(Schleswig, Anglo-Saxon. Sliaswic) - a former duchy that belonged to Denmark until 1864, then formed the northern part (north of the Eider River) of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. The space (in 1864) was 9140.4 square meters. km with a population of 406,486 people.
Schleswig has been inhabited since ancient times Germanic tribes, namely: in the east - by the Angles, in the center - by the Jutes, in the west - by the Frisians. Starting from the 4th century. after R.H., Scandinavian-Danish tribes began to invade here from the north and displace the Angles who had moved to British Isles. The country was ruled by its kings. The Eider River formed the southernmost limit of the Danish tribe's dominance. To the south of the Eider River, settlements of Saxon tribes began (Holstein, Ditmar Mark, etc.). To protect Switzerland or southern Jutland from the invasion of the Saxons, in 810, King Goethrik built a boundary wall, the so-called Daneverk (see), which ran across the entire peninsula from the German Sea to the Baltic. In 850, the Apostle of the North Ansgarius built the first church here in Gaddebi, near the city of Sh. At the beginning of the 10th century. Sh., together with Jutland, submitted to the Danish kings. In 934, Emperor Henry I conquered the entire area between the Schlei Bay and the Eider and Treene rivers and formed from it the German mark of Sch. In 948, Emperor Otto I founded a bishopric in Schlei. During the X and the first quarter of the XI century. Sh. was a bone of contention between the German emperors and the Danish kings until Conrad II ceded it to Canute the Great in 1027. The Eider and Levensau rivers became the border between German and Danish possessions. S. or South Jutland, as the country was called until 1340, was ruled by Danish governors, for the most part princes royal family who began to bear the title of dukes. The son of King Eric, Canute Lavard, having become the governor and duke of Sh. and having conquered the Wends and Bodrichs who lived on the other side of the Eider River, sought to become independent of the Danish kings; at his insistence, Emperor Lothair gave him the royal title in 1129, but in 1131 he was killed by his cousin Magnus. His son Valdemar was elevated to Duke of Sweden by the Danish king Svend in 1150, and in 1157 he himself ascended the Danish throne. His second son, Valdemar II, received in 1182 from the brother of the Danish king Canute VI the control of Switzerland as a special duchy. When Valdemar II, in 1202, ascended the Danish throne, the dukedom was given to the third brother, Eric, in 1218. Upon the latter’s accession to the Danish throne, the duchy went to the son of Valdemar II the Victorious, Abel (1241). Valdemar II introduced into Switzerland the law he published for Denmark (Jutlandic law). Abel killed King Eric in 1250 and took the throne of Denmark, but he himself fell in battle with the rebels on west bank friezes (1252). Abel's son, Waldemar III, established himself (1254) with the help of his maternal relatives, the Counts of Holstein, in Switzerland, but had to recognize himself as a vassal of Denmark. His brother Eric was involved in the struggle for the Danish throne. King Eric V Glipping invaded the duchy, but was defeated (1261) at Loughade. Clashes between Sh. and Denmark were repeated later, and Sh. often sought help in Holstein, with which he was connected by family ties. As a result, the Holstein counts and barons acquired extensive possessions in southern Switzerland. After the death (1272) of Duke Eric, the Danish king Eric V Glipping, as overlord, became the guardian of his young sons and only in 1283 recognized Waldemar IV as Duke of III. The latter in 1287, after the murder of Eric V, captured the islands of Alsen, Ere and Fehmarn, but in 1295 he was forced to return them to Denmark. In 1326, Duke Waldemar V took the Danish throne with the help of his uncle, Count Gerhard of Holstein, ceding Sh. as a Danish fief to Gerhard. When Waldemar V was overthrown in Denmark in 1330, Gerhard III of Holstein returned Sh. to him, but with the condition that if the Waldemar family died out, the right of inheritance in Sh. belonged to the House of Holstein. This agreement is known as the Constitutio Waldemariana. In 1375, Waldemar V's son, Henry, died without leaving any offspring. A struggle for inheritance in Switzerland broke out between the Holstein counts and Denmark, ending with a treaty in Nyborg on the island of Fionia on August 15, 1386. Count Gerhard VI of Holstein was recognized as Duke of Switzerland (together with northern Friesland). S.'s possession as a Danish fief is hereditary in the Rendsburg line of the Holstein count's house. The united Duchy of Schleswig-Holstein or Schleswig-Holstein dates back to this time.
Holstein
or Holstein (Holstein, lat. Holsatia) - a former duchy in the North. Germany, between Eider, Elbe, Trave, Deutsche and Baltic seas; forms since 1867 southern part Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. The most ancient inhabitants In this area there were Saxons, or, as they were then called, Nordalbingenians. Charlemagne conquered Greece in 804, resettled several thousand families from it to Flanders and Holland, and, having ceded Vagria to his allies the Obodrites, formed a special margrave from the remaining regions. Otto I conquered Wagria and founded the Bishopric of Oldenburg here in 947. Meanwhile, the margrave established by Charles the Great fell apart. Dithmarschen was annexed to the Archbishopric of Bremen, and G. in a close sense and Stormarn were ruled by vice-counts appointed by the Saxon dukes. The last 2 regions were given in 1106 by Duke (then Emperor) Lothair as a fief to Count Adolf I of Schauenburg († 1133). Adolf II († 1164) annexed Vagria to them, and Adolf III for the help of the emperor. Frederick I received Dithmarschen from the first in the fight against Henry the Lion. He waged many wars with Denmark, which at that time had reached the apogee of its power, and after the defeat at Stellau (1202) he lost his possessions. Waldemar II declared himself the ruler of Greece, and Emperor Frederick II formally ceded it to Denmark by a treaty of 1214, approved by the pope. But when Waldemar was captured (1223) by Count Heinrich of Schwerin, the Holsteins rebelled and Adolf IV, son of Adolf III, took possession of his father's inheritance. The captive Valdemar had to sign a treaty (1225), according to which all the lands to the north from the Elbe to the Eider were recognized as belonging to the empire, and to recognize Adolf as the legal owner of Germany, Vagria and Dithmarschen. Freed from captivity, Valdemar declared this treaty invalid and invaded Germany, but had to renounce his claims to Germany after the defeat inflicted on him by Adolf IV at Borngewede in 1227. Adolf’s sons founded two lines in 1239: Kiel and Rendsburg. Gerhard VI, Count of Rendsburg, again united all the lines (in 1390) and received the county of Schleswig from Denmark as a fief. The ruling House of Schauenburg ended with his son, Adolf VIII, in 1459, and the Schleswig-Holstein officials elected King Christian I of Denmark, son of Hedwig, sister of Adolf VIII, who was married to Count Dietrich of Oldenburg, as their count. Christian I, who thus became the founder of the House of Oldenburg in Germany, received from the emperor. Friedrich III title Duke of Holstein and handed over G. and Schleswig to his youngest son Frederick, since according to the agreement he concluded with the ranks of Germany and Schleswig upon his election, they should not have been under the same crown with Denmark. Frederick († 1533) then himself ascended the Danish throne and of his sons, who divided Germany and Schleswig (1580) between themselves, King Christian III became the ancestor of the Danish, royal or Gluckstadt line, and Adolf - of the Gottorp line . The senior, royal line, already under Frederick II, the son of Christian III, broke up into the main, royal line, and the younger, G.-Sonderburg line. The first died out in the male tribe with Frederick VII in 1863 (see Denmark). The Sonderburg line, the ancestor of which was John, brother of Frederick II, was divided in 1622 into 4 branches: Sonderburg, Norburg, Glucksburg and Plensk. Of these, only the first received significance in history, the ancestor of which was Duke Alexander († 1627). His five sons founded 5 new lateral lines, of which only two exist: G.-Sonderburg-Augustenburg (see Augustenburg Line) and G.-Sonderburg-Beck, or, as it has been called since 1825, G.-Sonder .-Glucksburg, junior line which now occupies the Danish and Greek thrones. Its head now occupies the Danish throne under the name of Christian IX. In the G.-Gottorp line, Frederick III († 1659) established the right of primogeniture in his line and, due to the marriage of his daughter Hedwig-Eleanor with the Swedish king Charles X Gustav, received sovereignty over his part of Schleswig and Rendsburg. His successor Christian Albrecht (1659-1694) waged a stubborn struggle with Denmark for Schleswig, was expelled from his possessions twice, but through Brandenburg he received them back. His son, Frederick IV, married to Hedwig-Sophia, sister of the Swedish king Charles XII, succeeded by Karl Friedrich (1702-39). The latter's son, Karl-Peter-Ulrich, first intended to occupy the Swedish throne, was, as the nephew of Empress Elizabeth and grandson of Peter the Great, declared in 1742 the heir to the Russian throne, which he took in 1761 under the name of Peter III. Thus, the head of the G.-Gottorp line is the Russian emperor. The same line took the Swedish throne in the person of Adolf Frederick (1751; see Sweden). According to the treaty of 1773, Catherine II received from Denmark in exchange for G.-Gottorp Oldenburg and Delmengorst, which were built by the great. Prince Pavel Petrovich into the duchy and given to Friedrich-August, the younger brother of Adolf-Friedrich, who became the founder of the Younger Gottorp line, or Oldenburg (see Oldenburg). The rest of Germany and Schleswig shared the fate of Denmark from 1580, although until 1806 it was considered an imperial fief. With the fall of the German Empire, it completely merged with Denmark, and its special government was destroyed. In 1815, the Danish king, as the Duke of Holstein, joined the German Confederation. Further fate G. see under the word Schleswig-G.
The union of Schleswig and Holstein under the rule of the House of Holstein dates back to 1386, when Gerhard VI of Holstein was recognized by Denmark as the ruler of Switzerland as a fief, hereditary in the Rendsburg line of Holstein counts. In 1404, Gerhard VI was killed during a campaign against Dithmarschen and left behind young children. The Danish Queen Margaret, taking advantage of her guardianship rights, decided to take possession of Schleswig; a struggle broke out that lasted 30 years. One of the sons of Gerhard VI, Henry, was killed (1427) and only in 1435, under the Danish king Erich of Pomerania, Adolf VIII managed to establish himself in Schleswig. In 1459, Adolf VIII died childless. Thus the Rendsburg line died out. The rights to the inheritance were claimed, on the one hand, by representatives of the related Schauenburg-Pinneberg line, on the other, by the nephew of Adolf VIII, Count Christian of Oldenburg, who ascended to the Danish throne in 1448. This latter was proclaimed Duke of Holstein at the meeting of the Holstein ranks in Riepen in 1460, but not as the Danish king, but personally. King Christian I confirmed all the rights and liberties of the Holstein officials and took an oath that Schleswig and Holstein would never be separated from each other, but would form one indivisible independent possession, which should never be incorporated by Denmark. Every year the Duke must convene the Holstein Diet in Bornegewde, and the Schleswig Diet in Urnegewde; Christian I bought for 41,500 guilders from the Schauenburg Count his right to inheritance in Schauenburg. In 1640, the Schauenburg line died out and its possessions passed to Schleswig. In 1474, Emperor Frederick III approved the fief supremacy of Christian I over the county of Dithmarschen, which, together with Holstein, was elevated to a duchy. After the death of Christian I (1481), despite the resolution of the Diet of 1460, the Holstein officials agreed to recognize both sons of Christian I: the Danish king Hans and younger brother Frederick I as dukes, with John receiving the Segeberg part, and Frederick receiving the Gottorp part. When John died in 1513, his share was inherited by the Danish king Christian II. The latter was deposed in 1523, and Frederick I united both states under his rule. He was also elected king in Denmark and Norway. Under him (1523-33) and his son Christian III (1533-59), the Reformation was introduced in Scholstein-Holstein. The armed resistance of the bishops and inhabitants of Dithmarschen was broken at the Battle of Heide (1559). New order church administration was introduced at the Diet of Rendsburg (1542); a provost and consistory were placed at the head of the church; political rights the bishops went to the duke; the choice of pastors was left to the communities. The sons of Frederick I in 1544 divided the possessions in Scholstein-Holstein among themselves. Christian III became the founder of the Danish royal Gluckstadt line, and Adolf I - the ducal Gottorp line; the third, founded by their brother John, the Gadersleben line died out in 1580. In 1581, a secondary division of Sch.-Holstein took place between the Danish king Frederick II and his uncle Adolf I of Gottorp. The following areas withdrew to the royal line: Alsen, Flensburg, Gadersleben; in Holstein: Segeberg, Plön and some monasteries; the ducal line was given to Switzerland: Gusum, Apenrade and Tondern; in Holstein: Neumunster, Oldenburg and Fehmarn. In 1582, King Frederick II gave several possessions in Gadersleben to his brother John, who became the founder of the Sch.-Sonderburg line. His grandson Gunther (1609-1639) founded the Sch.-Sonderburg-Augustenburg line, and his brother August-Philipp became the founder of the Sch.-Beck-Glücksburg line (since 1825 it was called the Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg line). Over the subsequent years, Holstein remained a fief of the German Empire, and Switzerland - of the Danish kingdom; at the same time, the connection between the duchies was expressed in the general diet and some other general institutions. With each change of ruler, the nobility demanded confirmation of the indivisibility of the duchies, although in fact it was often violated, and the nobility was most concerned about preserving its privileges. During the 30 Years' War, the grandson of Adolf I of Gottorp, Duke Frederick III (1616-59), tried to maintain neutrality, however, after the defeat of the Danish king Christian IV under Lutter (1626), imperial troops invaded the duchies and devastated them. Soon after taking over the administration of the duchies, Frederick III prompted the Holstein officials to renounce the right to elect a ruler and, with the consent of Denmark and the German emperor, declared the succession of ducal power hereditary in his family by primogeniture. In 1658, at the conclusion of the Treaty of Röskld, Frederick III, with the help of his son-in-law, the Swedish king Charles I Gustav, achieved recognition of the liberation of Sweden from fief relations with Denmark. During the reign of his son Christian Albrecht (1659-94), the independence of Switzerland was confirmed in the Treaty of Oliwa (1660). Denmark, however, returned its sovereign rights to Switzerland by force of arms; twice (1675 and 1683) Danish troops expelled the duke from the country; reconciliation took place in 1689 in Altona. During Northern War Danish troops occupied Switzerland (1711-13) and after the conclusion of peace in 1720, the Danish king Frederick IV returned only his possessions in Holstein (Gottorp share) to Duke Charles Frederick. As for Schleswig, Frederick IV declared both shares, royal and Gottorp, an undivided possession, and himself - the sovereign Duke of Schleswig. Negotiations on recognition of the new order of things dragged on. At this time, the son of Karl Friedrich, married to the daughter of Emperor Peter I Anna, Peter Ulrich, was declared (1742) by Empress Elizabeth Petrovna heir to the throne in Russia. After his death in 1762, Empress Catherine II in 1767 renounced the rights of Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich to inherit in Sch.-Holstein in favor of the Danish king Christian VII, who in return ceded the counties of Oldenburg and Delmengorst to Friedrich August of Gottorp, who became the founder of Sch. .-Gottorp-Oldenburg line. In 1773, upon the coming of age of Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich, the latter confirmed the agreement on August 22, 1767 and Sh. was actually transferred to Denmark. Thus, from 1773 Denmark took complete possession of both duchies; the old treaty of personal union was forgotten, and Holstein actually began to be governed as a Danish province. The duchies, however, retained their old privileges, local laws, had their own coins and formed a special customs district. In Gottorp (until 1846) there was a Danish governor, and the highest government office for the duchies was the so-called German chancellery in Copenhagen. The Danish court sought to attract to itself and the Danish public service S.-Holstein nobility. Count Bernstorff, a native of Switzerland, who headed the Danish government until 1797, took care of the welfare of the duchies: it was abolished serfdom, destroyed torture in trial, in 1784 the Sch.-Holstein Canal was built. In general, over the 80-odd years during which the duchies enjoyed continuous peace after the Northern War, the well-being of the population increased significantly, trade and various trades revived. Only in 1813 did the Allied army under the command of the heir to the Swedish throne, Bernadotte, pass hostilely through the territory of the duchies. According to the Peace of Kiel on January 14, 1814, the island of Heligoland was ceded to England. When it was abolished in 1806 German Empire, Holstein was declared by the Danish king to be an indivisible part of the Danish state; The Danish code and monetary system were introduced in the duchies, and the Danish language was declared mandatory in relations with the Copenhagen government. On Congress of Vienna the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg, left in Danish possession as a reward for the separation of Norway from Denmark, were recognized as members of the German Confederation; Schleswig was not included in the German Confederation.
In the first quarter of the 19th century, two opposing political trends. The Danish National Party sought a closer rapprochement between Schleswig and Denmark, and the German Party set itself the task of including Schleswig into the German Confederation. In this sense, the Holstein officials submitted an application in 1822 to the German Union Diet; the latter, however, rejected the Holsteiners' demand. King Frederick VI introduced, in accordance with the requirements of the German Act of Confederation, a special state charter for Holstein. Under the influence of the July Revolution of 1830 in France, fermentation also began in Holstein. W. Lornsen, who spoke in the brochure “Das Verfassungswerk in Schleswig” with a proposal to revise the constitution in the spirit of unifying the duchies, was arrested. In the form of a concession liberal movements the king in 1831 decided to convene local officials for each duchy separately as deliberative meetings; at the same time, the tax burden was increased; 4/9 parts of the duchies were imposed on total amount income of the Danish monarchy. Under King Christian VIII, the Danish National Party began to act more aggressively. In 1842, the Schleswig-Holstein troops were disbanded and transformed into general Danish troops with Danish banners. To finally establish the indivisibility of Holstein and Denmark, all that remained was to recognize the same order of succession to the throne for all parts of the monarchy. In Denmark, according to the law of 1665, the throne, in the absence of male offspring, passes to female line, while in Holstein male offspring were given preference in all lateral lines. Since King Christian VIII had only one son, Frederick, if the latter had died without male offspring, Scholstein would have gone to the representatives of the Augustenburg line and, consequently, the separation of the duchies from Denmark would have occurred again. At the Diet in Reskilde in 1844, Danish officials turned to King Christian VIII with a request to resolve the issue of succession to the throne. After a special commission studied the question of the succession to the throne for two years, Christian VIII issued on July 8, 1846 " open letter", in which he stated that, after a careful investigation, it appeared that in regard to the succession to the throne in Schleswig, Lauenburg and in some parts of Holstein, the same order exists as in Denmark, and that in relation to the other part of Holstein, the king was firmly resolved to uphold the Danish order of succession to the throne in the female line. This statement caused unrest in the country and protests from representatives of the Augustenburg line, whose rights were violated by this statement. Meetings of local officials solemnly declared the inviolability of the order of succession to the throne in male line and about the indivisibility of the duchies, for which they were dissolved. The unrest of the Germans in Sch.-Holstein found a patriotic response in Germany. The song "Schleswig-Holstein meerumschlungen" became the slogan for the liberation of Schleswig-Holstein from Danish rule. On January 20, 1848, Christian VIII died. His son Frederick VII decided to convene the first common Diet for Denmark and the duchies in Copenhagen. But February revolution in France and the March days that followed in Germany, which found a lively response in Sch.-Holstein, prevented the implementation of this first decisive step for the unification of Denmark with the duchies. On March 18, 1848, the Schleswig-Holstein officials gathered in Rendsburg decided to send a deputation to the king demanding the convocation of a special Schleswig-Holstein Diet, the approval of a special constitution for both duchies and the accession of Schleswig to the German Confederation. At the same time, the Danish National Party, which set itself the goal of making the Eider River southern border Denmark, staged a popular demonstration in front of the royal palace in Copenhagen on March 21, forcing the king to promise that Schleswig up to the Eider River would remain a Danish province. On March 24, the king gave the Rendsburg delegation an answer in the sense that Holstein would be given a new, freer constitution, but that Schleswig should remain an indivisible part of Denmark. But even before this answer was received, a revolution took place in Kiel on March 23; a provisional government was formed, which included Prince Friedrich S. von Noer, Count Fr. Reventlov, lawyer Beseler and others. The country recognized this provisional government, which convened the Scholstein Diet and entered the German Union Diet with a proposal to admit Schleswig into the union, which was recognized by the Diet on April 12, 1848, and Prussia was entrusted execution of the resolution of the Union Sejm. Prussian troops entered Schleswig and thus began the Scholstein-Holstein War of 1848-50. (see), which ended in peace on July 2, 1850. According to this peace, Switzerland-Holstein was returned to the situation that existed before the war. Schleswig received special Danish administration; Holstein and Lauenburg, being members of the German Confederation, remained under Danish rule; the order of succession to the throne was recognized as common for Denmark and the duchies, namely in favor of the Danish crown prince Christian of Glücksburg. The Holsteiners tried, at their own risk, to continue the war with Denmark, but were defeated in the Battle of Istedt on July 24-25, 1850. Expectations for new support from Prussia did not materialize. On November 29, 1850, in Olmutz, the Prussian government, at the request of Russia and Austria, was forced to refuse support revolutionary movement in Sch.-Holstein, where a commission was now sent to pacify the country, accompanied by an Austrian corps of troops. The provisional Sch.-Holstein government resigned; The Austrians occupied Holstein, and the Danes took Schleswig. In 1852 (May 8) at the London conference, England, Russia and France recognized the interests European world necessary to preserve the integrity of the Danish monarchy in its entirety (the so-called London Protocol of 1852). On July 29, the German Diet approved the Austrian-Prussian-Danish agreement, and German troops S.-Holstein was cleared. Such a shameful end to the war from a German patriotic point of view caused indignation throughout Germany; this failure in the fight against a weak enemy once again pointed out to the Germans the lack of unity among German states and served as the final impetus for the subsequent German unification movement. In Scholstein-Holstein, the Danes began to rule as if they were in a conquered country; The Sch.-Holstein troops were transferred to Denmark, and the Danish ones were stationed in the duchies. More suspicious officers, officials, teachers and professors at the University of Kiel were dismissed. The former customs border on the Eider River has been moved to the Elbe River. In 1853, diets were convened for Schleswig in Flensburg, and for Holstein in Itzegoy. New codes were proposed to each Sejm government system: Schleswig was declared a simple province of Denmark, and Holstein an autonomous but indivisible part of the Danish monarchy. Both codes, despite the fact that they were rejected by the diets, were declared by the king current law. The expulsion caused particular irritation German language from schools and churches in northern Schleswig and replacement German teachers and pastors by the Danes. All these circumstances strengthened the anti-Danish current in the duchies. The reason for open bickering between the Danish government and the Holstein ranks was the common constitution for Denmark and the duchies with a common diet, published in 1854 without the consent of the Holstein ranks. The Holstein officials protested and demanded that a general constitution be submitted to them for discussion; when this was refused, they submitted a complaint to the German Diet, which on November 6, 1858 found that the general constitution violated the autonomous rights of Holstein and Lauenburg, guaranteed to them by the treaty of 1850-52. Then in the Danish governmental spheres the leading plan of the so-called “Eiderdat” party became the leading one, which consisted in separating Holstein and Lauenburg from the general Danish constitution, but leaving them in complete dependence from Denmark, at the same time finally merging Schleswig from the territories of the Danish state, the southern border of which should be the Eider River. In this sense, King Frederick VII made a statement on March 30, 1863. The German Union Diet saw in this statement a violation of the rights of the union and on October 1, 1863, decided to send an execution to Holstein allied army. Despite this, Denmark approved the new constitution, according to which Schleswig was finally incorporated with Denmark. At this time (November 15), King Frederick VII died and with him the royal (Holstein-Gluckstadt) line of the House of Oldenburg died out. According to the London Protocol of 1852, the heir to the throne in Denmark and the Elbe duchies was Christian IX of Glucksburg. In the duchies, however, the legitimacy of the London protocol was never recognized, and Prince Frederick of Augustenburg was considered the legal heir, who on November 19 announced his accession to the ducal throne in Holstein under the name of Frederick VIII. The German Diet, where both King Christian IX and Duke Frederick VIII applied for recognition of their hereditary rights, decided first of all to fulfill decision about the occupation of Holstein and Lauenburg by the allied contingent, and to postpone his decision on the right of inheritance for a while. Meanwhile, in Scholstein, Frederick VIII was recognized as Duke everywhere, and a large public meeting held in Elmshorn on December 27 decided to invite the Duke to appear and take over the government of the country. A detachment of 12 thousand Saxons and Hanoverians, led by the commissars of the German Confederation, occupied the duchies, after which Duke Frederick VIII arrived in Kiel, however, announcing to the allied commissars that he final decision The Union Sejm considers himself a “private person.” Amid the general rejoicing in Germany over the upcoming separation of Holstein from Denmark, great disappointment and irritation was caused by the statement of the Prussian and Austrian governments that they considered themselves bound by the London Protocol of 1852 and on this basis demanded the removal of Prince Frederick of Augustenburg from Holstein. At this time, no one had yet seen the secret plans of Bismarck, who decided in advance to use the Schleswig-Holstein issue exclusively in favor of Prussia and managed to lead the Austrian government with subtle diplomatic tactics. When the Union Diet reacted negatively to the statement of Prussia and Austria, the latter decided to act at their own peril. On January 16, 1864, Prussia and Austria demanded the abolition within 48 hours of the above-mentioned constitution on November 13, which was approved by the new king on November 18. Denmark, counting on the unorganized actions of the Union Diet, as in 1848-50, responded with a refusal, which was followed by the entry of the Prussian and Austrian troops to duchies; Thus began the German-Danish War of 1864. Denmark was unable to fight two powerful powers. The war quickly ended in complete defeat for Denmark. According to the peace concluded on October 30, 1864 in Vienna, Denmark ceded Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg to Prussia and Austria; in exchange for the Jutland plots in Schleswig, she was given a small strip on the very northern border Schleswig and the island of Ørö. After the liberation of Holstein from the rule of the Danes, it was time to resolve the question of who would be the heir to Denmark. Then, little by little, the secret goals of Bismarck's policy began to be revealed. At first, Prussia tried, acting in concert with Austria, to eliminate the interference of minor German states, which were in favor of preserving the independence of Holstein and against the strengthening of Prussia. At the request of Prussia and Austria, Hanoverian and Saxon troops left Sch.-Holstein. The Prussian government then commissioned a special Prussian commission (Kronsyndicat) to present its legal opinion on the inheritance rights in Sch.-Holstein of the Prince of Augustenburg. Despite the fact that before that 16 German law faculties spoke in favor of the Prince of Augustenburg, that in the duchies themselves he was still considered the legal heir, the Prussian commission recognized that historical law inheritance in Sch.-Holstein belonged to the Danish king, and now, by right of conquest, belongs to Prussia and Austria. At the same time, Bismarck prepared popular demonstrations in Schleswig in favor of the annexation of the duchies to Prussia. In the sense of a closer unification of Schleswig and Prussia, special addresses were presented to Prussia and Austria. Then the secret plans of Prussia began to be seen in Austria, but Bismarck had not yet decided at that time to enter into an open struggle with Austria. Through the Gastein Convention on August 14, 1865, he managed to achieve a fringe. It was decided that Austria and Prussia would jointly own Switzerland-Holstein, and Prussia was given control of Switzerland, and Austria - Holstein. Reasons for clashes between the governors of both governments were not long in coming. While the Prussian governor, General Manteuffel, energetically suppressed any manifestations of sympathy in the country towards the Prince of Augustenburg, the Austrian General Gablenz allowed free expression in the country of protest against the Gastein Convention and demands that the Holstein Diet be convened on the issue of governing the duchies. Finally, Austria decided to speak out openly and on April 26, 1866, declared to Prussia that it agreed to cede its rights in Sch.-Holstein to a person who would be elected by the German Union Diet (meaning the Prince of Augustenburg). After a negative response to this proposal from Prussia, Austria, however, introduced the issue of Scholstein-Holstein to the Union Diet on June 1, 1866 and scheduled the opening of the Scholstein-Holstein Diet in Itsegoy for June 11. Prussia declared these actions of Austria a violation of the Gastein Convention and moved its troops to Holstein. Thus began the Prussian-Austrian War (see), which ended with the defeat of Austria at Sadovaya. According to the Prague Peace on August 23, 1866, Austria ceded Switzerland and Holstein to Prussia. At the request of Napoleon III, a clause was included in the Treaty of Prague according to which a plebiscite would be held in the northern part of Switzerland before joining Prussia, according to the decision of which the region would go either to Denmark or to Prussia. This point remained unfulfilled and was canceled in 1878 by agreement between Prussia and Austria. In 1866 (September 27), an agreement was concluded between Prussia and Grand Duke Peter of Oldenburg, according to which the latter ceded his rights to inheritance in Sch.-Holstein for one million thalers. On January 12, 1867, Schleswig-Holstein was declared a Prussian province.
The annexation to Prussia was at first met in the duchies with very coldness and distrust; but after the events of 1870-71. relations towards Prussia began to change for the better. The transformation of Kiel into the first military harbor of Germany, the commercial growth of Altona, the digging of the Emperor Wilhelm Canal, etc. brought widespread industrial revival to the country. In 1881, following the engagement of Prince William of Prussia (now Emperor) to Frederick of Augustenburg's eldest daughter, Princess Victoria, a reconciliation with the House of Augustenburg took place. In 1885, the latter was assigned an annual annuity of 300 thousand marks and given the castle of Augustenburg. In 1890, England returned the island of Heligoland to Prussia, which was again annexed to Schleswig-Holstein.
Rulers:
County Holstein
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Schauenburg Dynasty |
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The county's territory was part of the Kingdom of Denmark |
1203-1227 |
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Division of the county into Holstein-Kiel and Holstein-Itzehoe |
1261 |
Holstein-Gottorp
Godfried I (-1106-1110) Adolf I (1072-1110-13.XI.1128) Schauenburg Adolf II (1110-1128-6.VII.1164) Adolf III (1159-1164-1225) Adolf IV (1186-1225 -1238-8.VII.1261) Gerhard I (1232-1239-21.XII.1290) Gerhard II (1254-1290-25.X.1312) Holstein-Plön Gerhard IV (1276-1312-1323) Gerhard V ( 1315-1323-1350) Johann III (1297-1350-27.IX.1359) Adolf VII (-1359-1390) Henry I (1258-1290-5.VIII.1304) Holstein-Rendsburg Gerhard III (1293-1304- 1.IV.1340) Henry II (1317-1340-1382-16.XI.1384) Gerhard VI (1367-1382-4.VIII.1404) Schleswig-Holstein-Rendsburg Nikolaus I (1321-1390-8.V. 1397)/ Albrecht II (-1397-28.IX.1403)/ Henry IV (1397-1404-28.V.1427) Adolf VIII (1401-1427-4.XII.1459) Gerhard VII (.VIII.1404- 1427-23.VII.1433)/
Algorithm for composing the electronic formula of an element:
1. Determine the number of electrons in an atom using Periodic table of chemical elements D.I. Mendeleev.
2. Based on the number of the period in which the element is located, determine the number energy levels; number of electrons on the last electronic level corresponds to the group number.
3. Divide the levels into sublevels and orbitals and fill them with electrons in accordance with the rules filling orbitals :
It must be remembered that the first level contains a maximum of 2 electrons 1s 2, on the second - a maximum of 8 (two s and six R: 2s 2 2p 6), on the third - a maximum of 18 (two s, six p, and ten d: 3s 2 3p 6 3d 10).
- Main quantum number n should be minimal.
- First to fill s- sublevel, then р-, d- b f- sublevels.
- Electrons fill the orbitals in order of increasing energy of the orbitals (Klechkovsky's rule).
- Within a sublevel, electrons first occupy free orbitals one by one, and only after that they form pairs (Hund’s rule).
- There cannot be more than two electrons in one orbital (Pauli principle).
Examples.
1. Let's create the electronic formula of nitrogen. IN periodic table nitrogen is at number 7.
2. Let's create the electronic formula for argon. Argon is number 18 on the periodic table.
1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6.
3. Let's create the electronic formula of chromium. Chromium is number 24 on the periodic table.
1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 1 3d 5
Energy diagram of zinc.
4. Let's create the electronic formula of zinc. Zinc is number 30 on the periodic table.
1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 2 3d 10
Please note that part of the electronic formula, namely 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6, is electronic formula argon.
The electronic formula of zinc can be represented as: