reduction will be prolonged under these conditions, long-term stay of people in shelters will become difficult. Therefore, the most rational thing to do in such areas is to first shelter the population in place and then evacuate it to uncontaminated areas. The beginning of evacuation and its duration will depend on local conditions: the level of radioactive contamination, the presence Vehicle, communication routes, time of year, remoteness of places where evacuees are accommodated, etc.
Thus, the territory of radioactive contamination according to the trace of the radioactive cloud can be divided conditionally into two zones with different principles of protecting the population.
The first zone includes the territory where radiation levels remain high 5-6 days after the explosion and decrease slowly (by about 10-20% daily). Evacuation of the population from such areas can begin only after the radiation level has decreased to such levels that during the collection and movement in the contaminated area people will not receive a total dose of more than 50 rubles.
The second zone includes areas in which radiation levels decrease during the first 3-5 days after the explosion to 0.1 roentgen/hour.
Evacuation of the population from this zone is not advisable, since this time can be waited out in shelters.
Successful implementation of measures to protect the population in all cases is unthinkable without thorough radiation reconnaissance and monitoring and constant monitoring of radiation levels.
Speaking about protecting the population from radioactive damage following the movement of a cloud formed during a nuclear explosion, it should be remembered that it is possible to avoid damage or achieve its reduction only with a clear organization of a set of measures, which include:
- organization of a warning system that provides timely warning to the population about the most likely direction of movement of the radioactive cloud and the danger of damage. For these purposes, all available means of communication must be used - telephone, radio stations, telegraph, radio broadcast, etc.;
- training civil defense units to conduct reconnaissance both in cities and in rural areas;
- sheltering people in shelters or other premises that protect from radioactive radiation (basements, cellars, crevices, etc.);
- carrying out the evacuation of the population and animals from the area of persistent contamination with radioactive dust;
- preparation of formations and institutions of the civil defense medical service for actions to provide assistance to the affected, mainly treatment, sanitization, examination of water and food products on your contamination with radioactive substances;
- early implementation of measures to protect food products in warehouses, retail chains, and enterprises Catering, as well as sources of water supply from contamination by radioactive dust (sealing of warehouses, preparation of containers, improvised materials for covering products, preparation of means for decontamination of food and containers, equipping with dosimetric instruments);
- carrying out measures to protect animals and providing assistance to animals in case of defeat.
To ensure reliable protection of animals, it is necessary to provide for keeping them on collective farms, state farms, if possible, in small groups in teams, farms or settlements, having places of shelter.
It is also necessary to provide for the creation of additional reservoirs or wells, which can become backup sources of water supply in the event of contamination of water from permanent sources.
Warehouses in which fodder is stored, as well as livestock buildings, which should be sealed whenever possible, become important.
To protect valuable breeding animals it is necessary to have individual means protection, which can be made from available materials on site (bandages for eye protection, bags, blankets, etc.), as well as gas masks (if available).
To carry out decontamination of premises and veterinary treatment of animals, it is necessary to take into account in advance the disinfection installations, sprayers, sprinklers, liquid spreaders and other mechanisms and containers available on the farm, with the help of which disinfection and veterinary treatment work can be carried out;
Organization and preparation of formations and institutions to carry out work on the decontamination of structures, terrain, vehicles, clothing, equipment and other civil defense property, for which measures are taken in advance to adapt municipal equipment, agricultural machines, mechanisms and instruments for these purposes. Depending on the availability of equipment, appropriate formations must be created and trained - detachments, teams, groups, units, etc.
The explosion occurred in 1961. Within a radius of several hundred kilometers from the test site, a hasty evacuation of people took place, as scientists calculated that all houses without exception would be destroyed. But no one expected such an effect. The blast wave circled the planet three times. The landfill remained a “blank slate”; all the hills on it disappeared. Buildings turned to sand in a second. A terrible explosion was heard within a radius of 800 kilometers.
If you think that the atomic warhead is the most terrible weapon of mankind, then you do not yet know about the hydrogen bomb. We decided to correct this oversight and talk about what it is. We have already talked about and.
A little about the terminology and principles of work in pictures
Understanding what a nuclear warhead looks like and why, it is necessary to consider the principle of its operation, based on the fission reaction. First, an atomic bomb detonates. The shell contains isotopes of uranium and plutonium. They disintegrate into particles, capturing neutrons. Next, one atom is destroyed and the fission of the rest is initiated. This is done using chain process. At the end, the nuclear reaction itself begins. The bomb's parts become one whole. The charge begins to exceed critical mass. With the help of such a structure, energy is released and an explosion occurs.
By the way, a nuclear bomb is also called an atomic bomb. And hydrogen is called thermonuclear. Therefore, the question of how an atomic bomb differs from a nuclear one is inherently incorrect. It is the same. The difference between a nuclear bomb and a thermonuclear bomb is not only in the name.
The thermonuclear reaction is based not on the fission reaction, but on the compression of heavy nuclei. A nuclear warhead is the detonator or fuse for a hydrogen bomb. In other words, imagine a huge barrel of water. An atomic rocket is immersed in it. Water is a heavy liquid. Here the proton with sound is replaced in the hydrogen nucleus by two elements - deuterium and tritium:
- Deuterium is one proton and a neutron. Their mass is twice that of hydrogen;
- Tritium consists of one proton and two neutrons. They are three times heavier than hydrogen.
Thermonuclear bomb tests
, the end of World War II, a race began between America and the USSR and global community realized that a nuclear or hydrogen bomb is more powerful. Destructive force atomic weapons began to attract each side. The United States was the first to make and test a nuclear bomb. But it soon became clear that she could not have large sizes. Therefore, it was decided to try to make a thermonuclear warhead. Here again America succeeded. The Soviets decided not to lose the race and tested a compact but powerful missile that could be transported even on a regular Tu-16 aircraft. Then everyone understood the difference between a nuclear bomb and a hydrogen bomb.
For example, the first American thermonuclear warhead was as tall as a three-story house. It could not be delivered by small transport. But then, according to developments by the USSR, the dimensions were reduced. If we analyze, we can conclude that these terrible destructions were not that great. In TNT equivalent, the impact force was only a few tens of kilotons. Therefore, buildings were destroyed in only two cities, and the sound of a nuclear bomb was heard in the rest of the country. If it were a hydrogen rocket, all of Japan would be completely destroyed with just one warhead.
A nuclear bomb with too much charge may explode inadvertently. Will begin chain reaction and there will be an explosion. Considering the differences between nuclear atomic and hydrogen bombs, it is worth noting this point. After all, a thermonuclear warhead can be made of any power without fear of spontaneous detonation.
This interested Khrushchev, who ordered the creation of the most powerful hydrogen warhead in the world and thus get closer to winning the race. It seemed to him that 100 megatons was optimal. Soviet scientists pushed themselves hard and managed to invest 50 megatons. Tests began on the island of Novaya Zemlya, where there was a military training ground. To this day, the Tsar Bomba is called the largest bomb exploded on the planet.
The explosion occurred in 1961. Within a radius of several hundred kilometers from the test site, a hasty evacuation of people took place, as scientists calculated that all houses without exception would be destroyed. But no one expected such an effect. The blast wave circled the planet three times. The landfill remained a “blank slate”; all the hills on it disappeared. Buildings turned to sand in a second. A terrible explosion was heard within a radius of 800 kilometers. The fireball from the use of such a warhead as the universal destroyer runic nuclear bomb in Japan was visible only in cities. But from the hydrogen rocket it rose 5 kilometers in diameter. The mushroom of dust, radiation and soot grew 67 kilometers. According to scientists, its cap was a hundred kilometers in diameter. Just imagine what would have happened if the explosion had occurred within the city limits.
Modern dangers of using the hydrogen bomb
We have already examined the difference between an atomic bomb and a thermonuclear one. Now imagine what the consequences of the explosion would have been if the nuclear bomb dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki had been a hydrogen bomb with a thematic equivalent. There would be no trace left of Japan.
Based on the test results, scientists concluded the consequences of a thermonuclear bomb. Some people think that a hydrogen warhead is cleaner, meaning it is not actually radioactive. This is due to the fact that people hear the name “water” and underestimate its deplorable impact on the environment.
As we have already figured out, a hydrogen warhead is based on a huge amount of radioactive substances. It is possible to make a rocket without a uranium charge, but so far this has not been used in practice. The process itself will be very complex and costly. Therefore, the fusion reaction is diluted with uranium and a huge explosion power is obtained. The radioactive fallout that inexorably falls on the drop target is increased by 1000%. They will harm the health of even those who are tens of thousands of kilometers from the epicenter. When detonated, a huge fireball is created. Everything that comes within its radius of action is destroyed. The scorched earth may be uninhabitable for decades. Absolutely nothing will grow over a vast area. And knowing the strength of the charge, using a certain formula, you can calculate the theoretically contaminated area.
Also worth mentioning about such an effect as nuclear winter. This concept is even more terrible than destroyed cities and hundreds of thousands of human lives. Not only the dump site will be destroyed, but virtually the entire world. At first, only one territory will lose its habitable status. But a radioactive substance will be released into the atmosphere, which will reduce the brightness of the sun. This will all mix with dust, smoke, soot and create a veil. It will spread throughout the planet. The crops in the fields will be destroyed for several decades to come. This effect will provoke famine on Earth. The population will immediately decrease several times. And nuclear winter looks more than real. Indeed, in the history of mankind, and more specifically, in 1816, a similar case was known after a powerful volcanic eruption. There was a year without summer on the planet at that time.
Skeptics who do not believe in such a coincidence of circumstances can be convinced by the calculations of scientists:
- When on Earth will happen the temperature drops by a degree, no one will notice it. But this will affect the amount of precipitation.
- In autumn there will be a cooling of 4 degrees. Due to the lack of rain, crop failures are possible. Hurricanes will begin even in places where they have never existed.
- When temperatures drop a few more degrees, the planet will experience its first year without summer.
- This will be followed by a small glacial period. The temperature drops by 40 degrees. Even in a short time it will be destructive for the planet. On Earth there will be crop failures and the extinction of people living in the northern zones.
- Afterwards the ice age will come. Reflection sun rays will occur without reaching the surface of the earth. Due to this, the air temperature will reach a critical level. Crops and trees will stop growing on the planet, and water will freeze. This will lead to the extinction of most of the population.
- Those who survive will not survive last period- irreversible cooling. This option is completely sad. It will be the real end of humanity. The earth will turn into a new planet, unsuitable for human habitation.
Now about another danger. As soon as Russia and the USA left the stage cold war how it appeared new threat. If you have heard about who Kim Jong Il is, then you understand that he will not stop there. This rocket lover, tyrant and ruler North Korea in one bottle, can easily provoke a nuclear conflict. He talks about the hydrogen bomb constantly and notes that his part of the country already has warheads. Fortunately, no one has seen them live yet. Russia, America, as well as our closest neighbors - South Korea and Japan are very concerned about even such hypothetical statements. Therefore, we hope that North Korea will have developments and technologies for a long time to come. insufficient level to destroy the whole world.
For reference. At the bottom of the world's oceans lie dozens of bombs that were lost during transportation. And in Chernobyl, which is not so far from us, huge reserves of uranium are still stored.
It is worth considering whether such consequences can be allowed for the sake of testing a hydrogen bomb. And, if between the countries possessing these weapons happens global conflict, there will be no states, no people, or anything at all left on the planet, the Earth will turn into Blank sheet. And if we consider how a nuclear bomb differs from a thermonuclear bomb, the main point is the amount of destruction, as well as the subsequent effect.
Now a small conclusion. We figured out that a nuclear bomb and an atomic bomb are one and the same. It is also the basis for a thermonuclear warhead. But using neither one nor the other is not recommended, even for testing. The sound of the explosion and what the aftermath looks like is not the worst thing. It's threatening nuclear winter, the death of hundreds of thousands of inhabitants at one time and numerous consequences for humanity. Although there are differences between charges such as an atomic bomb and a nuclear bomb, the effect of both is destructive for all living things.
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Everyone has already discussed one of the most unpleasant news of December - successful tests North Korea's hydrogen bomb. Kim Jong-un did not fail to hint (directly state) that he was ready at any moment to transform weapons from defensive to offensive, which caused an unprecedented stir in the press around the world.
However, there were also optimists who declared that the tests were falsified: they say that the shadow of the Juche is falling in the wrong direction, and somehow the radioactive fallout is not visible. But why is the presence of a hydrogen bomb in the aggressor country such a significant factor for free countries, since even nuclear warheads, which North Korea has in abundance, have never scared anyone so much?
What is this
The hydrogen bomb, also known as the Hydrogen Bomb or HB, is a weapon of incredible destructive power, whose power is measured in megatons of TNT. The operating principle of HB is based on the energy that is generated when thermonuclear fusion hydrogen nuclei - exactly the same process occurs on the Sun.
How is a hydrogen bomb different from an atomic bomb?
Nuclear fusion, the process that occurs during the detonation of a hydrogen bomb, is the most powerful type of energy available to humanity. We have not yet learned how to use it for peaceful purposes, but we have adapted it for military purposes. This thermonuclear reaction, similar to what can be seen in stars, releases an incredible flow of energy. In atomic energy, energy is obtained from the fission of the atomic nucleus, so the explosion of an atomic bomb is much weaker.
First test
AND Soviet Union again ahead of many participants in the Cold War race. The first hydrogen bomb, manufactured under the leadership of the brilliant Sakharov, was tested at the secret Semipalatinsk test site - and, to put it mildly, they impressed not only scientists, but also Western spies.
Shock wave
The direct destructive effect of a hydrogen bomb is a powerful, highly intense shock wave. Its power depends on the size of the bomb itself and the height at which the charge detonated.
Thermal effect
A hydrogen bomb of only 20 megatons (the size of the largest tested at this moment bomb - 58 megatons) creates a huge amount of thermal energy: concrete melted within a radius of five kilometers from the test site of the projectile. Within a nine-kilometer radius, all living things will be destroyed; neither equipment nor buildings will survive. The diameter of the crater formed by the explosion will exceed two kilometers, and its depth will fluctuate about fifty meters.
Fire ball
The most spectacular thing after the explosion will seem to observers to be a huge fireball: flaming storms initiated by the detonation of a hydrogen bomb will support themselves, drawing more and more flammable material into the funnel.
Radiation contamination
But the most dangerous consequence of the explosion will, of course, be radiation contamination. The disintegration of heavy elements in a raging fiery whirlwind will fill the atmosphere tiny particles radioactive dust - it is so light that when it enters the atmosphere, it can go around Earth two or three times and only then will it fall as precipitation. Thus, one explosion of a 100 megaton bomb could have consequences for the entire planet.
Tsar bomb
58 megatons - that's how much the largest hydrogen bomb, exploded at the test site of the Novaya Zemlya archipelago, weighed. Shock wave circled the globe three times, forcing the opponents of the USSR to once again become convinced of the enormous destructive force this weapon. Veselchak Khrushchev joked at the plenum that they didn’t make another bomb only for fear of breaking the glass in the Kremlin.