Ebbeke syndrome. Conditions of a “lightning attack of fear”, occurring with a peculiar optical phenomenon. Luminous points, spots, and geometric shapes appear in the field of vision, which are repeated as if in the form of negative imprints. Accompanied by a depressive mood background and suicidal thoughts. It was originally described in psychopathic individuals of the hysterical circle. There are observations regarding the appearance of E.s. with temporal epilepsy in children.
Evalda biotonus. A set of hypothetical energy processes (biopotential) that determines the capabilities of a person’s mental activity, his temperament and the level of affective response. The biotonus indicator complements the characterogram and makes it possible to individually predict psychogenic reactions. The concept of G. Ewald is a further development of the concept of E. Kretschmer (see. Kretschmer psychobiogram).
Eviration (lat. eviratus - effeminate). 1. The loss of masculine mental properties found in men - true (innate) homosexuals, their replacement with feminine ones - flirtatiousness, mannerisms, characteristic facial, pantomimic and behavioral reactions; 2. The delusional belief of the male patient that he has female genital organs and corresponding functional manifestations (pregnancy, menstruation, lactation, etc.). It is observed in schizophrenia.
Ego (lat. Ego - I). The middle authority in the three-member psychoanalytic personality structure created by S. Freud. Occupies an intermediate position between “It” (Id) and super-Ego (super-Ego). At the same time, “It” seems to be a receptacle of instincts, unconscious drives, and the super-Ego performs the function of censorship, not allowing into the Ego unacceptable for social reasons, base, for example, incestuous, impulses and drives. Thus, according to S. Freud, the relationship between the individual and the surrounding reality is regulated.
Selfishness. A personality trait or mental state in which one’s own interests are in the foreground, the desire to acquire personal advantages and avoid inconveniences, deprivations, and self-care. It is observed both in mentally healthy people with the corresponding character traits, and in psychopathy and some mental illnesses (the initial stages of mental disorders of late age, schizophrenia, etc.).
Selfishnessaltruistic (fr. altruisme - selfless concern for the welfare of others, from lat. alter – another). The principle proposed by H. Selye as a measure to prevent the creation of stressful, especially distressing, situations in interpersonal relationships. The rule is not to cause harm, to wish good to others, so as not to give them a reason to be hostile towards you, to wish harm. It forms the basis of the complex of psychoprophylactic and psychotherapeutic measures proposed by N. Selye aimed at achieving optimal functioning of the individual.
Egophony (Greek aix - goat, phone - voice). In psychiatry: a voice whose timbre, pitch, modulations, and intonations resemble the bleating of a goat. Observed in hysteria, senile psychosis, progressive paralysis. In the clinic of internal medicine, a similar symptom is observed with exudative pleurisy (a type of bronchophony).
Egocentrism (ego + lat. centrum – center). 1. Personal characteristics characterized by highlighting the motives of one’s own mental life, one’s own views, interests while ignoring the interests and judgments of others. It is observed in patients with epilepsy and psychopathic individuals. 2. Delusional E. is observed in the process of delusional formation, when the patient, according to K. Conrad, cannot make a “Copernican turn”, that is, when he is in captivity of his own “I” - everything that happens around, according to the patient’s ideas, has a direct impact on him attitude.
see also The phenomenon of appropriation.
Egrotogeny (lat. aegrotus - sick, Greek -genes – generating, causing). [Liebig S.S., 1968]. Negative psychological impact of some patients on others in a certain group, which leads to the appearance of new symptoms neurotic character or strengthening existing ones. One of the variants of psychogenics.
Esophagospasm (anat. oesophageus – esophagus + spasm). Dyskinesia of the esophagus, characterized by periodic spasms. It is observed in neurotic conditions - hysterical and systemic neuroses.
Syn.: esophagism.
Eybulia (Greek eu - good, right, bule - will). Normal state of will, absence of volitional disorders.
Eidetism (Greek eidos - appearance, image). The ability to retain exceptionally clear and vivid images of seen objects. It is most often observed in adolescents. Often noted among artists [E. Munch]. In pathology, it is sometimes associated with hallucinatory (visual) experiences.
Eisoptrophobia (Greek eisoptron - mirror + phobia). Obsessive fear, fear of mirrors. The symptom can also be observed in the structure of dysmorphophobia syndrome (anti-mirror symptom, when the patient is afraid to see the supposed changes in his face).
Syn: spectroscopy.
Euthanasia (hey + Greek thanatos – death). Deliberately hastening death by failing to provide medical care or killing a patient in a terminal condition, ostensibly with the aim of preventing further suffering. Contradicts the principles of medical ethics. Hiding behind E.'s ideas, the German Nazis killed thousands of sick people during the Second World War.
Euphoria (Hey + Greek phero carry, carry). Increased carefree mood, complacency, combined with carelessness, insufficiently critical attitude towards one’s condition; serene bliss. Unlike manic and hypomanic states, E. is characterized by a lack of intellectual vitality and desire for activity; it occurs with a slowdown in mental activity (up to perseveration), in the presence of dementia. Observed in organic psychoses (Pick's disease, progressive paralysis, etc.)
Euphoria is indifferent. A state of emotional elation, characterized by the superficiality of affective manifestations. E. Bleuler considered it characteristic of patients with schizophrenia and saw its manifestations in their speech, when expressions indicating a joyful mood and depression coexist in one sentence. The author considered E.i. as a special case of splitting in the sphere of affectivity and speech.
Eichophobia (Greek euchos - desire, wish + phobia). Obsessive fear, fear of uttering or listening to good wishes, superstitious avoidance of them. Often reinforced by obsessive rituals.
Ekbom syndrome. Cm. Dermatozoal delirium, Beers–Conrad syndrome.
Depressive equivalents. 1. [Kannabikh Yu.V., 1914]. Paroxysmal conditions characterized by somatic complaints (headache, migraine, tachycardia, intermittent pain in the heart), which are companions of hypothymia, but not the main and leading symptom of cyclothymic depression. Thus, in contrast to the ideas about somatic cyclothymia (cyclosomia), D.D. Pletnev and E.K. Krasnushkin and from modern ideas about larval depression E.d. were not considered by the author as the main symptoms of cyclothymic depression, but were interpreted as an integral part of the depressive syndrome.
2. . Hypochondriacal states that dominate the clinical picture of the depressive phase of circular psychosis and often mask the main psychopathological symptoms. Both phase repetition of hypochondriacal equivalents of depression and their alternation with typical circular phases are possible.
Psychoepileptic equivalents[Ozeretskovsky D.S., 1928]. Paroxysmal obsessive desires, with aggressiveness directed against the closest people. Characterized by an affect of fear. Changes in perception (psychosensory synthesis), thinking and affectivity are noted. There are no generalized disorders of consciousness and subsequent amnesia. Refer to the described M.O. Gurevich special conditions.
Thymopathic equivalents. Psychopathological conditions or transient disturbances in the activity of any organs or systems, observed as a manifestation of affective disorders, most often depressive or manic phases of MDP, latent depression, schizoaffective attacks.
Epileptic equivalents. Paroxysmal, short-term disorders of mental activity occurring without tonic-clonic seizures. Most often - dysphoria, twilight and special states, phenomena of ambulatory automatism, poriomania (an irresistible desire for aimless wandering), attacks of visual and auditory hallucinations. They are not always a substitute for an epileptic seizure; in some cases, according to modern data, the described phenomena act as an aura or are observed after a seizure. Concept of E.e. Recently it has been significantly narrowed: minor seizures (absences) have been removed from it.
Equipotentialism (lat. aequus – equal, potentia strength, power). A trend in neuropathology and psychiatry that completely denied the focal nature of such disorders as aphasia, agnosia, apraxia, etc. Arose in connection with the revision of the classical, narrowly localizationist doctrine of aphasia. An example of E. is P. Marie’s theory of unified aphasia, according to which there is a unified aphasia (Wernicke’s aphasia), which includes three elements: amnestic, agnostic and dysphasic. The form of aphasic syndrome depends on the ratio of the severity of these elements in the clinical picture of aphasia. Motor aphasia, according to P. Marie, is Wernicke's aphasia, which is accompanied by the phenomena of anarthria. E. considers aphatic-agnostic-apractic syndromes as the result of a holistic lesion of the undifferentiated brain, correlating their clinical originality with the degree of massiveness of this lesion. According to A.R. Luria, both of these directions are psychomorphological and consider clinical syndromes in direct connection with the morphological substrate of the brain without attempting to analyze them physiologically.
Equifinality (lat. aequus – equal, proportionate, finalis finite). A principle that asserts the similarity of psychopathological manifestations of various mental illnesses at the final stages of their development.
Exaltation (lat. exaltatio- rise, inspiration). Elevated mood with excessive enthusiasm, increased self-esteem. In earlier times, this term was used to refer to hypomania.
Exacerbation (lat. exacerbo– irritate, burden). Exacerbation, worsening of the clinical picture of the disease. It may be the result of the course of a pathological process, manifested by aggravation of the disease state or the manifestation of a relapse replacing remission.
Existential analysis (lat. existentio – existence). A movement in foreign psychology and psychiatry that emerged in the 20s of our century. It is based on the ideas of the “philosophy of existence”. Psychopathological categories are considered from the position of existential philosophy, involving the categories of space and time. The central concept is existence (human existence) as an undivided integrity of subject and object. Existence is manifested by care, fear, determination, conscience. They are all defined through death. A person can understand his essence and existence in emergency situations - in struggle, suffering, death. E.a. antinosological. The study of nosological forms is replaced by the study of the subject's biography. Mental illness from the perspective of E.a. is understood as a perversion of the “structure of being in the world”, revealed a priori. The objective clinical-psychopathological study of a mentally ill person and the etiopathogenesis of the disease is opposed to what existentialists consider to be more significant and important is rapprochement with the patient in existential communication, as with a partner in coexistence. The object of study in psychiatry is not the mentally ill, but the sphere of interpersonal relationships. Since the relationships between people in society are very individual, diverse and unique, they are therefore useless from the point of view of E.a. and searches for any objective criteria, on which psychiatric diagnostics could be based. E.a. closely aligns with psychoanalysis and A. Meyer’s pragmatism.
Exogeny (Greek exo - outside, outside, genea birth, generation). The conditioning of mental illnesses by external causes outside the body. Exogenous include somatogenic (somatically caused, according to K. Schneider) psychoses in the broad sense of the word - infectious, intoxicating, post-traumatic, caused by diseases of internal organs.
Exogenous type of reaction. Cm. Exogenous type reactions.
Exogenous (exo + Greek -genes – generating, causing). Caused by the influence of external factors, exogenous.
Exometamorphopsia (Greek exo - outside, outside, meta - for something morphe – appearance, shape, opsis – vision). Cm. Metamorphopsia.
Exorcism (Greek exorkizo - conjure). Exorcism of demons. The use of medieval methods of spells and reprimands for the treatment of mental disorders in order to expel the devil who has settled in the body of the patient, causing the mental disorders allegedly observed in him. It originates from long-standing ideas about obsession as the essence of the origin of psychosis. It was widespread in the Middle Ages, but is also found today, being close to witchcraft, witchcraft and other ritual methods of influencing bad, black forces in a person.
Exophthalmos (exo + Greek ophthalmos – eye). Protrusion of eyeballs, bulging eyes. IN expressed cases may be combined with non-closure of the eyelids when closing the eyes, widening of the palpebral fissures. Observed in thyrotoxicosis, brain tumors, hydrocephalus.
Eclampsia (Greek eklampsis - outbreak, sudden occurrence). Severe form of late toxicosis of pregnancy. Occurs against the background of nephropathy, usually in the second half of pregnancy. Toxic edema and spasm of cerebral vessels play a role in the pathogenesis. Epileptiform convulsions are characteristic (see. Eclamptic convulsions) and impaired consciousness with psychomotor agitation, visual and auditory hallucinations. Convulsions can occur in series, in the form of status. A coma may develop (a dangerous sign). In this case, arterial hypertension is noted. E. can occur without convulsions, characterized by disorders of consciousness, edema, arterial hypertension in the presence of pathology in the urine (proteinuria).
Ecmnesia (Greek ek - outside, beyond, mnesis memory) . A form of memory disorder, a violation of time awareness, in which the line between past and present is blurred. Either the events of a past life are transferred to the present (for example, a patient suffering from Alzheimer’s disease, in the list of newspapers she receives, names “Kievlyanin”, “Kopeyka”, published before the revolution), or current events are transferred to the past (“shift of the situation to the past” in senile dementia, Alzheimer's disease).
Eknoya (Greek ek– out, noeo- perceive) . The dominance of one specific affect over all mental manifestations. P.B. Gannushkin attributed to E. a group of psychopathic individuals, whom he called fanatics of feeling, to which adherents of religious sects primarily belong. These are easily suggestible people who quickly fall under the influence of others: they serve not so much an idea as a certain person to whom they are ecstatically devoted and in whose name they are ready to sacrifice themselves. The same replacement of an idea with a corresponding affect is observed, according to P.B. Gannushkin, with paranoid delusions of jealousy, the essence of which is determined not so much by the thought of the possibility of betrayal, but by the pointless feeling of jealousy that persistently possesses these patients. E. also includes psychopathic individuals of an anxious, phobic nature, whose mental life is dominated by a feeling of fear, which is attached to everything that happens around them. Thus, the concept of E. is devoid of homogeneous psychopathological content.
Economo triad. The main and mandatory signs of the acute stage of epidemic encephalitis: fever, pathological drowsiness and oculomotor disorders.
Exhibitionism (lat. exhibeo - exhibit). A form of sexual perversion. Violation of psychosexual orientation to an object. It is characterized by the desire to expose the genitals in front of people of the opposite sex in order to induce sexual arousal and pleasure. It occurs, as a rule, in men. E. also includes a tendency to make cynical statements and showing pornographic drawings to representatives of the other sex. When E. is combined with sadism, the patient enjoys seeing the reactions of shame and fear in a woman; when combined with masochism, the desire to experience a feeling of fear of punishment, shame.
Exquisite (lat. ex - from, cuaero – search diligently). Selective, demonstrative, characteristic. Often used incorrectly as a synonym for the term "casuistic", that is, rarely encountered.
Expansive (lat. expansio – extension). 1. Passionate, unrestrained in expressions of feelings, emotive; 2. Occurring with elevated mood, revival in the motor-volitional sphere, for example, E. form of progressive paralysis.
Experimental psychological methods. Methods of experimental psychological research of human mental properties (memory, attention, rate of sensorimotor reactions, level and nature of mental activity, affective and personal properties). In psychiatry they have auxiliary diagnostic value. For this purpose, pathopsychology uses methods such as functional tests (presenting the subject with a task simulating a problem situation, the solution of which he must find) and psychological tests, which study standardized individual reactions to stimuli, clearly regulated by the degree of difficulty and time of task completion. Indicators in tests are compared with average indicators characteristic of a given population.
Psychiatric examination. Examination of a person’s mental state, inpatient or outpatient, to resolve issues of his ability to work (medical labor examination), sanity and capacity (forensic psychiatric examination), suitability for military service (military psychiatric examination). In addition, psychiatrist experts take part in the work of general military medical commissions and medical-pedagogical commissions, resolving issues teaching children in regular or auxiliary schools. E.p. uses clinical observation and examination data, analysis of anamnestic information (subjective and objective), available documentation reflecting the subject’s previous requests for medical care, laboratory data.
Forensic psychiatric examination. It is carried out to examine individuals in order to resolve the issue of their sanity, legal capacity and ability to serve a sentence, if the assumption of mental illness arose during their stay in places of detention. Appointed by judicial and investigative authorities. E.s.-p. Defendants, witnesses and victims may be subject to. In addition to medical data, court case materials are used. Produced by special forensic psychiatric commissions, the decisions of which are provided to the authorities that appointed the E.S.-p.
Forensic psychological examination. Appointed by judicial investigative authorities in cases where the person being examined does not suffer from a mental illness, but there are indications that he has known psychological characteristics, which may play a role in the commission of an offense, for example, with the assumption of physiological affect. It is carried out by psychologists who have sufficient professional training and use in their work data from pathopsychological research, information about the peculiarities of the formation of the subject’s personality and his mental state during the period of the offense and the period immediately preceding it, materials from medical and legal documentation. By decision of the judicial investigative authorities, if necessary, a comprehensive forensic psychological and psychiatric examination is prescribed.
Explosiveness (English explosive - hot-tempered). Cm. Explosiveness.
Expressive (lat. expressus – obvious, expressive). 1. Expressive, reflecting an emotional state, for example, E. facial expressions; 2. Being an expression internal processes, states, for example, E. speech.
Ecstasy (Greek ekstasis - frenzy, admiration). Elevated mood, the experience of delight, extraordinary happiness. In some mental illnesses, E. is a form affective disorder, occurring with disorders of consciousness and impaired contact with others. It can be observed as a property of personal accentuation in psychopathy. An example of E. psychopathic is an ecstatic aura in patients with epilepsy.
Exteriorization (lat. exterior– external, external). I. In psychology: conditionality of external actions, statements, etc. internal psychological structures, in turn, developing on the basis of the internalization of social factors, external human activity, and their reflection in the psyche; 2. In psychiatry: a subjectivist tendency to isolate a number of psychopathological phenomena (blaming hallucinations, delusional ideas of sinfulness, self-blame) from the facts of previous wrong, “vicious” actions that underwent intrapsychic processing and caused unique complex experiences of guilt.
Exteroceptive (extero + lat. capio – accept, perceive). Related to exteroception.
Exteroceptor (extero + lat. capio – accept, perceive). A receptor that perceives stimuli coming from the external environment.
Syn: extrareceptor, external receptor.
Exteroception (extero + lat. capio – accept, perceive). The body's perception of irritations coming from the external environment.
Syn.: exteroception, external reception.
Extroversion (extra + lat. verto – turn). A personal property characterized by an outward orientation of interests and activities. The opposite of introversion. Cm. Eysenck personality questionnaire, Jung's personality typology.
Syn: extraversion.
Extracampal (lat. extra - out, campus- field). Being out of sight, for example, extracampal hallucinations.
Extramural (extra + lat. murus – wall). Located outside of some confined space. For example, E. psychiatry - community psychiatry.
Eccentricity (the ex + lat. centrum – center). Strangeness, unusual behavior, actions. It manifests itself in eccentric manners, artificiality of poses, exaggerated gestures and facial expressions, a peculiar manner of speech and writing, and a desire for extravagance in clothing. Observed in hysteroid psychopathy.
Excitation (lat. excito – to disturb, excite). State of excitement.
Ectogenic. Harmful external factors that play a role in the origin of mental disorders.
Syn: exogenous.
Ectogenesis (lat. ecto – external, genesis – origin). Causation of mental disorders and diseases by external factors.
Ectogeny. Cm. Exogeny.
Engram Ecphoria (Greek ekphoreo - endure, ep – located inside gramma - record). Reviving in memory traces of past memorization, its fragments (engrams) and recreating from them a relatively holistic, systematized picture. In this case, engrams act as constituent elements of memory. In the neuropsychological study of writing and speech, special attention is paid to the possibility of patients reproducing engrams automated in the process of life experience (last name, first name, address, etc.).
Electropuncture (electro + lat. punctum – dot). One of the methods of reflexology based on the effect of electric current on biologically active points using special electrodes.
Syn.: galvanopuncture.
Electrosleep. Cm. Gilyarovsky–Liventsev–Segal–Kirilova electrosleep method.
Electrosubcorticogram (electro + lat. sub – under, cortex – bark, Greek gramma - record, drawing, diagram). A curve reflecting changes in the biopotentials of the subcortical structures of the brain.
Electrosubcorticography (electro + subcortical + graphy). A method for studying the activity of subcortical structures of the brain using specially inserted electrodes to record their bio electrical activity.
Electroshock (Greek elektron - amber, component difficult words, meaning "electric", fr. choc - shock). Cm. Cerletti-Bini method.
Syn: electrocom.
Electroencephalogram (electro + encephalogram). A curve reflecting changes in the biopotentials of the brain. Obtained using an electroencephalograph at various leads.
Syn: EEG.
Electroencephalograph (electro + greek enkephalos – brain, grapho write, depict). Device for recording brain biopotentials.
Electroencephalography (electro + encephalography). A method for recording the electrical activity of the brain through intact scalp. It is used in psychiatry mainly for the diagnosis of organic diseases of the brain, helps to establish the presence of a pathological organic process and its topic. Recordings of biocurrents are carried out at rest (background EEG) and under various loads (hyperventilation, use of sound and visual stimuli, administration of pharmacological substances). Analysis of EEG indicators can be carried out using a computer.
Electroencephalopathy (electro + Greek enkephalos – brain, pathos - suffering, illness). Encephalopathy due to electrical trauma.
Electroencephaloscope (electro + encephalo + Greek skopeo- watch, observe). A device for studying brain activity using electroencephaloscopy.
Electroencephaloscopy (electro + encephaloscopy). A method for studying the activity of the brain, based on the simultaneous recording of the biopotentials of many of its areas with a display on the screen of a cathode ray tube in the form of a mosaic of luminous dots, continuously changing their brightness in accordance with the degree of excitation of the neurons of these areas.
Ellis syndrome(Ellis N.N., 1910). A form of sexual perversion in which sexual pleasure is achieved through contact or manipulation with liquids - water (during washing, bathing) or urine (sniffing or drinking urine). The second symptom is called urolagnia and is considered a manifestation of masochism or fetishism (see. Fetishism).
Syn.: Havelock Ellis syndrome, undinism (undine – mermaid).
Elpenora syndrome. A variant of the drowsy state with disorientation and incomplete understanding of the surroundings. It is often observed in those suffering from alcoholism, who, upon sudden awakening, being in a state of incomplete consciousness, can display aggressive and destructive tendencies. Elpenor – character of the Odyssey, the youngest of the hero’s companions. Having fallen asleep on the roof of Circe's palace, he was suddenly awakened by the voices and noise of his comrades' tags, sleepily stepped in the direction opposite to the stairs, fell from a great height and died due to a fracture of the cervical vertebrae.
Syn.: intoxication with sleep.
Ellusion (eng. elusion - evasion, evasion). Reception psychological protection, aimed at preserving one’s “I” in a situation of conflict with others by escaping reality into the world of fantasy and dreams. With E., the boundary between fantasy and reality seems to blur, one replaces the other. An example of E. is the life of Emma Bovary in Flaubert's novel Madame Bovary. Cm. Bovarism.
Emasculation (lat. e(x)- from, from, masculus– male). Castration of males by bilateral removal of the seminal glands.
Embololalia (Greek embolon – wedge, plug, lalia speech, chatter). Frequent use of the same words and phrases. Cm. Speech embolus.
Syn.: embolophrasia.
Embryopathy (Greek embrion - uterine fetus, embryo, pathos - illness, suffering). Designation of pathological conditions that arise in embryonic period. See, for example, Alcohol embryopathy.
Alcoholic embryopathy. Cm. Alcohol embryopathy.
Emotivity (lat. emoveo - excite). Hypersensitivity, in which emotional reactions occur quickly, reach great strength and, often, turn out to be excessively long-lasting.
Syn: emotionality.
Emotions. A person’s experience of his relationship to objective reality and to himself, satisfaction or dissatisfaction with his own actions. The formation of E. of different levels and complexity occurs as a result of the development certain forms connections of the organism with the external environment. There are biological E., associated with satisfaction or dissatisfaction with life important needs(hunger, thirst, sexual desire) and higher ones, associated with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of spiritual (social, moral, cognitive, etc.) needs. According to their sensory coloring, emotions are divided into positive and negative. They talk about detained E. in cases where, for one reason or another (mainly social), a person is forced to suppress them.
Emotions are ictal (lat. ictus – seizure). Characterized by sudden onset and short duration. Most often these are emotional reactions of depression and fear. They can be observed with any organic lesion of the brain, but especially with temporal lobe epilepsy with the location of the epileptogenic focus in the hippocampal-amygdala-temporal region, with its subclinical course.
Emotions, forms according to Astvatsaturov[Astvatsaturov M.I., 1936]. There are two main forms of emotions, considered as elements of receptor function - thalamic and cortical. Thalamic emotion is a phylogenetically old, primitive, unconscious mental reaction in the form of an unclear experience of pleasant and unpleasant, manifests itself in mental illness in the form of endogenous depression, melancholy, anxious mood, fear (see. Vital melancholy And Vital depression). The diffuse, unconscious, inexplicable nature of these experiences creates an affective preconditioning that contributes to the emergence of hallucinatory and delusional images. Cortical emotion is a phylogenetically later superstructure containing gnostic components (see. Gnostic feelings). Forms of emotions according to M.I. Astvatsaturov correspond to the forms of sensitivity according to N. Head - protopathic thalamic and epicritic cortical.
Emotional dullness. Cm. Affective dullness.
Emotional islands. The principle of constructing psychotherapy for schizophrenia, which attaches primary importance to the creation of affective contact, leading to a breakthrough in autism and contributing to the reconstruction of personal relationships. Thus, we are talking about influencing the basic schizophrenic mechanisms. Accordingly, occupational therapy for schizophrenia is also considered as a means of breaking through autism, and the main tasks of the psychotherapist in the treatment of delusions are put forward (modification of delusions in order to eliminate or reduce its contradiction with reality, encapsulation of delusions, correction of delusions while preserving the behavioral tendencies caused by them). The role of affective contact in the psychotherapy of schizophrenia, especially paranoid, is emphasized by Soviet psychotherapists [Zavilyanskaya L.I., 1968, 1987; Posvyansky P.M., 1974].
Empathy (Greek empatheia - empathy). Understanding the emotional state of another person through empathy. The concept of E. summarizes ideas about sympathy that are similar in content and the provisions of the concept of empathy. E. can be emotional, intellectual (cognitive), and predicative (predicting the experiences of another person and his affective reactions in specific situations). There are also special forms of emotion - empathy and sympathy. Empathy is experiencing the emotional state of another based on identification with him; sympathy is concern for the feelings of another. The study of E. is important for solving a number of socio-psychological problems. In psychiatry, the concept of E. is used in the development of methods social rehabilitation, when studying the genesis of unmotivated crimes, etc.
Empodistokoimes (Greek empodizo - let, koimesis – dream). Difficulty falling asleep, for example, with neurasthenia, with an overdose of certain medications.
Emprostotonus (Greek emprosthotonos - pulled forward). Cm. Camptocormia.
Emphyomenic (Greek emphyo - graft, plant) [Shipkovensky N., 1956]. Vaccinated, developing due to mental retardation. For example, vaccinated schizophrenia (pfropfschizophrenia), vaccinated cyclophrenia (pfropfcyclophrenia).
Angelman syndrome. It is characterized by a combination of mental underdevelopment with epileptiform seizures and violent manifestations (grimaces, laughter). Muscle tone is generally reduced, ataxic movements. The gait is uncertain. Microcephaly, excessive tongue protrusion, pyramidal and, more often, extrapyramidal signs are observed. The peculiar motor skills of patients resemble the movements of puppets.
The onset of the disease is in early childhood – from 10 to 42 months. The first manifestations are in the form of childhood convulsions - general, focal or myoclonic. Patients need constant care and supervision.
Etiology unknown. In two of the seven cases described in the world literature, aminoaciduria was noted.
Endogenesis (Greek endo - inside, genesis origin). The occurrence of mental illnesses and their course in connection with hereditary factors. The concept of E., like exogeny, was introduced by P.J. Mobius.
Endogeny (endo + Greek genesis – birth, origin). Pathological processes, diseases of endogenous origin.
Endogenous opiates. A group of neuropeptides that have an analgesic effect and can compete with morphine and other opiates for binding the corresponding receptors. Participate in pathogenesis endogenous psychoses. Includes endorphins and enkephalins.
Endogenous. Emerging, developing endogenously.
Endocrinopathy (endo + Greek krino – separate, highlight, pathos - suffering, illness). General name for disorders of the endocrine glands, endocrine disorders.
Enilism (Greek oinos - wine). Wine alcoholism.
Encopresis (Greek ep - prefix to indicate time, kopros – feces). Cm. Fecal incontinence.
Enuresis (en + uron – urine). Cm. Urinary incontinence.
Enuretic absence. A type of non-convulsive epileptic seizure, manifested by loss of urine.
Encephalitis (encephal + it). Inflammation of the brain. The term is often used to designate a group of diseases that are not always clearly inflammatory in nature, or even of non-inflammatory etiology, the common feature of which is diffuse and progressive brain damage. An example of E. non-inflammatory origin is E. allergic, E. acute periaxial (Schilder’s disease), etc.
Therefore, we should talk about E. in the strict sense of the word, that is, as inflammatory diseases of the brain caused by an infectious factor: E. dysentery, influenza, rheumatic, etc.
Epidemic encephalitis. An inflammatory disease of the brain that occurs in epidemics. The causative agent is unknown, although the theory of viral etiology is generally accepted. Manifests itself in acute and chronic stages. The acute stage is characterized by hyperkinetic and mental (delirium) disorders or, much more often, manifested by hypersomnia (lethargy). Lethargy may be the initial symptom of the acute phase, but more often follows delirious agitation. The chronic stage is characterized by neurological (postencephalitic parkinsonism) and mental disorders. In accordance with the prevailing mental disorders in the clinical picture, F.F. Detenhoff distinguished following forms: 1) pseudoparalytic; 2) paroxysmal - convulsive with mental changes, equivalent to attacks of fear, fainting and cataleptic, hypersomnic and narcoleptic, forms with impaired sensory synthesis and optic-vestibular disorders, oneiric; 3) schizophrenia-like – catatonoid, hallucinatory-paranoid, heboid and schizophasic; 4) psychopath-like; 5) neurosis-like.
Synonym: lethargic encephalitis, Economo encephalitis.
Epidemic encephalitis, psychosensory form[Gurevich M.O., 1941]. A form of epidemic encephalitis in which parkinsonism, delirium, and dementia do not reach significant severity. Psychosensory disorders and paresthesia are typical.
Encephalosis (encephal + oz). Atrophic diseases of the brain of presenile and old age (Pick's and Alzheimer's diseases, senile dementia) are classified into a single group in accordance with Meygnant's concept of the abiotrophic process. A look at cortical atrophic diseases big brain at a late age as a consequence of the abiotrophic process leading to dementia and the collapse of the functions of speech, gnosis and praxis, is also accepted in modern French psychiatry [Eu N., Bernard P., Brisset Ch., 1961]. The combination of these diseases into one group, according to most researchers, is conditional, since a single biological or pathomorphological characteristic of the diseases included in encephalosis is impossible and their combination is justified only clinically.
Encephalomyelitis (encephalo + myelitis). Combined inflammation of the brain and spinal cord.
Encephalopathy (encephalo + Greek pathos - suffering, illness). Organic brain lesions characterized by dystrophic changes. Differentiation of E. is made according to etiopathogenetic characteristics - E. anoxic, arteriosclerotic, post-traumatic, hypertensive, hypoglycemic, etc.
The term E. is used mainly to designate persistent and irreversible mental disorders that arise as a result of organic (exogenous-organic) disease of the brain. In this respect, it coincides with the concept of chronic organic psychosyndrome: Most often, the term E. is used to refer to residual manifestations of traumatic brain injury. In contrast to post-traumatic cerebrasthenia, in post-traumatic encephalopathy, along with asthenic disorders, focal neurological symptoms, characterological changes are observed (coarsening of emotions, a tendency to excessive affective reactions, excitability, conflict, litigious tendencies, frequent hysteriform manifestations) and varying degrees of severity, signs of intellectual-mnestic reduction. The line between post-traumatic dementia and post-traumatic dementia is relative, conditional, determined by the depth of intellectual decline.
Syn.: cerebropathy.
Aeonism. Sexual perversion associated with incorrect awareness of one’s gender, a change in psychosexual orientation towards the opposite sex. It is often accompanied by a desire to change one’s gender through surgery on the genitals and a requirement to issue documents proving that one belongs to the opposite sex. It is often combined with transvestism. Changes in psychosexual behavior are not amenable to psychotherapeutic correction. A negative attitude towards treatment is typical. Named after the diplomat of Louis XV, Chevalier d'Eon de Beaumont, who suffered from this sexual perversion.
Syn: transsexualism.
Mental epidemics. Collective induced psychoses (see), common in Western Europe during the Middle Ages and most often associated with religious fanaticism, the prevalence of mystical prejudices and superstitions. They affected the population of large cities and regions, usually proceeded with increasing psychomotor agitation, often the ideas of obsession and Manichaeism dominated in the statements of patients (see. Tarantism). They were brutally suppressed by the Inquisition. In Russia, epidemics that did not acquire such a degree of prevalence were observed even before the revolution in the economically backward regions of Eastern Siberia (measurement).
Episode (Greek epeisodion - incident, incident). Form of the course of mental disorders. The onset is characteristically acute; the picture of a mental disorder unfolds quickly, without visible warning signs. The end of E. is also rapid, usually accompanied by amnesia of the experience. The course is short-lived. E. states arise without any connection with external causes. A typical example of E. is epileptic twilight disorders of consciousness and dysphoria.
Epilepsy (Greek epilepsy - seizure, epileptic seizure). A chronic endogenous organic disease that occurs with repeated paroxysmal disorders (convulsive and non-convulsive) and the formation of dementia with characteristic personality changes. With E., acute and prolonged psychotic states are observed.
It begins mainly in childhood or adolescence. There is evidence of a hereditary predisposition. Organic brain lesions play a significant role in etiopathogenesis - intrauterine damage to the fetus, consequences of traumatic brain injury, neuroinfections. In pathogenesis central place belongs to the presence of epileptogenic and epileptic foci (see).
E. abdominal. E., occurring with abdominal seizures (see). According to H. Gastaut, it is not recommended to use this term, since abdominal seizures are observed in various forms of E. - generalized and focal, which deprives it of specificity.
E. adversive. Occurs with adversive seizures (see), a variant of focal E.
E. acousticogenic. Seizures are triggered by auditory, especially unexpected, stimuli.
Syn.: E. auditory reflex, E. acoustic, E. audiogenic, E. audiosensory.
E. alcoholic(V. Magnan, 1883). It is characterized by grand mal seizures that occur in chronic alcoholics during periods of excessive alcohol consumption or abstinence, but subsequently the seizures occur autochthonously. Initially, the emergence of E.a. was associated with the abuse of wormwood vodka (absinthe), but this was not confirmed in the future.
Currently E.a. is considered as a second disease, developing according to the pathogenetic mechanisms of epileptic disease, which loses its original connection with its predecessor and plays a causal role in chronic alcoholism. The process of “epileptization” begins with the formation of alcoholic encephalopathy with parallel metabolic changes occurring, including an increase in the level of the endogenous convulsant kynurenine (Gromov S.A., Efimov O.F., Kartashev E.V., Ryzhov I.V. , 1991).
E. arithmetic. A type of reflex epilepsy in which the occurrence of convulsive seizures is provoked by performing arithmetic operations.
E. temporal. A form of focal E., in which the epileptic or epileptogenic focus is localized in the temporal lobe. Characterized by seizures with sensory symptoms (auditory, olfactory, gustatory), adversive, aphasic, mental, often in combination with autonomic disorders and oral automatisms.
Syn.: E. temporal lobe, E. psychomotor.
E. secondary. Cm. E. symptomatic.
E. generalized. Occurs with primary generalized seizures.
E. genoina. The general name for forms of E. that occur with primary generalized seizures, not associated with obvious organic brain damage or identified metabolic disorders (that is, non-symptomatic forms of E.).
Syn.: E. essential, E. cryptogenic, E. idiopathic.
E. children's room. Seizures begin before the age of 3 years and may disappear at an older age. The seizures are myoclonic (see), akinetic (see), often one-sided and moving. Focal, especially somatomotor, seizures are extremely rare.
Syn.: E. infantile.
E. jacksonian. Cm. Bravais-Jackson epilepsy.
E. diencephalic. Occurs with diencephalic seizures.
E. daytime. It occurs with seizures that occur during the daytime, while awake. Wed: E. nocturnal.
E. occipital. The form of E. is focal with the localization of an epileptic or epileptogenic focus in the occipital cortex. Visual illusory and hallucinatory seizures are characteristic.
E. insular (anat. insula – island). The form of E. is focal due to damage to the insulo-periinsular region. Seizures are often in the nature of taste illusions and hallucinations and vegetative manifestations (epigastric, abdominal).
E. infantile. Cm. E. children's room.
E. Kozhevnikova. Cm. Kozhevnikov's epilepsy.
E. continuum (lat. continuus – continuous, long-lasting). Cm. Kozhevnikov's epilepsy.
E. cortical. Cm. Kozhevnikov's epilepsy.
E. cryptogenic (Greek kryptos - hidden, secret, –genes – generating, causing). Cm. E. genoina.
E. larvated (lat. larva – mask). Cm. E. mental.
E. frontal. The form of E. is focal with the localization of an epileptic or epileptogenic focus in the cortex of the premotor region of the frontal lobe. Seizures are often subclinical in nature, amnestic with preserved consciousness, but when the discharge spreads to motor prerolandic and subcortical structures, they acquire the character of adversive, somatomotor or secondarily generalized.
E. local. Cm. E. focal.
E. small. It occurs in the form of small epileptic seizures.
E. metabolic. Occurs in newborns and infants due to metabolic disorders (pyridoxine, amino acid, water-salt, carbohydrate, fat) in the presence of a hereditary predisposition or organic pathology of the brain.
E. migraine. Seizures occur in people who have suffered from migraines for a long time, or alternate with migraine attacks. According to H. Gastaut, such a mechanism of pathogenesis seems doubtful and this term is not recommended.
E. myoclonic. According to H. Gastaut, the term is incorrect - we are talking about myoclonic seizures in Unferricht-Lundborg disease and Kozhevnikov epilepsy, as well as in primary generalized E.
E. mitral (anat. valvula mitralis – mitral valve of the heart) [Lichtenstein E.I., 1956]. Epileptiform syndrome resulting from brain hypoxia with heart failure in patients with mitral valve disease.
E. musicogenic. A rare form of reflex E. Characterized by musicogenic seizures of a polymorphic nature and a sound aura. Described by I.P. Merzheevsky, observed in diffuse organic brain lesions with a predominant temporal, often bilateral, localization.
Syn.: musical E., musicolepsy.
E. morpheic. Seizures are mainly observed during sleep, either at night or during the day.
Syn.: E. hypnic.
E. soft. It occurs with rare seizures and is characterized by mildly expressed intellectual-mnestic and characterological changes.
E. hereditary. It is caused by a significantly enhanced hereditary predisposition and occurs with primary generalized epileptic seizures (tonic-clonic, myoclonic and typical absences). The disease most often begins in childhood.
E. nocturnal. Seizures occur predominantly or exclusively during nighttime sleep. Wed: E. daytime. see also E. morpheic.
E. opercular (anat. operculum insulae cerebri- tegmentum of the cerebral insula). The form of E. is focal, in which the epileptic or epileptogenic focus is located in the walls of the Sylvian fissure and peri-insular region. Seizures complex nature, with hypersalivation, chewing movements and a state of stupor. They are often preceded by a sensation of a specific taste.
E. organic. The most common type of E. symptomatic.
E. parietal. The form of E. is focal. Localization of the lesion in the parietal cortex. Characteristic are subclinical seizures, which, when the discharge of excitation passes to adjacent sensory and motor structures, are replaced by somatomotor, adversive, aphasic, etc.
Syn.: E. parietal.
E. primary generalized. It is characterized by primarily generalized seizures (tonic-clonic, absences and bilateral myoclonus), occurring more often in childhood and adolescence. It is not symptomatic, which gives grounds to talk about a connection with a hereditary predisposition.
Syn.: E. idiopathic, E. essential, E. true, E. genuine.
E. anterior temporal. A variety of E. temporal. Localization of the lesion in the anterior temporal lobe. The seizures are of the nature of affective or chewing and swallowing automatisms.
E. intermittent. It is observed in newborns and infants and is characterized by intermittent seizures (convulsions move from one limb to another, from one half of the body to the other). Children's E. form.
E. late. The onset is typical in adulthood and old age. Usually a consequence of organic progressive diseases of the brain (cerebral atherosclerosis).
E. puberty. The appearance of seizures is associated with hormonal changes occurring during puberty, which temporarily increase the convulsive susceptibility.
E. postrolandova. The form of E. is focal. Localization of the lesion in the cortex of the post-Solandic region. Seizures are somatosensory and somatomotor in nature.
Syn.: E. postcentral.
E. post-traumatic. Form of E. organic, caused by traumatic brain injury. Seizures are focal, their nature depends on the location of the lesion. Sometimes secondary generalization of seizures occurs.
Syn.: E. traumatic.
E. prerolandova. The form of E. is focal. The lesion is localized in the prerolandic region of the cerebral cortex. Jacksonian seizures are common.
Syn.: E. precentral.
E. awakening. Seizures occur soon (1-2 hours) after waking up. Most often, this is primarily generalized E. Signs of mental degradation are expressed relatively mildly, but characterological deviations are still more significant than in epileptoid psychopaths.
E. mental. Nonconvulsive form of E. Diagnosis is based on the presence of personality changes characteristic of E., paroxysmal symptoms of disorders observed mainly in the sphere of affects and drives, mental epileptic equivalents, and epileptic psychoses. H. Gastaut denies the legitimacy of distinguishing mental E., but gives a completely different definition of it, referring to it all forms of E. with disturbances of consciousness during a seizure and especially in the post- and interictal periods, which does not correspond to the generally accepted understanding.
Syn.: psychoepilepsy, E. masked, E. larvated, E. non-convulsive.
E. psychomotor. A form of temporal E., manifested by adversive or aphasic epileptic seizures.
E. psychosensory[Gurevich M.O., 1936]. A type of mental illness in which the clinical picture of attacks is dominated by the syndrome of psychosensory disorders and special conditions that differ from total twilight states by the absence of amnesia and partial disturbances of consciousness. Special Conditions The presence of sensory synthesis disorders is similar to psychosensory disorders.
Psychosensory disorders in true (genuine) E. are characterized by complete reintegration and reversibility of symptoms, while in symptomatic E. there remain residual, although mildly expressed, symptoms of a focal nature, especially vestibular ones.
H. Gastaut refers to psychosensory epileptic seizures as illusory or hallucinatory, but these terms cannot be considered equivalent.
E. residual. Epileptiform syndromes in patients with residual symptoms of organic brain damage, often in early childhood. Unlike symptomatic epilepsy, residual epilepsy occurs due to inactive, non-processual organic pathology, and convulsive seizures are usually caused by the presence of exogenous harmful substances [Bershtein G.I., 1950].
E. reflex. A rare form of E. in which seizures occur reflexively and are provoked by sensitive stimuli. There are E.r. visual and auditory (acousticogenic) depending on the modality of the stimulus.
E. family. It is observed in several members of the same family and is associated with a hereditary constitutional predisposition. If such a predisposition plays a significant role, they speak of E. hereditary.
E. senile. Isolation as an independent form is not justified, since we are talking about symptomatic E. or epileptiform seizures, for example, in Alzheimer's disease.
E. symptomatic. Seizures are a consequence and symptom of a certain pathological condition. There are such forms as E. metabolic and organic (infections, intoxications, head injuries).
E. syphilitic. The form of E. is symptomatic, observed in vascular and meningoencephalitic manifestations of neurosyphilis.
E. vascular. The symptomatic form of E. is observed in vascular diseases of the brain, especially with the presence of lesions in specific areas of the cerebral cortex (cerebral atherosclerosis, hypertension). It occurs with large convulsive seizures and fainting.
E. television. A type of visual reflex E., observed in photosensitive subjects, especially when located close to the TV screen, in low lighting in the room.
E. thetanoid (Greek tetanos - convulsive tension, –eides– similar, similar). E.'s form, in which convulsive seizures are tonic in nature, there is no clonic component.
E. toxoplasma. A form of symptomatic (organic) E., observed in toxoplasmosis. The nature of the seizures depends on the location of the pathological foci.
E. heavy. It is characterized by frequent primary generalized seizures with a tendency to develop status epilepticus, episodes of twilight stupefaction, intensive progression of intellectual-mnestic and characterological disorders.
E. uncusa (lat. uncus hyppocampii - uncinus of the hippocampal gyrus). A type of temporal E., localization of the focus in the anterior-internal part of the temporal lobe, especially in the uncus of the hippocampal gyrus. Seizures with impaired sense of smell (illusions and hallucinations) are typical.
E. morning. Cm. E. awakening.
E. focal. Characterized by polymorphic focal seizures with possible secondary generalization. Occurs at any age, usually due to organic brain damage.
Syn:. E. partial, E. focal, E. local.
E. photogenic (Greek phos - light, –genes – generating, causing). Visual reflex E.
E. centrencephalic. The generalized primary form of E. is hereditary. Absences, myoclonus, and tonic-clonic seizures are typical.
E. endocrine-toxic[Sereysky M.Ya., 1926]. The form of E. is symptomatic, characterized by minor seizures and the presence of endocrine disorders (most often hyperthyroidism). Sometimes these painful signs appear simultaneously, but sometimes endocrine pathology precedes the appearance of seizures. Premorbid patients are characterized as epileptoids.
E. essentiala (lat. essentialis – related to the essence). Cm. E. genoina.
Epileptiform (epilepsy + lat. formis – similar, similar). Similar to epileptic paroxysms, clinically reminiscent of epilepsy. The term is most often applied to seizures.
Epileptic. Related to epilepsy.
Epileptoidia (epilepto + Greek -eides – like). Cm. Epileptoid psychopathy.
Epileptology (epilepto + Greek logos – teaching, science). A branch of medicine that studies the clinical picture, etiopathogenesis and treatment methods of epilepsy.
Epistaxophobia (Greek epistazo - drip, ooze + phobia). Obsessive fear, fear of nosebleeds.
Epithymic character (Greek epi - above, thymos - feeling). Cm. Epileptoidia.
Syn.: epileptoid character.
Epiphenomenalism (Greek epi - above, phainomenon – phenomenon, occurrence). A doctrine that considers the psyche, consciousness, as a phenomenon that only accompanies physiological processes, a superstructure over them that does not play an active role in human life and activity. E. denies the active reflection of reality by the psyche and its significance as a creative factor that determines a person’s position in the world around him. E., with its methodological and epistemological principles, contradicts dialectical materialism.
Epiphrenia (epi + Greek phren – mind, reason). A term introduced by N. Shipkovensky to designate epilepsy by analogy with schizophrenia and cyclophrenia.
Epstein's symptom. Observed in neuroses in children. When nervous, the upper eyelid does not droop, which gives the patient's face an expression of fear.
Ergazia (Greek ergasia - work, action, activity). Concept to denote the coordinated and purposeful activity of all somatic and mental functions in the norm. From the disorders, E. A. Meyer and his followers derive various kinds of ergastic reactions that are specific to certain types of mental pathology. Ergasiatry, according to A. Meyer, is a synonym for psychiatry. Cm. Mayer ergasiology.
Ergasiophobia (ergasia + phobia). Obsessive fear, fear of performing any action or movement.
Occupational therapy (lat. ergon – work, occupation, Greek therapy - treatment). Occupational therapy.
Ergotism (fr. ergot - ergot). Food poisoning due to consumption of products containing ergot horns. After the precursors (gastrointestinal disorders, muscle cramps, headaches, increased fatigue, forgetfulness, decreased mood, fears), a state of confusion develops with hallucinations, psychomotor disorders (excitement or stupor). Neurologically - symptoms reminiscent of tabes, but without pupillary disorders (ergotine pseudotabes). Epileptiform seizures. In severe cases, death or dementia occurs.
Ereitopathy (Greek ereuthos - blush, pathos - illness, suffering). Tendency to easily occurring redness of the skin in the face, neck, and chest. It can be a constitutional sign, often observed in neuroses, being a symptom of vegetative dystonic disorders.
Ereithophobia (ereito + phobia). 1. Obsessive fear, fear of blushing; 2. Neurotic fear that occurs when looking at objects painted red, possibly resembling blood.
Eremophobia (Greek: eremos– desert + phobia). Obsessive fear, fear of being in a deserted place, of being alone.
Erethism (Greek erethizma - irritation, excitement). Increased excitability and irritability, when severe, occurs with aggressive and destructive tendencies. It is observed in oligophrenia (eretic oligophrenia is the opposite of its torpid forms), post-encephalitic and post-traumatic characteropathy.
Erysichthon syndrome. It is observed in obese sclerotic people with hyperlipidemia and is characterized by a desire for excesses in food, despite warnings from doctors and relatives about possible harmful consequences, which are often justified. Erysichthon is a farmer in Greek mythology who offended Demeter, the goddess of harvests and grain, by destroying the trees in the garden dedicated to her. He was punished by the goddess, who sent upon him an indomitable appetite and an insatiable hunger. The more he ate, the hungrier he became. As a result, Erysichthon ate his property, sold his daughter into slavery for food, and finally ate himself.
Erythrophobia (Greek erythros– red + phobia). Cm. Ereytophobia.
Erogenous zone (grey, eros – love, passion, –genes – generating, causing). An area of skin or mucous membrane, irritation of which leads to sexual arousal and orgasm (in the genital area, mammary glands, etc.). E.z. often have an individual character, different for men and women.
Eroticism (Greek eros - desire, passion). A general name for various manifestations of sexual desire.
Erotographomania (erotic + graphomania). A type of graphomania, an attraction to writing love letters and erotic stories by mentally ill, psychopathic individuals.
Erotodromanomania (erotic + dromomania). An irresistible attraction to vagrancy associated with sexual excesses (love affairs, rape, etc.).
Erotomania. Cm. Erotomanic delirium.
Esquirol's principles for the study of mental illness: 1) analysis of symptoms of mental disorder; 2) searching for the causes of the disease; 3) description of the course of the disease and possible options for its outcome; 4) establishment of general principles for treating the disease.
Esthesioneurosis (Greek aisthesis - feeling, perception). Neuroses occurring with severe symptoms of sensory impairment.
Etiology (Greek aitia - cause, logos – teaching, science). 1. The doctrine of the causes of diseases; 2. Origin, cause of the disease, pathological condition.
Etiopathogenesis (etio + pathogenesis). A set of ideas about the causes and mechanisms of disease development.
Etiotropic (ethio + Greek tropos – turn, direction). Aimed directly at the cause of the disease. The term applies to treatments, such as the treatment of progressive paralysis with penicillin.
Ethnic factors (Greek ethnos - people). Categories specific to different ethnic groups. According to the difference E.f. the characteristics of culture inherent in a people are highlighted, including features of material production, human reproduction and life (demographic structure, family structure, social structures, etc.), spiritual reproduction (worldview, methods of socialization of children and adolescents, beliefs, cultural traditions, socio-legal and moral -ethical standards), communication (features of communication between individuals, the most characteristic methods of communication, etc.). The originality of E.f. studied by ethnopsychology and ethnopsychiatry (transcultural psychiatry).
Ethnopsychiatry. A section of social psychiatry devoted to the study of ethnic and cultural factors in the development and course of mental illness.
Ethnotherapy (Greek ethnikos - tribal, folk, therapy - treatment). . Immersion, the return of the patient to his individual and collective childhood, to ancient cultural patterns and archetypes through group classes, individual conversations, therapy fine arts, psychodrama, elements of ethnology, folk traditions, dance art, pantomime, etc. This contributes to the patient’s self-discovery, self-affirmation, and his search for his place in life through a sense of the natural, ancient-labor, pagan-festive within himself. The technique is close to religious experiences, the depth psychological concept of C. Jung, however, a number of its techniques are quite acceptable and can be applied in the work of a psychotherapist who takes other philosophical positions.
Ethology (Greek ethos- custom, habit, logos– science, teaching). The branch of biology that studies the behavior of animals in natural conditions. Special attention is devoted to the study of genetically determined forms of behavior. The transfer of E.'s conclusions to the study of forms of human behavior is of interest, however, one should take into account the social status of a person, whose behavior cannot be reduced to purely biological mechanisms, can only be explained by them.
Eupareinia (Greek eu - good, perfect, correct, pareunos roommate). Simultaneous, harmonious onset of orgasm in a man and woman during sexual intercourse. Compare: dyspareunia.
Ephebophilia (Greek ephebos - young man, philia – Love). 1. A type of male homosexuality, attraction to teenagers and young men; 2. Attraction of older women to boys and young men.
Broadcast mania (ether + mania). A type of drug addiction in which the object of addiction is ethyl ether, a derivative of ethyl alcohol, usually used for anesthesia.
The effect is amphomimetic (lat. effectus – result of action Greek amphi – at both sides, mimetos - imitator). The body's dual response to external stimuli, in which signs of sympathico- and parasympathicotonia are simultaneously detected, for example, increased blood pressure and bradykinesia.
Effeminization (lat. e(f) – from, from, femina- woman). Violation of gender consciousness - a woman feels like a man. Symptom opposite to evaporation (see).
Echoes are epileptic. Stereotypical epileptic automatisms (their photographic repetition, cliché).
Echography (Greek echo - echo, echo, grapho write, depict). Manifestation of echolalia in writing. When asked to respond in writing to a question asked, the patient responds by literally reproducing the question. Depending on whether the question was asked orally or in writing, acoustic and optical echography are distinguished. It is a manifestation of reflex automatism, observed with changes in the structure of the brain, perhaps of a functional origin.
Echokinesia (Greek echo - echo, echo, kinesis- movement). Cm. Echopraxia.
Echolalia (echo + Greek lalia – speech). 1. True E., characterized by automatic, involuntary and meaningless reproduction of speech addressed to the patient. The patient repeats what he heard in the same words and with the same intonation, which distinguishes true E. from mitigated E. 2. Mitigated, facilitated E., in which the patient repeats the question of the interlocutor, transforming it. It is not so much a subspecies as a stage in the development of echolalic disorders, often preceding (especially with Pick’s disease) the identification of true E.
Echology (echo + Greek logos – word, speech). A symptom of a speech disorder, characterized by the fact that the patient, in response to an alternatively constructed question, repeats the last word. When rearranging the words of the question, he again repeats the last word, previously former first. For example: Answer yes or no! (No); Answer anyway - no or yes! (Yes). K. Leonhard brings E. closer to perseveration and considers it especially characteristic of catatonia of speech readiness. The latter was identified by the author as a form of systemic schizophrenia (see. Leonhard's taxonomy of schizophrenia). Its main symptoms are: passing speech (see) of the “speech closure” type, as well as perseveration, associations by consonance, neologisms. Speech manifests itself in the form of impulsively arising and immediately extinguishing responses - reactions in connection with questions asked (pathological speech readiness). There is no spontaneous speech.
Echomimia (echo + Greek mimia – imitation). Involuntary repetition by mentally ill patients of facial movements of others. Observed in catatonia.
Echomnesia (echo + Greek mnesis- memory) . Subjective experience of repetition of the same events, for example, repeated (up to 40-80 times) experience of meeting a certain person in the same room. Observed in intoxication psychoses (dibenamine). E. is similar to the symptom described by B.A. Glazov for quinine intoxication.
Echopathy (echo + Greek pathos – suffering, illness). Involuntary repetition by a mentally ill person of facial expressions, gestures, postures, words or expressions of others. Observed in catatonia.
Echopraxia (echo + Greek praxis – action). Involuntary repetition by a mentally ill person of the actions and gestures of others. Symptom of catatonia.
Echosymptoms. A general name for various types of echo phenomena.
Echothymia (echo + Greek thymos – mood). Cm. The imitation reaction is pathological.
Echophrasia (echo + Greek phrasis – speech, speech pattern). Cm. Echolalia.
Echoencephalography (Greek echo - echo + enkephalos - head brain + grapho – write, depict). Cm. Echoencephaloscopy.
Echoencephaloscope (echo + encephaloscope). Device for morphological examination of the brain using ultrasound echoscopy.
Echoencephaloscopy (echo + encephalo + gr. skopeo watch) is a method of ultrasound examination of the brain. It is used to identify intracranial structural dislocation pathology based on the determination and measurement of the lateral displacement of medially located brain structures (M-echo signal). Used in the diagnosis of tumors, abscesses, gummas, subdural and epidural hematomas, acute cerebrovascular accidents, bruises and some other brain diseases.
Syn.: echo-ES, echoencephalography.
This organodynamic concept. comes from the need to overcome the dualistic opposition between the roles of organic and psychological factors in the origin of mental illnesses, combines the main provisions of Jackson's theory of level activity of the brain and the dissolution that occurs in mental illnesses with Janet's concept of psychological automatism about various evolutionary levels of consciousness, explained by the degree of reduction in “mental stress” . The level of consciousness is considered in accordance with the intensity of psychic energy. The intensity of psychic energy is determined by the depth of organic damage. Depending on the level at which disintegration (dissolution) occurs, two types of mental illness are distinguished. Acute psychoses are considered as a pathology of consciousness, chronic psychoses and neuroses are considered as a pathology of personality.
All mental illness, according to N. Eu, have common cause in the form of organic damage to the brain, leading to disturbances in energy supply, resulting in a loss of contact with reality, and social adaptation is disrupted. The negative and positive symptoms of N. Eu are to a certain extent similar to the primary and secondary symptoms of E. Bleuler. The diagnosis of schizophrenia is determined not so much by the presence of negative symptoms, which can also be observed with neuroses, but by their systemic increase, leading to adaptation disorders. The predominance of positive symptoms is considered as a manifestation of the body's resistance and is considered characteristic of schizophrenic reactions, in contrast to nuclear schizophrenia.
In contrast to the nosological system of E. Kraepelin, a taxonomy of mental disorders according to levels of dissolution is put forward.
E.o.c. is neo-Jacksonian and to a certain extent eclectic. Its positive significance is in the development of some general pathological patterns in psychiatry, in establishing differences in the patterns of psychosis determined by the levels of damage, in the tendency to distinguish between negative and positive symptoms in psychopathology.
Ejaculate (lat. ejaculor – throwing away). Seminal fluid released during ejaculation.
Ejaculation (lat. ejaculatio – throwing away). Ejaculation that occurs during sexual intercourse or forms of sexual activity that replace coitus (masturbation, etc.), as well as during wet dreams.
E. detained characterized by prolonged non-emission of semen, and sometimes a complete absence of ejaculation. Sexual intercourse is protracted and exhausting.
Syn.: E. prolonged, E. delayed.
E. premature (lat. ejaculatio praecox) occurs prematurely, at the very beginning of sexual intercourse, sometimes even before the penis is inserted into the vagina.
Syn.: E. accelerated.
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Esophagitis
Esophagitis is inflammation of the esophagus. There are acute esophagitis, subacute esophagitis and chronic esophagitis.
Eczema
A chronic inflammatory skin disease of a neuro-allergic nature, characterized by a variety of rashes and itching. With eczema, swelling and redness of the skin occurs in the affected area, cracks and tiny blisters appear, which then partially turn into pustules or weeping areas. The outdated name for eczema is tinea versicolor.
Eclamptic coma
It can develop after an attack of eclampsia (after the cessation of convulsions) and can be an independent manifestation of eclampsia (eclampsia without convulsions).
Eclampsia
Eclampsia is a disease of pregnant women in which arterial pressure reaches such a high level that there is a threat to the health of mother and child.
Exicosis
Exicosis is dehydration of the body. It is observed due to insufficient amount of fluid in the body.
The first symptoms of dehydration: weakness, lethargy, headache. At more serious stages of exicosis, vomiting, nausea, a small amount of urine when urinating, increased heartbeat, and pale skin may be observed. Loss of consciousness may also occur. In this case, medical intervention and assistance is necessary.
In the early stages of exicosis, taking large amounts of fluid into the body can help. Exicosis can be very dangerous for older people and young children, especially in hot, dry climates.
Extrasystole
Extrasystoles are called premature excitation of the heart or its parts. Patients who have this rhythm disorder (arrhythmia) often do not show any complaints, but sometimes they feel “interruptions”, “fading of the heart” and other unpleasant sensations. Auscultation of the heart reveals premature contractions, accompanied by pauses (not always).
Bladder exstrophy
Bladder exstrophy is the congenital absence of the anterior wall of the bladder. More common in boys. This is the most severe type of malformation of the lower urinary tract.
Electrocardiography
A method for studying the condition of the heart muscle by recording bioelectric impulses that regulate the functioning of the heart. This is a painless procedure in which electrodes are placed on the surface of the body. The location of the electrodes can vary, and combinations of these locations are often used. You may be asked to do physical exercises during the study.
Electrical injury
Exposure of a person to electric current and voltage exceeding the maximum parameters in value and duration. These include direct and alternating voltages of more than 36 volts and a current of more than 0.15 amperes. For example, the electrostatic charge accumulated by an artificial fur coat can reach 6000 Volts, but we will only shudder when we feel it, because the current value is very weak - thousandths of an ampere. In addition to these parameters, the path of the current through the body is also taken into account: for example, if the current passed through both legs, a person may not even lose consciousness, but if through the left arm and right leg, then even with lower current values, death from cardiac arrest is possible. It is also dangerous for current to pass through the head and limbs when a bare wire falls from above (breakage of a contact or lighting network on the street). Alternating current has a greater destructive power for humans.
Emphysema
Emphysema (Greek: emphysema bloating) - stretching of an organ or tissue by air or gas formed in the tissues. There are pulmonary emphysema, mediastinal (see Pneumomediastinum), subcutaneous and tissue emphysema.
Emphysema
Organic damage to the lung tissue, expressed by a significant change in the wall of the alveoli, which leads to the expansion of the spaces located below the bronchioles. There are primary (idiopathic) emphysema, which develops without a previous lung disease, and secondary (obstructive) emphysema - most often a complication of chronic obstructive bronchitis. Depending on the prevalence, it can be diffuse (affects all parts of the lungs) and focal. The development of emphysema is predisposed by disturbances in the microcirculation of the pulmonary vessels, congenital deficiency of the enzyme alpha-1-trypsin, gaseous substances (cadmium compounds, nitrogen oxides, etc.), tobacco smoke, dust particles in the inhaled air. Other factors contribute to increased pressure in the lungs and increase the stretching of the alveoli, alveolar ducts, and respiratory (breathing) bronchioles.
Endemic goiter
Endemic goiter is a disease of residents of certain geographical areas with iodine deficiency in the environment, characterized by an enlargement of the thyroid gland.
Endogenous depression
This type of depression is the most severe. Patients complain that their “heart is breaking,” “their soul is hurting,” “anguish is squeezing their chest like a vice.” They react little to their surroundings, seclude themselves, sit for hours in a monotonous bent position, immersed in their experiences. Their movements are slow, there is a frozen mournful expression on their face, their gaze is fixed on one point.
Endocarditis
Endocarditis. Inflammation of the inner lining of the heart (endocardium) with rheumatism, less often with infection (sepsis, fungal infections), with diffuse connective tissue diseases, intoxication (uremia).
Endocrine ophthalmopathy
Endocrine ophthalmopathy is an autoimmune disease of the tissues and muscles of the orbit, leading to the development of exophthalmos and a complex of ocular symptoms.
Endometriosis
Endometriosis is in third place in terms of incidence after inflammatory diseases of the pelvic organs and uterine fibroids.
Endometritis
Endometritis is an inflammation of the lining of the uterus. In this case, the disease affects the functional and basal layers of the uterine mucosa. When it is accompanied by inflammation of the muscular layer of the uterus, they speak of endomyometritis.
Children's enuresis
Enuresis can be both unpleasant and difficult for a child. Thank God, almost all children outgrow this period. But you may have to do something before it happens on its own. The following are the best remedies for enuresis that are currently available.
Encephalitis
Inflammation of the brain can be primary or secondary. Encephalitis is of the same nature as meningitis, but is even more severe. They are most often caused by the penetration of a virus that is transmitted by a tick (taiga encephalitis) or a mosquito, which selectively infects human brain tissue. Secondary encephalitis, both diffuse and localized (see Brain abscess), most often occurs during purulent processes in the body.
Wernicke's encephalopathy
Wernicke encephalopathy is an acute or subacute lesion of the midbrain and hypothalamus due to vitamin B deficiency. The cause of the deficiency is dietary disorders caused by alcoholism, vitamin deficiencies, gastrointestinal diseases, uncontrollable vomiting of pregnant women, vomiting due to poisoning with digitalis preparations. It is also observed during chronic hemodialysis. Referred to as organic-toxic psychoses, often combined with Korsakoff's syndrome. It occurs acutely, subacutely or chronically.
Athlete's foot
A group of fungal diseases that have a common localization and similar clinical manifestations. They are very common and affect people of any age (rarely children), prone to a chronic relapsing course.
Epididymitis
Inflammation of the epididymis. Sometimes epididymitis is a complication of a general infectious disease - influenza, pneumonia, tonsillitis or some other. But most often epididymitis occurs with chronic inflammatory disease of the genitourinary organs - urethritis, prostatitis, vesiculitis.
Epilepsy
A chronic disease that begins mainly in childhood and adolescence and is characterized by various paroxysmal disorders and special personality changes, reaching the degree of severe dementia. The causes of epilepsy are different: intrauterine brain damage, unfavorable course of childbirth (birth trauma), as well as traumatic brain injuries, neuroinfections throughout life, especially in childhood. In cases where the causes of epilepsy are not established, they speak of genetic (hereditary) epilepsy. Paroxysmal disorders may accompany some current brain disease (vascular disorders, brain tumors, neurosyphilis), being a symptom of this disease. In these cases, they speak of symptomatic epilepsy or epileptiform syndrome. The development of the disease is associated with the emergence of an epileptogenic focus in various parts of the brain, which is a source of pathological excitation and convulsive discharges of neurons ( nerve cells). The first seizures often occur during puberty, in girls with their first menstruation. Before menstruation and in the first days of it, as well as during pregnancy and childbirth, seizures may become more frequent and more severe.
Erythema infectiosum
eguthema infectiosum; Greek erythema redness; syn. pseudorubella is an infectious disease characterized by a maculopapular rash on the skin, absence of intoxication or its mild severity. The etiology of the disease is suspected to be viral. Mostly children aged 5-12 years are affected. Those who have recovered from the disease develop lifelong immunity, and no recurrent illnesses are observed. The incubation period is 4-14 days. The disease begins with the appearance of red maculopapular elements on the cheeks, which quickly merge. On the 2nd day of illness, a rash appears on the extensor surfaces of the extremities, and isolated elements on the torso.
Erythema nodosum
erythema nodosum - deep skin vasculitis. It develops as a toxic-allergic vascular reaction in a number of infections (streptococcal, tuberculosis, etc.), as well as in sarcoidosis, after taking certain medications.
Erythoplasia
erythroplasia; Greek erythros red + plasis formation, formation - intraepithelial cancer of the mucous membrane mainly of the genital organs. It is observed in old age, mainly in men. It is usually localized on the glans penis (on the inner layer of the foreskin). Extremely rare in women - on inner surface labia minora, clitoris, vaginal wall, cervix. E. is characterized by the formation of one, less often two or three limited spots or slightly raised red plaques with a velvety or moist, slightly eroded surface. The course of the process is long, years or decades, with slow progression and subsequent malignant transformation into invasive squamous cell carcinoma.
Erosion
lat. erosio corrosion
A superficial defect of the skin, red border of the lips or mucous membrane, localized within the epidermis (epithelium) and healing without scar formation.
Cervical erosion
Cervical erosion (Latin: erosio erosion). In wedge. In practice, the term “cervical erosion” is used to designate a defect in the epithelium of the mucous membrane of the vaginal part of the cervix (true E. sh. m.) and ectopia (displacement) of the columnar epithelium of the cervical canal towards the stratified squamous epithelium of the vaginal part of the cervix (congenital E. sh.m.).
Introduction to general ecology.
By organizational levels bio- and eco-m.
-oute.- deme.;-sine..
2.By groups of living organ..
-uh. animals;-uh. plants;
-e.mushrooms;-e. microorganisms.
3.According to the basic geospheres (e.gi drosph., lithosph., soils, atmosphere, global. E.);
4.By main habitats, or biotopes ( ecology of tundras and arctic deserts, forests, steppes, deserts, mountains, islands, landscape ecology);
5.In relation to man and his activities (social ecology).
5.1.Ecology of anthropogenic pollution of the natural environment.
Ecology of radiation pollution.
Ecology of chemical pollution.
Ecology of biological pollution.
5.2.Human ecology.
Ecology and medicine.
Ecology and culture.
Ecology and law.
5.2.4. Ecology and education.
Ecology and politics.
Ecology of megalopolises and cities.
Ecology and economics.
5.3.Ecology and natural resources.
Ecology and living resources, including food resources.
Ecology and mineral resources.
Ecology and energy resources.
It is safe to say that in recent decades, special importance has been attached to those environmental problems that are associated with man and his activities on the planet (social ecology). There are many of these problems, but three main ones can be identified. The first is the problem of “population explosion”, the second is environmental pollution and the third is the problem of depletion natural resources as a result of anthropogenic causes.
The concept of social ecology.
An important branch of ecology is social ecology. The subject of study in social ecology (socioecology) is the problems of relationships between human society and the environment.
In the second half of the 20th century, in connection with the development of the demographic explosion on the planet, urbanization and technologicalization of the planet, there was an urgent need for the development of a new branch of ecology - socioecology.
The beginning of social ecology can be considered the first reports to the Club of Rome in 1972 -1974, including the report “Imitation mathematical methods” (Prof. D. Forster, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA). His book “World Dynamics” was the first attempt to forecast multi-component global processes.
In this scientific work, environmental components were taken into account for the first time: the final nature mineral resources and the limited ability of the environment to absorb and neutralize waste from human activity. Taking environmental factors into account turned the forecast from optimistic to pessimistic. The report for the first time predicted the inevitability of a downward trend in the development of human society by the end of the 1st third of the 21st century. Forster's conclusions were confirmed by those of Prof. Meadows (“Limits to Growth”, 1972), Mesarovic and Pestel (“Humanity at the Turning Point”, 1974). For the first time in science, the problem of the possibility of the imminent end of civilization was posed. There was a need for science that could thoroughly analyze and solve this problem. Social ecology became this science.
Social ecology is a field of knowledge that is a further development of general ecology. The precursor to social ecology was the work of the Chicago school of sociologists in the 20s of the twentieth century, when the need arose to take into account the specific impact of the urbanized environment on the life and behavior of people. Currently, the main task of socioecology is to study the interaction of society with the global natural environment in all the diversity of its anthropogenic transformations in order to develop a theory of the compatibility of society with the natural environment of its existence.
The connections between social ecology and other sciences are shown in Table 1:
Table 1. Connections between social ecology and other sciences.
In the twentieth century, a technogenic stage began in the evolution of the biosphere, increasingly turning into an irreconcilable contradiction with its natural development as a system that has the ability to support the life of the organisms inhabiting it.
The entire history of the development of technical civilization represents man’s consistent overcoming of natural limitations with the help of increasingly advanced technical means, moving from the use of one substance to another, from the use of one type of energy to another, one type of information carrier to another. At the same time, a natural limitation is the capabilities of the biosphere.
The most important and global consequences of the development of technical civilization (that is, the development of the technosphere as part of the biosphere) were:
1) the process of urbanization;
2) the process of pollution and changes in the biosphere as a result of complex impacts on it (chemical and physical nature) developing technical civilization, the process of degradation of landscapes and water bodies;
3) the process of depletion of living and mineral natural resources;
4) the process of changing the composition and properties of the biosphere in a direction unfavorable for humans and all living nature;
5) the process of degradation of man as a species Homo sapiens;
History of ecology.
Already in depth. Ancient Perv. Person, led e. obs. for nature, anal. them and isp. Res. in practice - when fishing, hunting or land. The first attempts to generalize these observations. made by Greek ant. Phil. Aristotle (384-322 BC), cat. described the lifestyle and behavior of St. 500 species. alive and published the book “Ist. animals." Student Arist. Greek .bot. Theophrastus of Eresia (371-280 BC) studied the relationship. Rast. world with OS. Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD) studied the page and life of org. and wrote the book “Eats. East.” On Wednesday. century in connection with Mr. Theologian Int. to e. weakened and only in the era of the Age and Great. Geogr. Open to her again Int.. Bot.-e. A. Caesalpin (1590-1603), D. Rey (1623-1705), J. Tournefort (1656-1708) cont. Study. life growth and their connections with Wed. inhabited, and English Phys. Robert Boyle (1627-1691) staged the first e. exp. - studied by Vl. low atm.pressure for divert. Alive.. At the third stage of development. e. - in the ХV111-Х1Х centuries, cat. Can. call it the era of development. bioec. and evol. life, for the first time was staged. Problem Vl. external conditions for the structure of living things in the works of the French. Uch. J. Buffon (1707-1788), cat. Add. Convert one type to another under ow. Change Condition.. Large Swedish scientist, zoologist-system. Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) studied the relationship. lively and gentle nature, like J. Buffon, he attached leading importance. Klim. factors. In the 1111th century in Russia the organization. travel a lot according to her unknown edges. In the works of S.P. Krasheninnikov, I.I. Lepekhin, P.S. Pallas and others. Rus. Natural and put. The results are given in important observations, it turns out. Vl. for long range uh.. Fr. biologist J.B. Lamarck (1744-1829) was an author. Perv. Evol. teachings. in cat. believed that the main factor is evol. Yavl. Vl.change external factors and structural and biological. Adapt. alive to them. Org..
Fr. zoologist J. Cuvier (1769-1832) c. For the first time, the “theory of catastrophes” was formed, in which the doctor tried, which in the res. Short-term disasters in the area Everyone on earth perished alive. and growth the world, after which he settled down. Sov. Dr. rast. and alive.
Prof. Moscow Univ. K.F. Roulier (1814-1858) expanded. Shir. Syst. e. research alive and propaganda. Required Deep Study. not only the structure of their body, but also biol. and arr. life. German Uch. J. Liebig (1803-1873). formulas so-called “law of min.”, the essence of the cat. - to dom. Vl. alive and growth any one limit. abiotic factor. environment. Student K.F. Rulier N.A. Severtsov (1827-1885) was the first in Russia to conduct a deep study of the economic status of living things. world dept. region - Raven. Lip. Bol. role in development e. played tr. Great English scientist – natural history Darwin (1809-1882) – the basic doctrine of evolution. Organ.world. Darwin's basic ideas. - this is a variab. individuals of the same species, partial inheritance. Purchase signs, struggle for noun. and eats. selection among individuals within a species. Basic scientific worker Ch. Darwin - book. “Proc. species”, cat. published in 1859 German. Biologist E. Haeckel (1834-1919) first used it in 1866. in scientific literature The term “e” did not catch on immediately and was the first. Designation only one of the sections. Biol., research. connection of the living world with tenderness. Nature, and received universal recognition. only at the end of the 19th century. Only towards the beginning. XX century e. shaped as a self the science. For 3 bot. Cong. in Brussels in 1910. rast. Official Sec. on e. org. (autechology) and e. message (synecology), this division of distribution. and on e. alive.. In 1913, the first large e. reports: Ch. Adams (on terrestrial living), V. Shelford (on communication of terrestrial living) and S.A. Zernov (on hydrob.). In 1913-1920 there was an organ. first e.scient. total ,magazines founded, e. started teaching at university. By the age of 30, after many years. Iss. and discus. Vykrist. Basic Theor. Representative in the region important section e. - biocenology: about the boundaries and structure of biocenoses, the degree of mouth. and possibly self-reg. E-system.
B. contribution to development. e. contributed kr. scientists - botanists: K.A. Timiryazev (1843-1920), V.V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903), F. Clements (1874-1945), as well as botanists and geographers V.N. Sukachev (1880-1967), G.F. Morozov (1867-1920), created. a new branch of science - geobotany, and many others. Os. place in history e. zan. name large Rus. Uch. XX century V.I.Vernadsky (1863-1945), cat. created the doctrine of the biosphere and noosphere.
After the report Ross. scientist L.S. Berg (1876-1950) entitled “The subject and tasks of geography” on biogeographic.com. Rus. Geogr. General in 1913 it was issued. Another branch of science is landscape science, which, in its own right, is capable of such neg. sciences, like botanical geogr. and zoogeography.
In 1927, an English book was published. Uch. C. Elton - “E. alive.”, in cat. first. with dept. organism on the population, as a self. Biologist. unit, cat. started another section e. – demok., or pop.e.. In the 30s and later. years of the twentieth century max. listen Developers began to pay attention to E. Theoret. fundamentals of biol. Product. (G. Odum and Y. Odum, R. Margalef, G. Vinberg, R. Lindeman and others), as well as biogeogr. (L.S. Berg, L.A. Zenkevich, L. Krause, N.N. Drozdov, A.I. Tolmachev and many others). Until 1935 in scientific. Lit. was published a lot of analytical work in the area of mutual relations. with ext. environment, as well as according to the theory of dynamic pop. (Volterra, Lotka, Prenam, Elton). After sec. World. war understanding of people. Afterbirth. Dem. explosion and war - widespread zagr. PS and lunch. The PR of our planet led to the development. new important Sec. E., the first of the cats. All Research influence of anthropo. and natural download PS harm. for her and for people. Thing, created Syst. monit. Load OS. and developer Syst. norms and limits of loading, and the second developer. Theor. Basic Diet. Spanish PR of the planet. On Stockg. Conf. according to problem The OS was adopted by Program in 1972. UN OS (UNEP), main. target cat. was “protected and improved. OS in int. Now. and bud. Generation.” UNEP headquarters located in in the capital of Kenya - Nairobi. In 1987, everyone. Com. UN OS and development. first raised the question of the need. search for a new model of civil development.. In June 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, comp. Conf. UN Environment and Development with account. Represented 179 countries of the world. Conf. showed that the world. Development must take a different path and stop so actively destroying the PS. In 1993, Minister. protection of OS and PR of the Russian Federation was prepared. and adopted by Rights. RF “National real action plan Res.Conf. UN OS and Development.” In 1993 in the Russian Federation prin. “Law of the Russian Federation on protection. OS", Rights. Approved “Pos. about state e. expert.”, accept. Proclamation “About creation. unified state system e. monitoring”, the project has begun. State Prog. “E. security RF". In the last years all over the world and in the Russian Federation input. Syst. universal E. image.. in all types of teaching. Head
Introduction to general ecology.
Until sep. In the twentieth century, the word “e” was known to few people except biological scientists, and e. was usually considered a section of biol.-zool. and nerd., dedicated. research relationship living organ. with each other and with inanimate nature as their habitat. In the future, E. gradual began to go beyond the classroom. Biol. and on element into itself. many other sciences. However, only in the second half. In the twentieth century, people began to understand the truth. role of e. for people Generally, for health, life and well-being. each person E. ideas are increasingly mastered. umami academic, political, state activities and just citizens of various types. countries. In res. so-called “demographics explosion” (DZ) in the twentieth century. Our planet has grown 4 times in a hundred years (from 1.5 to 6 billion people, despite wars, famines and epidemics). Adult population growth. accomp. rast. download natural environment (PS), depleted living and nonliving nature. res. (PR), and these problems are advanced. on the lane long-range plan development people total , along with political problems, savings. and social, and in reg. e. cat. became the most important problem people's lives.
In our country e. science, as well as gene. or kib., according to ideal. prib. long time Retired from her development in other countries, although it was in Russia that our major scientist, Acad. IN AND. Vernadsky were the developers. fundamentals of the doctrine of the biosphere and noosphere of the Earth, and Acad. S.I.Vavilov published for the first time. orig. research in the region gene.. In the first post-war years in Acad. biol. science of the USSR, new ones, for example. development science long time suppressed pseudoak. T.D. Lysenko, head. biol. in AN, but progress. scientists pres. power..
Only in the 60s in our country biol. cont. development the world is in line. Sciences. In the last ten due to thrust. E. crisis. in general there was a need. in width development e.o image, form. E. mental. with us., watered. and hands all levels, in preg. high quality specialist. - uh, cat. both in the world and in our country there is clearly a lack.
The term “e” was first used in packaging. German uch. E. Haeckel in 1866 (oicos - house, habitat).
Most often, uh, like science in the broadest sense. understand, give a trace. def:
“E is science, of. relationship living org., incl. people, inter. with oneself and with the environment. environment.”(OS).
In modern Mon. E. wider than usual. science is important. aspect of people's lives and composition. people general.. Ecology is closely related to many sciences and for example. people activities Biol. (zool. and bot.), pal., gen., geogr., geol., oceanol., climatol., physics., chemistry, mathematics, arch., juris., economics. and floor.. What cash register. biol. and gen., then e. studied organismic and superorganism. noun forms living mat.: genes (1) - cells (2) - tissues (3) - organs (4) - organisms (5) - populations (6) - communities (7) - biosphere (8) - from the fifth to the eighth level.
E. subsection. on the dept. section next prince.:
TERMINOLOGY, a set of terms of a certain branch of knowledge or production, as well as the doctrine of the formation, composition and functioning of terms.
The subject of the general theory of terminology is: the study of the formation and use of special words with the help of which the knowledge accumulated by mankind is accumulated and transmitted; improvement of existing terminological systems; searching for optimal ways to create new terms and their systems; searches for universal features inherent in the terminologies of different fields of knowledge.
Term (Latin terminus “border, limit, end”) is special word or a phrase adopted in a certain professional field and used in special conditions. The term is a verbal designation of a concept included in the system of concepts of a certain field of professional knowledge. Terminology (as a set of terms) constitutes an autonomous sector of any national language, closely related to professional activities. The terms of each branch of science, technology, and production form their own systems, determined, first of all, by the conceptual connections of professional knowledge with the desire to express these connections by linguistic means.
Thus, language turns out to be a structural element scientific knowledge. The more “scientific” a science is, the greater the weight of language in its structure. Language “enters” science primarily through terminology. Other elements of language cannot be compared with it. As I thought A.A. Reformatsky, the terms reflect socially organized reality, therefore the terms are socially binding. Being a tool with the help of which scientific theories, laws, principles, provisions, terms and terminologies are formed, their systems represent an important component of science and technology.
A term is a member of a certain terminological system related to a particular field of science, technology, production, and its conceptual content is determined by its place in the system. Each term has its own definition (precise scientific definition) among other terms in the same field. Terms, unlike “everyday” words, are usually unambiguous within their terminological field; the same word can be a term various areas knowledge, but this is not polysemy, but homonymy (cf. the term wave in hydraulics, radio engineering and optics). Terms are also opposed to general vocabulary in the sense that they are associated with a specific scientific concept: the term reflects the results of scientific research and their theoretical understanding.
A term can be any word that is given a clear definition that defines the concept being named and strictly limits the conceptual sphere, providing isolation from philistine meanings homonymous word general vocabulary. An artificially created word can also become a term.
Definition term gives general idea about the named object (which can be either concrete and material or an abstract mental construct), while simultaneously eliminating the possible ambiguity inherent word of the same name common language. The definition must be commensurate with what it defines; it must not contain vicious circle, should not be negative where a positive definition is possible. In new areas of knowledge, before finding a successful one-word term, a short definition can be used instead.
With the accelerated development of any field of science or technology, active reflection of its achievements in the media begins, and the transition of individual terms from special to general use begins. At the same time, the terms lose their scientific accuracy and expand the scope of their use. They are being determinologized. In special use, occupying the appropriate place in the system, the terms remain by themselves. Their “doubles”, homonyms, no longer possessing the necessary consistency and scientific accuracy, are coming into general use. They become fashionable words, acquire stylistic possibilities, emotionality, and appellative derivation. Such fashionable words and terms in the 1940s–1950s were atom and its derivatives, in the 1960s satellite, in the 1970s Lunokhod. They appeared figurative use: atomists"Small children", nuclear scientists"politicians threatening atomic war", Lunokhod began to be called a person who has difficulty standing on his feet.
With determinologization, the term loses its strict conceptuality, systematicity, and unambiguity; the concept contained in it is simplified, former term adapts to understanding in everyday language. Such words from terminological meaning require not definition, but interpretation, like other words of general vocabulary.
Nomenclature should be distinguished from terminology in the proper sense.
Nomenclature (Latin nomenclatura “list, list”) is a much newer category than terminology. It arose as a special lexical class only in the 18th century, initially only for the natural sciences. But there can be no talk of any nomenclature where there is no terminology yet: terminology is a tool that fixes nomenclature.
The nomenclature of any branch of natural history is a collection of names of all its types (subspecies). When they become too numerous, they need special ordering in order to be used correctly. Yes, in botany C. Linnaeus for the 10,000 plant species known at that time, he proposed 1,700 generic names with a moderate number of species definitions. Special codes are created to ensure the stability and universality of the scientific names of plants and animals. Unlike natural languages, which spontaneously develop in all directions, biological nomenclature strives to be an accurate tool that ensures a unified understanding of all generations of researchers. General naming principles were formulated by the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1842.
Each nomenclature has a certain autonomy. The same words can be included in different nomenclatures, and they will not be mixed because they belong to different fields and are used by different people, i.e. do not occur in the general context, remaining interdisciplinary homonyms: plant chamomile, candies " Chamomile", bread product " Chamomile».
Russian philosopher G.G. Shpet believed that an isolated word is meaningless. It is not a word of communication, although it is already a means of communication. This lexis- a tool that the transfer of meaning can be used in a wide variety of directions. As a nominative possibility, the word is placed in lexicon. The message word is called logo. A nomen, according to Shpet's definition, is an empirical, sensually perceived thing, a sign associated with the called thing not in an act of thought, but in an act of perception and representation. Hence, nomen- this is a lexical unit with the help of which we name a visible object and perceive the object without realizing its exact place in the classification system and without correlation with other objects. Nomena belong to the category lexis, due to this, their connection with concepts is weakened. Unlike them terms, as reflecting the cognitive process and occupying a certain place in the system, belong to the category of logos.
The terminology of each science is numerable, because it verbally reflects the system of its concepts. Nomenclature is weakly associated with concepts, it is more nominative and may not at all reflect the essence of the things named, relying on purely external similarity (for example: S-shaped And V-tubes). The terminological field or terminological context is important for a term. Nomen are freely used out of context, since the properties of the named things do not change from the use of their names in the scientific or everyday sphere of communication. Nomen outside nomenclatural systems easily turn into everyday words, retaining their materiality or objectivity ( nylon, nylon, crepe georgette, bologna, twill, drape, boucle).
There may be nomenclatures of science, technology, production, trade. The more abstract the science, the less place in it is given to nomenclatures. Special nomenclatures have been developed in biology to designate numerous species of plants and animals, in chemistry for millions chemical compounds, in geography to designate places on globe. Technical nomenclatures are material and objective. They are developed to designate numerous parts of machines and devices. From the design area, the project moves into production, where there are its own terms and nomen (names of machines on which parts are manufactured, processes, technological conditions).
Manufactured machines, fabrics, food products, shoes go on sale. At one time, in our country, direct names of the things sold were used in trade: women's shoes, summer; men's jackets, insulated; garden shovels, painted. In the West, for many years, trademarks have been used for things going on sale - special proper names, individualizing the right of ownership by an individual or legal entity of a certain batch of goods. Trademarks require their owner to be responsible for the product. They do not directly name the product, evoke positive associations and guarantee good quality of the product: Salamander for shoes, Germany. Prestigious trademarks of well-known companies guarantee good sales of the product (cf. Adidas, Lee, Rifle).
The systematicity of nomen is relative and non-conceptual. Here are some lilac varietal names bred by domestic breeders: “ Galina Ulanova», « Red Moscow», « Isabel», « Bride», « Timiryazev», « Dream», « 40 years of the Komsomol" Here the names of one field are borrowed from different sources. The proximity of their denotations artificially reduces them into one nomenclature. In the same time " Isabel" is also a variety of grapes and wine made from it, and " Dream" - a type of candy. Belonging to different fields, they do not mix.
A thematic selection of nomen is possible: in the names of the planets, astronomical nomenclature is based on Roman mythology (with the exception of the names Uranus And Pluto, taken from the Greeks): Mars, Mercury, Venus. The names of the planets' satellites are based on Greek mythology: the moons of Mars Phobos And Deimos. Names of the highest mythological rank are assigned to planets, but not to their satellites.
Without well-developed and systematically ordered terminologies and nomenclatures, scientific progress is impossible. There are several stages in the work of a terminologist.
1. Termination of the concepts of science and technology is carried out by industry specialists together with logicians and linguists. At the same time, systems of terms for individual branches of knowledge are constructed and the most appropriate lexical units for their designation are selected.
2. Normalization of the use of terms existing in a given language and drawing up recommendations for the creation of new terms for each branch of knowledge. Performed by subject specialists together with linguists. At the first stage of ordering, all existing word usages are recorded. Of these, the most appropriate, literate, systematic, implemented ones are selected, providing the opportunity for further word formation on their basis. At the second stage, the terminologist himself begins to create new terms based on existing models, checking their consistency and ease of inclusion in the language of science. If such terms are adopted by law, they become mandatory for general use in official documents. To bring existing terms into line with the current state of science, a critical revision of term systems is systematically carried out. Terms that are not recommended for official use remain in professional vernacular, where they are subject to all sorts of deformations. For example, in Russia in the 1960s, by order, the technical term Grover washer replaced by spring washer. However, since the old term was well established, it has survived in professional vernacular as Grover washer or simply grower.
Many years of experience of European terminologists have shown that there is no need to introduce international words at all costs if there are accepted national ones; Borrowings should not be expelled if they fit well into the terminological system; there is no need to forcibly eliminate synonyms, because absolute synonyms Hardly ever. If different terms are used to denote a concept, the reason for this should be revealed: perhaps there are various phenomena. Then both terms are preserved, and each receives a definition.
3. Creation of industry terminological dictionaries: monolingual explanatory, bilingual translation, establishing equivalent terminology systems for two languages. The bulk similar dictionaries is built on a systematic principle, reflecting the hierarchy of concepts in their relationship to each other. The alphabetical organization of the material plays a subordinate role. Therefore, it is very difficult to compile a multilingual terminological dictionary.
4. Standardization of terminological systems at the national and international levels is necessary due to the fact that the scope of concepts denoted by seemingly in the same words, is not the same in different languages. For example, Russian force correspond to English force and strength; English technology is not technology, but technique; technical term is not a technical term, but term at all. International standardization is meaningless if it is not preceded by carefully carried out national standardization. In this case, the main thing is not the nature of the language, but the relationship between the concepts of a given science. It is this that dictates linguistic forms. In parallel, work is being carried out to regulate the metalanguage of the terminologist.
The adoption of an international standard does not mean a rejection of traditional national systems, in particular traditional Russian ones, developed by representatives of domestic schools. It is not at all necessary to replace in chemistry oxides on oxides(otherwise we risk losing the consistency of Russian designations). International standardization means, first of all, the establishment of precise definitions and unambiguous correspondence between domestic and foreign terms and nomen.
Standardization means the uniform content of a term or nomen standardized in Russian, English and other languages, and not a replacement, for example, carbon dioxide on carbon dioxide, oxidation on oxidation, potassium sulfate on dipotassium sulfate, iron oxide on iron oxide or diiron trioxide. This contradicts the norms of Russian word formation. Standardization does not encroach on the national form of the term in the language in which it is used. Terminologies created in foreign languages are borrowed into other languages entirely, as systems, only if this industry is new for a given country (such as helminthology in Russia: the bulk of the terms of this science are from English).
Industrial standardization of things and their names began in 1910–1912 and intensified after the First World War. There are two types of standards: “hard”, mandatory (for industrial products - the need to comply exact dimensions, proportions of the content of constituent substances) and “soft” standards, or recommendations. The meaning of the message will not change if instead disc spring say Belleville spring. It is difficult to eradicate familiar designations from professional speech. Recommendatory nature of terminological, transliteration, etc. standards helps to identify their advantages and disadvantages. If experts do not use the proposed terms, then there is a flaw in the standard.
There are currently standards committees in 60 countries. They attract thousands of experts to comprehensively study what is subject to standardization.
5. Exchange of experience and coordination of work, holding seminars and conferences. This type of work especially intensified after 1949, when UNESCO held an international conference on science and abstracting. In 1971, UNESCO and the International Committee on Scientific Relations (ICSU) held a conference of governments, at which the project for the creation of UNISIST (World Science Information System), an international information system led by E. Wüster, was announced. It is a multilingual terminology system using standardized terms. At the same time, Infoterm (INFOTERM - International Information Center for Terminology) was founded. The International Standards Organization (ISO) coordinates standardization efforts around the world. Terminology is dealt with by the technical committee of this organization ISO/TC-37 “Terminology (principles and coordination)”. Since 1977, symposia on languages for special purposes have been held.
6. Documentation and information service - creation of thesauruses, terminology banks. The Euronet European Information Network is serviced by terminology banks different countries. This also includes the compilation of bibliographies and the exchange of information. The international terminological information service is concentrated in INFOTERM.
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