What are the first representatives of the species Homo sapiens called? The history of the emergence of Homo sapiens

- Cro-Magnons

Sometimes it just begins to irritate when official science is silent or does not provide rational explanations for obvious facts. For example, how old is the species Homo Sapiens? Wikipedia officially provides data that “Comparison of mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms and dating of fossils allows us to conclude that Homo sapiens in the female line (from “Mitochondrial Eve” - a group of women who had the same Mitochondrial DNA in a species population of about 10-20 thousand individuals) appeared about 200,000 years ago,” and: “In 2003, remains were described that were approximately 160,000 years old (Pleistocene). The anatomical differences between the specimens prompted researchers to identify a new subspecies, Homo sapiens idaltu (“Elder”).”. That is, official science, if you believe the links provided in Wikipedia, now believes that the species Homo Sapiens is at least 160 - 200 thousand years old. But, at the same time, in the same Wikipedia, in the section “Cro-Magnon Man” (the closest ancestor of man), absolutely crazy data is given: "Cro-Magnons (French Homme de Cro-Magnon) are the early representatives of modern humans in Europe and partly beyond its borders, who lived 40-10 thousand years ago (Upper Paleolithic period)". Moreover, these figures are given not only in Wikipedia links, but also in many other sources, including in foreign languages. I checked it myself. So they were completely stunned there or what? This even contradicts Darwin’s theory, so beloved by official science! Homo Sapiens has been around for about 200,000 years, but its closest ancestor, Homme de Cro-Magnon, is only 40,000 years old?! This has given rise to serious controversy today. on the forum thread on LJ MGER with user ryslav66 .
Moreover, such incidents happen all the time in our science. The reason is that many facts are either simply hushed up by official science or not fully systematized. Well, just a couple of days ago the material came out "Ancient pyramids discovered at the bottom of a lake in China." So the approximate age of those once above-ground structures is from 5,000 to 12,000 BC. Official science still cannot (or does not want) to explain how it turned out that the same type of temple buildings can be found in almost all corners of the globe: from South America to Japan.
The same is true with the origin of man. Now there are many reliably studied artifacts that directly indicate that the species Homo Sapiens is not even 200,000 years old, as scientists have already begun to admit, but at least more than one million. Moreover, no one really knows how much. There are some absolutely sensational finds. Here is a link to a fully scientifically verified list of such artifacts: "The main human sites in the Paleolithic". Here, there is also interesting scientific material on the same topic: “Is man really three million years old?”. Also in the material "Who are the Cro-Magnons" Interesting data is also provided: "In Eastern and Southern Africa, the roots of the Cro-Magnons can be traced back to earlier eras: they may have lived as early as 1.6 million years ago (an archanthropic boy from Kenya). It is assumed that the ancestors of the Cro-Magnons - the "proto-Cro-Magnons" - penetrated the Middle East and Southern Europe during the last glaciation, about 100 thousand years ago."
There is also a whole list of recorded and, accordingly, genuine artifacts, which official science also stubbornly continues to hush up. There are materials on this topic: "10 Most Mysterious Ancient Artifacts" And "ARTIFACTS OF ANCIENTITY".
All the above materials can again testify to only one thing - we simply do not know our history. Answers to the questions of how old our species, our civilization really are, and whether there were other civilizations on Earth millions of years ago cannot now be given. The only thing that can be asserted so far is that official science, often on many of these issues, gets off with simply nonsense in conclusions, dates and conclusions... It would seem, why???!

In light of already published and future videos, for the general development and systematization of knowledge, I offer a general overview of the genera of the hominid family from the later Sahelanthropus, who lived about 7 million years ago, to Homo sapiens, who appeared from 315 to 200 thousand years ago. This review will help you avoid falling into the trap of those who like to mislead and systematize their knowledge. Since the video is quite long, for convenience, in the comments there will be a table of contents with a time code, thanks to which you can start or continue watching the video from the selected type or type if you click on the blue numbers in the list. 1. Sahelanthropus (Sahelanthropus) this genus is represented by only one species: 1.1. The Chadian sahelanthropus (Sahelanthropus tchadensis) is an extinct species of hominid, approximately 7 million years old. His skull, named Toumaina, meaning "hope of life", was found in the north-west of the Republic of Chad in 2001 by Michel Brunet. Their brain volume, supposedly 380 cm cubic, is approximately the same as that of modern chimpanzees. Based on the characteristic location of the occipital foramen, scientists believe that this is the most ancient skull of an upright creature. Sahelanthropus may represent the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees, but there are still a number of questions about its facial features that may call into question the status of australopithecus. By the way, the belonging of Sahelanthropus to the human ancestry is disputed by the discoverers of the next genus with the only species Ororin tugensis. 2. The genus Orrorin includes one species: Orrorin tugenensis, or the man of the millennium, this species was first found in 2000 in the Tugen mountains of Kenya. Its age is about 6 million years. Currently, 20 fossils have been recovered from 4 sites: these include two parts of the lower jaw; symphyses and several teeth; three thigh fragments; partial humerus; proximal phalanx; and distal phalanx of the thumb. By the way, Orrorins have femurs with obvious signs of upright posture, in contrast to indirect ones in Sahelanthropus. But the rest of the skeleton, except for the skull, indicates that he climbed trees. Orrorins were about 1 m tall. 20 centimeters. In addition, accompanying findings indicated that Orrorin did not live in a savanna, but in an evergreen forest environment. By the way, it is precisely this type that is demonstrated by lovers of sensations in anthropology or supporters of ideas about the extraterrestrial origin of people, saying that 6 million years ago aliens visited us. As evidence, they note that this species has a femur closer to the human than that of a later species of Australopithecus afarensis, named Lucy, aged 3 million years, this is true, but understandable, which is what scientists did 5 years ago, describing the level of primitiveness of the similarity and that it is similar to primates that lived 20 million years ago. But to add to this argument, “TV experts” report that the reconstructed shape of Orrorin’s face is flat and similar to a human’s. And then look carefully at the images of the finds and find the parts from which you can assemble a face. Don't you see? Me too, but they are there, according to the authors of the programs! At the same time, they show video fragments about completely different finds. This is designed to ensure that hundreds of thousands, or even millions of viewers trust them and they will not check. This is how you mix truth and fiction and you get a sensation, but only in the minds of their adherents, and unfortunately there are quite a few of them. And this is just one example. 3. Ardipithecus, an ancient genus of hominids that lived 5.6-4.4 million years ago. At the moment, only two types are described: 3.1. Ardipithecus kadabba was found in Ethiopia in the Middle Awash River valley in 1997. And in 2000, further north, a few more finds were found. The finds consist mainly of teeth and skeletal bone fragments from several individuals dating back 5.6 million years. The following species from the genus Ardipithecus is described more qualitatively. 3.2. Ardipithecus ramidus or Ardi, which means earth or root. Ardi's remains were first discovered near the Ethiopian village of Aramis in 1992 in the Afar Depression in the Awash River valley. And in 1994, more fragments were obtained, amounting to 45% of the total skeleton. This is a very significant find, which combines characteristics of both monkeys and humans. The age of the finds was determined based on their stratigraphic position between two volcanic layers and was 4.4 million years. And between 1999 and 2003, scientists discovered the bones and teeth of nine more individuals of the species Ardipithecus ramidus, on the north bank of the Awash River in Ethiopia west of Hadar. Ardipithecus ramidus is similar to most primitive, previously recognized hominins, but unlike them, Ardipithecus ramidus had a great toe that retained grasping ability, adapted for climbing trees. However, scientists argue that other features of its skeleton reflect adaptations to upright walking. Like later hominins, Ardi had smaller fangs. Its brain was small, about the size of a modern chimpanzee, and about 20% the size of a modern human's brain. Their teeth indicate that they ate both fruits and leaves without preference, and this is already the path to omnivory. In terms of social behavior, weak sexual dimorphism may indicate reduced aggression and competition between males in a group. Ramidus legs are well suited for walking both in the forest and in meadows, swamps and lakes. 4. Australopithecus (Australopithecus), here it should immediately be noted that there is also the concept of australopithecus, which includes 5 more genera and is divided into 3 groups: a) early australopithecus (7.0 - 3.9 million years ago); b) gracile australopithecus (3.9 - 1.8 million years ago); c) massive australopithecus (2.6 - 0.9 million years ago). But Australopithecines as a genus are fossilized higher primates, possessing signs of upright walking and anthropoid features in the structure of the skull. Who lived in the period from 4.2 to 1.8 million years ago. Let's look at 6 species of Australopithecus: 4.1. Australopithecus anamensis is believed to be the ancestor of humans who lived about four million years ago. Fossils have been found in Kenya and Ethiopia. The first record of the species was discovered in 1965 near Lake Turkana in Kenya, previously the lake was called Rudolf. Then in 1989, teeth of this species were found on the northern bank of the Turkana, but in the territory of modern Ethiopia. And already in 1994, about a hundred additional fragments from two dozen hominids were discovered, including one complete lower jaw, with teeth resembling human ones. And only in 1995, on the basis of the described findings, the species was identified as Australopithecus Anamensis, which is considered a descendant of the species Ardipithecus ramidus. And in 2006, a new find of Australopithecus anamas was announced, in northeastern Ethiopia, about 10 km. from the location where Ardipithecus ramidus was found. The age of the Anamanian Australopithecus is about 4-4.5 million years. Australopithecus Anamensis is considered the ancestor of the next species of Australopithecus. 4.2. Australopithecus afarensis, or "Lucy" after the first discovery, is an extinct hominid that lived between 3.9 and 2.9 million years ago. Australopithecus afarensis was closely related to the genus Homo, as a direct ancestor or close relative of an unknown common ancestor. Lucy herself, 3.2 million years old, was discovered in 1974 in the Afar Basin near the village of Hadar in Ethiopia on November 24. "Lucy" was represented by an almost complete skeleton. And the name "Lucy" was inspired by the Beatles song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds." Australopithecus afarensis has also been found in other localities such as Omo, Maka, Feij and Belohdeli in Ethiopia and Koobi Fore and Lotagam in Kenya. Representatives of the species had fangs and molars that were relatively larger than those of modern people, and the brain was still small - from 380 to 430 cubic cm - and the face had protruding lips. The anatomy of the arms, legs, and shoulder joints suggests that the creatures were partly arboreal as well as terrestrial, although the overall anatomy of the pelvis is much more humanoid. However, thanks to their anatomical structure, they could walk with a straight gait. The upright posture of Australopithecus afarensis may just be due to climate changes in Africa from the jungle to the savannah. In Tanzania, 20 km from the Sadiman volcano, in 1978, footprints of a family of upright hominids were discovered preserved in volcanic ash south of the Olduvai Gorge. Based on sexual dimorphism - the difference in body size between males and females - these creatures most likely lived in small family groups containing one dominant and larger male and several small breeding females. "Lucy" would live in a group culture that involves socializing. In 2000, the remains of a skeleton believed to be a 3-year-old child of Australopithecus afarensis, who lived 3.3 million years ago, were discovered in the Dikika area. These australopithecines, according to archaeological finds, used stone tools to cut meat from animal carcasses and crush them. But this is only the use, not the manufacture of them. 4.3. Australopithecus bahrelghazali or Abel is a fossil hominin first discovered in 1993 in the Bahr el Ghazal valley at the Koro Toro archaeological site in Chad. Abel is approximately 3.6-3 million years old. The find consists of a mandibular fragment, a lower second incisor, both lower canines and all four of its premolars. This Australopithecus became a separate species thanks to its lower three root premolars. This is also the first Australopithecus discovered to the north of the previous ones, which indicates their wide distribution. 4.4 Australopithecus africanus was an early hominid that lived 3.3 - 2.1 million years ago - in the late Pliocene and early Pleistocene. Unlike the previous species, it had a larger brain and more human-like features. Many scientists believe that he is the ancestor of modern humans. Australopithecus africanus has only been discovered at four sites in southern Africa - Taung in 1924, Sterkfontein in 1935, Makapansgat in 1948 and Gladysvale in 1992. The first discovery was a baby skull known as the "Baby of Taung" and described by Raymond Dart, who assigned the name Australopithecus africanus, meaning "southern ape of Africa". He argued that this species was intermediate between apes and humans. Further discoveries confirmed their identification as a new species. This australopithecus was a bipedal hominid with arms slightly longer than the legs. Despite its somewhat more humanoid cranial features, other more primitive features are present, including ape-like, curved climbing fingers. But the pelvis was more adapted to bipedalism than in the previous species. 4.5. Australopithecus garhi, 2.5 million years old, was discovered in the Bowri sediments of Ethiopia. "Garhi" means "surprise" in the local Afar language. For the first time, tools similar to the Oldowan stone working culture were discovered along with the remains. 4.6. Australopithecus sediba is a species of early Pleistocene australopithecus with fossils dating back approximately 2 million years. This species is known from four incomplete skeletons discovered in South Africa in a place called the “cradle of humanity,” 50 km northwest of Johannesburg, within the Malapa Cave. The discovery was made thanks to the Google Earth service. "Sediba" means "spring" in the Sotho language. The remains of Australopithecus sediba, two adults and one infant aged 18 months, were found together. In total, more than 220 fragments have been excavated so far. Australopithecus sediba may have lived in the savannah, but the diet included fruits and other forest products. The height of the sediba was about 1.3 meters. The first specimen of Australopithecus sediba was discovered by 9-year-old Matthew, son of paleoanthropologist Lee Berger, on August 15, 2008. The mandible found was part of a juvenile male whose skull was later discovered in March 2009 by Berger and his team. Fossils of various animals were also found in the cave area, including saber-toothed cats, mongooses and antelopes. Sediba's brain volume was about 420-450 cubic cm, which is about three times less than that of modern people. Australopithecus sediba had a remarkably modern hand, whose precision grip suggests tool use and manufacture. Sediba may have belonged to the late South African branch of Australopithecus, which coexisted with representatives of the genus Homo already living at that time. Currently, some scientists are trying to clarify the dating and look for a connection between Australopithecus sediba and the genus Homo. 5. Paranthropus (Paranthropus) - a genus of fossil higher primates. They were found in East and Southern Africa. They are also called massive australopithecines. Finds of Paranthropus are dated from 2.7 to 1 million years. 5.1. Ethiopian paranthropus (Paranthropus aethiopicus or Australopithecus aethiopicus) The species was described from a 1985 find in the Lake Turkana area, Kenya, known as the "black skull" due to its dark coloration, due to the manganese content. The skull dates back 2.5 million years. But later, part of the lower jaw, discovered in 1967 in the Omo Valley, Ethiopia, was also attributed to this species. Anthropologists believe that Ethiopian Paranthropus lived between 2.7 and 2.5 million years ago. They were quite primitive and have many features in common with Australopithecus afarensis, perhaps they were their direct descendants. Their special feature was their jaws that protruded strongly forward. This species is believed by scientists to diverge from the Homo lineage on the hominid evolutionary tree. 5.2. Paranthropus boisei, aka Australopithecus boisei, aka "Nutcracker" was an early hominin described as the largest of the genus Paranthropus. They lived in East Africa during the Pleistocene era from approximately 2.4 to 1.4 million years ago. The largest skull was discovered in Konso in Ethiopia and dates back 1.4 million years. They were 1.2-1.5 m tall and weighed from 40 to 90 kg. The well-preserved skull of Paranthropus boice was first discovered in Tanzania's Olduvai Gorge in 1959 and was given the name "Nutcracker" due to its large teeth and thick enamel. It was dated at 1.75 million. And 10 years later, in 1969, the son of the discoverer of the “nutcracker” Mary Leakey, Richard, discovered another Paranthropus boyes skull in Koobi Fora near Lake Turkana in Kenya. Judging by the structure of their jaws, they ate massive plant foods and lived in forests and shrouds. Based on the structure of the skull, scientists believe that the brain of these paranthropes was quite primitive, with a volume of up to 550 cubic cm. 5.3. Massive paranthropus (Paranthropus robustus). The first skull of the species was discovered in Kromdraai in South Africa in 1938 by a schoolboy who later traded it for chocolate to anthropologist Robert Broome. Paranthropus or the massive Australopithecus were bipedal hominids that likely descended from the gracial Australopithecus. They are characterized by robust braincases, and gorilla-like cranial ridges, which suggest strong chewing muscles. They lived between 2 and 1.2 million years ago. The remains of massive Paranthropus have only been found within South Africa at Kromdraai, Swartkrans, Drimolen, Gondolin and Kupers. The remains of 130 individuals were discovered in a cave at Swartkrans. Dental studies have shown that massive Paranthropus rarely lived past 17 years of age. The approximate height of the males was about 1.2 m, and their weight was approximately 54 kg. But the females were just under 1 meter tall and weighed about 40 kg, which indicates fairly large sexual dimorphism. Their brain size ranged from 410 to 530 cubic meters. cm. They ate more massive food, such as tubers and nuts, possibly from open forests and savannas. 6. Kenyanthropus (Kenyanthropus) is a genus of hominids that lived from 3.5 to 3.2 million years ago in the Pliocene. This genus is represented by one species, Kenyanthropus flatface, but some scientists consider it a separate species of australopithecus, like Australopithecus flatface, while others classify it as Australopithecus afarensis. 6.1. The Kenyanthropus platyops was found on the Kenyan side of Lake Turkana in 1999. These Kenyanthropes lived from 3.5 to 3.2 million ago. This species remains a mystery, and suggests that 3.5 - 2 million years ago there were several humanoid species, each of which was well adapted to life in a certain environment. 7. The genus Humans or Homo includes both extinct species and Homo sapiens. Extinct species are classified as ancestral, especially Homo erectus, or as closely related to modern humans. The earliest representatives of the genus currently date back 2.5 million years. 7.1. Homo gautengensis is a species of hominin that was identified in 2010, following a fresh look at a skull found back in 1977 in Sterkfontein Cave in Johannesburg, South Africa, Gothenburg Province. This species is represented by South African fossil hominins previously classified as Homo habilis, Homo ergaster, or in some cases Australopithecus. But Australopithecus sediba, which lived at the same time as Homo Gautengensis, turned out to be much more primitive. The identification of Homo gautengensis was made from fragments of skulls, teeth and other parts found at various times in caves at a site called the Cradle of Humankind in South Africa. The oldest specimens are dated at 1.9-1.8 million years. The youngest specimens from Swartkrans date from approximately 1.0 million to 600 thousand years ago. According to the description, Homo hautengensis had large teeth suitable for chewing plants and a small brain, most likely he consumed a predominantly plant diet, unlike Homo erectus, Homo sapiens and, probably, Homo habilis. Scientists believe it made and used stone tools, and judging by the burnt animal bones found with the remains of Homo hautengensis, these hominins used fire. They were slightly taller than 90 cm, and their weight was about 50 kg. Homo hautengensis walked on two legs, but also spent significant time in trees, possibly feeding, sleeping and hiding from predators. 7.2. Homo rudolfensis, a species of the genus Homo that lived 1.7-2.5 million years ago, was first discovered in 1972 at Lake Turkana in Kenya. However, the remains were first described in 1978 by Soviet anthropologist Valery Alekseev. Remains were also found in Malawi in 1991 and in Koobi Fora, Kenya in 2012. Homo Rudolph coexisted in parallel with Homo habilis or Homo habilis and they could interact. Possibly the ancestor of later Homo species. 7.3. Homo habilis is a species of fossil hominid that is considered a representative of our ancestors. Lived from approximately 2.4 to 1.4 million years ago, during the Gelasian Pleistocene. The first finds were made in Tanzania in 1962-1964. Homo habilis was considered the earliest known species of the genus Homo, until the discovery of Homo hautengensis in 2010. Homo habilis was short and had disproportionately long arms compared to modern humans, but with a flatter face than australopithecines. The volume of his skull was less than half that of modern humans. His finds are often accompanied by primitive stone tools from the Olduvai culture, hence the name "Handy Man". And to describe it more simply, the body of the Habilis resembles Australopithecus, with a more human-like face and smaller teeth. Whether Homo habilis was the first hominid to master stone tool technology remains controversial, since Australopithecus garhi, dated 2. 6 million years old, was found along with similar stone tools, and is at least 100-200 thousand years older than Homo habilis. Homo habilis lived in parallel with other bipedal primates, such as Paranthropus boisei. But Homo habilis, perhaps through tool use and a more varied diet, judging by dental analysis, became the ancestor of a whole line of new species, while the remains of Paranthropus boisei were no longer found. Also, Homo habilis may have coexisted with Homo erectus about 500 thousand years ago. 7.4. Homo ergaster is an extinct but one of the earliest Homo species that lived in eastern and southern Africa during the Early Pleistocene, 1.8 - 1.3 million years ago. The working man, named for his advanced technology of hand tools, is sometimes referred to as the African Homo erectus. Some researchers consider the working man to be the ancestor of the Acheulean culture, while other scientists award the palm to early erectus. There is also evidence of their use of fire. The remains were first discovered in 1949 in southern Africa. And the most complete skeleton was discovered in Kenya on the western shore of Lake Turkana, it belonged to a teenager and was called the “Boy from Turkana” or also “Nariokotome Boy”, his age was 1.6 million years. This finding is often classified as Homo erectus. Homo ergaster is thought to have diverged from the Homo habilis lineage between 1.9 and 1.8 million years ago and existed for about half a million years in Africa. Scientists also believe that they quickly became sexually mature, even in their youth. Its distinctive feature was also its rather tall height, about 180 cm. Working humans are also less sexually dimorphic than Austropithecus, and this may mean more prosocial behavior. His brain was already larger, up to 900 cubic centimeters. Some scientists believe that they could use a proto-language based on the structure of the cervical vertebrae, but this is just speculation at the moment. 7.5. The Dmanisian hominid (Homo georgicus) or (Homo erectus georgicus) is the first representative of the genus Homo to leave Africa. Finds dating back to 1.8 million years were discovered in Georgia in August 1991, and were described in different years also as Georgian Man (Homo georgicus), Homo erectus georgicus, Dmanisi hominid (Dmanisi) and as Working Man (Homo ergaster). But it was isolated as a separate species and they, together with erectus and ergasters, are also often called archanthropes, or if we add Heidelberg man of Europe and Sinanthropus from China, then we get Pithecanthropus. In 1991 by David Lordkipanidze. Along with ancient human remains, tools and animal bones were found. The brain volume of Dmanisian hominids is approximately 600-700 cubic centimeters - half that of modern humans. This is the smallest hominid brain found outside of Africa other than Homo floresiensis. The Dmanisian hominid was bipedal and shorter in stature compared to the abnormally tall ergasters; the average height of male individuals was about 1.2 m. Dental conditions indicate omnivory. But no evidence of the use of fire was found among archaeological finds. Possibly a descendant of Rudolph Man. 7.6. Homo erectus, or simply Erectus, is an extinct species of hominid that lived from the late Pliocene to the late Pleistocene, approximately 1.9 million to 300,000 years ago. About 2 million years ago, the climate in Africa changed to drier. A long period of existence and migration could not but create many different views of scientists on this species. According to available data and their interpretation, the species originated in Africa, then migrated to India, China and to the island of Java. Overall, Homo erectus spread throughout the warmer parts of Eurasia. But some scientists suggest that Erectus appeared in Asia and only then migrated to Africa. Erectus have existed for over a million years, longer than other human species. The classification and ancestry of Homo erectus is quite controversial. But there are some subspecies of erectus. 7.6.1 Pithecanthropus or "Javanese man" - Homo erectus erectus 7.6.2 Yuanmou man - Homo erectus yuanmouensis 7.6.3 Lantian man - Homo erectus lantianensis 7.6.4 Nanjing man - Homo erectus nankinensis 7.6.5 Sinanthropus or "Beijing man" - Homo erectus pekinensis 7.6.6 Meganthropus - Homo erectus palaeojavanicus 7.6.7 Javanthrope or Soloi man - Homo erectus soloensis 7.6.8 Man from Totavel - Homo erectus tautavelensis 7.6.9 Dmanisian hominid - Homo erectus georgicus 7.6.10 Man from Bilzingsleben - Homo erectus bilzingslebenensis 7.6.11 Atlantrop or Moorish man - Homo erectus mauritanicus 7.6.12 Man from Cerpano - Homo cepranensis, some scientists distinguish it, like many other subspecies, into a separate species, but the 1994 find in the vicinity of Rome is represented only by the skull, therefore there is little data for a more thorough analysis. Homo erectus got its name for a reason; his legs were adapted for both walking and running. Temperature exchange was increased due to sparser and shorter body hair. It is quite possible that erectus have already become hunters. Smaller teeth may indicate changes in diet, most likely due to the processing of food by fire. And this is already a path to enlargement of the brain, the volume of which in erecti varied from 850 to 1200 cubic cm. They were up to 178 cm tall. The sexual dimorphism of erectuses was less than that of their predecessors. They lived in groups of hunter-gatherers and hunted together. Fire was used both for warmth and cooking, and to scare away predators. They made tools, hand axes, flakes, and in general were carriers of the Acheulean culture. In 1998 there were suggestions that they were building rafts. 7.7. Homo antecessor is an extinct human species, ranging in age from 1.2 million to 800,000 years. It was found in the Sierra de Atapuerca in 1994. A 900,000-year-old fossil of an upper jaw and part of a skull discovered in Spain belonged to a boy at most 15 years old. Numerous bones, both animal and human, were found nearby with markings that may indicate cannibalism. Almost all of those eaten were teenagers or children. However, no evidence was found indicating a lack of food in the surrounding area at that time. They were approximately 160-180 cm tall and weighed about 90 kg. The brain volume of the previous person (Homo antecessor) was about 1000-1150 cubic centimeters. Scientists suggest rudimentary speech abilities. 7.8. Heidelberg man (Homo heidelbergensis) or protanthropus (Protanthropus heidelbergensis) is an extinct species of the genus Homo, which may be the direct ancestor of both Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis), if we consider its development in Europe, and Homo sapiens, but only in Africa. The discovered remains were dated from 800 to 150 thousand years. The first records of this species were made in 1907 by Daniel Hartmann in the village of Mauer in southwestern Germany. After which representatives of the species were discovered in France, Italy, Spain, Greece and China. Also in 1994, a discovery was made in England near the village of Boxgrove, hence the name “Boxgrove Man”. However, the name of the area is also found - “horse slaughterhouse”, which involves cutting up horse carcasses using stone tools. Heidelberg Man used tools from the Acheulean culture, sometimes with transitions into the Mousterian culture. They were on average 170 cm tall, and in South Africa there were finds of individuals 213 cm tall and which dated from 500 to 300 thousand years. Heidelberg man may have been the first species to bury its dead, findings based on 28 remains found in Atapuerca, Spain. Perhaps he used tongue and red ocher as decoration, which is confirmed by finds at Terra Amata near Nice on the slopes of Mount Boron. Dental analysis suggests they were right-handed. Heidelberg Man (Homo heidelbergensis) was an advanced hunter, as evidenced by hunting tools such as spears from Schöningen in Germany. 7.8.1. Rhodesian man (Homo rhodesiensis) is an extinct subspecies of hominin that lived from 400 to 125 thousand years ago. The Kabwe fossil skull is the type specimen of the species, found in the Broken Hill Caves in Northern Rhodesia, now Zambia, by Swiss miner Tom Zwiglaar in 1921. Previously it was classified as a separate species. The Rhodesian man was massive, with very large eyebrows and a broad face. It is sometimes called the "African Neanderthal", although it has features intermediate between sapiens and Neanderthals. 7.9. Florisbad (Homo helmei) is described as an "archaic" Homo sapiens who lived 260,000 years ago. Represented by a partially preserved skull that was discovered in 1932 by Professor Dreyer within the archaeological and paleontological site of Florisbad near Bloemfontein in South Africa. It may be an intermediate form between Heidelberg man (Homo heidelbergensis) and homo sapiens (Homo sapiens). Florisbad was the same size as modern humans, but with a larger brain capacity of about 1400 cm3. 7.10 Neanderthal (Homo neanderthalensis) is an extinct species or subspecies within the genus Homo, closely related to modern humans, and has interbred with them on numerous occasions. The term "Neanderthal" comes from the modern spelling of the Neander Valley in Germany, where the species was first discovered in the Feldhofer Cave. Neanderthals existed, according to genetic data, from 600 thousand years ago, and according to archaeological finds from 250 to 28 thousand years ago, with their last refuge in Gibraltar. The finds are currently being intensively studied and there is no point in describing them in more detail, since I will return to this species, perhaps more than once. 7. 11. Homo Naledi The fossils were discovered in 2013 in the Dinaledi Chamber, Rising Star Cave system, Gauteng Province in South Africa and were quickly recognized as the remains of a new species in 2015, and different from remains found previously. In 2017, the finds were dated from 335 to 236 thousand years. The remains of fifteen individuals, both male and female, were recovered from the cave, including children. The new species has been named Homo naledi, and has an unexpected combination of modern and primitive features, including a rather small brain. "Naledi" was about one and a half meters tall, with a brain volume from 450 to 610 cubic meters. See The word "naledi" means "star" in the Sotho-Tswana languages. 7.12. Homo floresiensis or hobbit is an extinct dwarf species of the genus Homo. Flores man lived from 100 to 60 thousand years ago. The archaeological remains were discovered by Mike Morewood in 2003 on the island of Flores in Indonesia. Incomplete skeletons of nine individuals have been recovered, including one complete skull, from Liang Bua Cave. A distinctive feature of hobbits, as the name suggests, is their height, about 1 meter, and their small brain, about 400 cm3. Stone tools were found along with skeletal remains. There is still debate about Homo Flores, whether he could have made tools with such a brain. The theory was put forward that the found skull was a microcephalus. But most likely this species evolved from erectus or other species in conditions of isolation on the island. 7.13. Denisovans ("Denisovan") (Denisova hominin) are Paleolithic members of the genus Homo that may belong to a previously unknown human species. It is believed to be the third person from the Pleistocene to demonstrate a level of adaptation previously thought to be unique to modern humans and Neanderthals. The Denisovans occupied large territories, stretching from cold Siberia to the tropical rainforests of Indonesia. In 2008, Russian scientists discovered the distal phalanx of a girl’s finger in Denisova Cave or Ayu-Tash, in the Altai Mountains, from which mitochondrial DNA was later isolated. The owner of the phalanx lived in a cave about 41 thousand years ago. This cave was also inhabited by Neanderthals and modern humans at different times. In general, there are not many finds, including teeth and part of a toe phalanx, as well as various tools and jewelry, including a bracelet made of non-local material. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA from the finger bone showed that Denisovans are genetically different from Neanderthals and modern humans. They may have separated from the Neanderthal lineage after splitting with the Homo sapiens lineage. Recent analyzes have also shown that they overlapped with our species and even interbred several times, at different times. Up to 5-6% of the DNA of Melanesians and Australian aborigines contains Denisovan admixtures. And modern non-Africans have about 2-3% admixture. In 2017, in China, fragments of skulls were found with a large brain volume, up to 1800 cubic cm, and 105-125 thousand years old. Some scientists, based on their description, have suggested that they could belong to the Denisovans, but these versions are currently controversial. 7.14. Idaltu (Homo sapiens idaltu) is an extinct subspecies of Homo sapiens that lived approximately 160 thousand years ago in Africa. "Idaltu" means "firstborn". Fossil remains of Homo sapiens idaltu were discovered in 1997 by Tim White at Herto Buri in Ethiopia. Although the morphology of the skulls indicates archaic features that are not found in later Homo sapiens, they are still considered by scientists as the direct ancestors of modern Homo sapiens sapiens. 7.15. Homo sapiens is a species of the hominid family from the large order of primates. And it is the only living species of this genus, that is, us. If anyone is reading or listening to this not from our species, write in the comments...). Representatives of the species first appeared in Africa about 200 or 315 thousand years ago, if we take into account the latest data from Jebel Irhoud, but there are still many questions there. After which they spread almost throughout the entire planet. Although in a more modern form as Homo sapiens sapiens, well, a very intelligent person, appeared a little over 100 thousand years ago, according to some anthropologists. Also in early times, in parallel with humans, other species and populations developed, such as Neanderthals and Denisovans, as well as Soloi man or Javanthrope, Ngandong man and Callao Man, as well as others that do not fit into the species Homo sapiens, but according to dating, who lived at the same time. As for example: 7.15.1. The Red Deer Cave people are an extinct population of people, the latest known to science, that do not fit within the variability of Homo sapiens. And perhaps belongs to another species of the genus Homo. They were discovered in the south of China in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region in the Longling Cave in 1979. The age of the remains is from 11.5 to 14.3 thousand years. Although they may well be the results of crossbreeding between different populations living during that period. These issues will still be discussed on the channel, so a brief description will suffice for now. And now, whoever watched the video from beginning to end, put the letter “P” in the comments, and if in parts, then “C”, only to be honest!

Homosapiens- a species that includes four subspecies - Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences Anatoly DEREVYANKO

Photo by ITAR-TASS

Until recently, it was believed that modern humans originated in Africa about 200 thousand years ago.

“Modern biological type” means us in this case. That is, we, modern people, homo sapiens (more precisely, Homosapienssapiens) we are direct descendants of certain creatures that appeared exactly there and exactly then. Previously, they were called Cro-Magnons, but today this designation is considered obsolete.

About 80 thousand years ago, this “modern man” began his victorious march across the planet. Victorious in the literal sense: it is believed that on that campaign he ousted other human forms from life - for example, the famous Neanderthals.

But recently evidence has emerged that this is not entirely true...

The following circumstances led to this conclusion.

Several years ago, an expedition of Russian archaeologists and specialists from other sciences, working under the leadership of the director of the Institute of Archeology and Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Academician Anatoly Derevyanko, discovered the remains of an ancient man in the Denisovskaya Cave in Altai.

Culturally, he fully corresponded to the level of contemporary sapiens: the tools of labor were at the same technological level, and the love of jewelry indicated a fairly high stage of social development for those times. But biologically...

It turned out that the DNA structure of the found remains differs from the genetic code of living people. But this was not what caused the main sensation. It turned out that this - by all, we repeat, technological and cultural characteristics - intelligent person turned out to be ... an “alien.” According to genetic data, he moved away from our common ancestral line no less than 800 thousand years ago! Yes, even Neanderthals are closer to us!

“We are apparently talking about a new species of human that was previously unknown to world science,” said Svante Pääbo, legendary in professional circles, director of the department of evolutionary genetics at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. Well, he knows better: he was the one who carried out the DNA analysis of the unexpected find.

So what happens? While we humans were climbing the evolutionary ladder, a certain competitive “humanity” was climbing up in parallel with us?

Yes, says Academician Derevyanko. Moreover: in his opinion, there may be at least... four such centers where different groups of people strived for the title of Homo sapiens in parallel and independently of each other!

He told ITAR-TASS about the main provisions of the new concept, already sometimes called the “new revolution in anthropology”.

Before moving on to the essence of the matter, let's start with the “pre-revolutionary situation”. Before current events, what was the picture of human evolution?

We can confidently say that humanity originated in Africa. The first traces of creatures that learned to make tools have been discovered today in the area of ​​the East African Rift, stretching in the meridional direction from the Dead Sea basin through the Red Sea and further across the territory of Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania.

The spread of the first people to Eurasia and their settlement of vast territories in Asia and Europe occurred in a mode of gradual development of the most favorable ecological niches for living and then moving into adjacent areas. Scientists attribute the beginning of the process of human penetration into Eurasia to a wide chronological range from 2 to 1 million years ago.

The largest population of ancient Homo that emerged from Africa was associated with the species Homo ergaster-erectus and the so-called Oldowan industry. In this context, industry means a certain technology, a culture of stone processing. Oldowan or Oldowan - the most primitive of them, when a stone, most often a pebble, which is why this culture is also called pebble, was split in half to get a sharp edge without additional processing.

About 450–350 thousand years ago, the second global migration flow began to move to the east of Eurasia from the Middle East. It is associated with the spread of the Late Acheulian industry, in which people made macroliths - stone axes and flakes.

During its advancement, the new human population in many territories met the population of the first migration wave, and therefore there is a mixture of two industries - pebble and late Acheulian.

But here’s what’s interesting: judging by the nature of the finds, the second wave reached only India and Mongolia. She didn't go any further. In any case, the overall difference between the industry of East and Southeast Asia and the industry of the rest of Eurasia is noticeable. This means, in turn, that since the first appearance of the oldest human populations in East and Southeast Asia 1.8–1.3 million years ago, there has been a continuous and independent development of both the physical type of man and his culture. And this alone contradicts the theory of the monocentric origin of modern man.

- But you just said that man was born in Africa?..

It is very important to emphasize, and it was not by chance that I did this: we are talking about a person of a modern anatomical type. According to the monocentric hypothesis, it formed 200–150 thousand years ago in Africa, and 80–60 thousand years ago it began to spread to Eurasia and Australia.

However, this hypothesis leaves many problems unresolved.

For example, the researchers are primarily faced with the question: why, if a person of the modern physical type arose at least 150 thousand years ago, then the Upper Paleolithic culture, which is associated with Homo sapiens, appeared only 50–40 thousand years ago?

Or: if the Upper Paleolithic culture spread to other continents with modern man, then why did its products appear almost simultaneously in regions of Eurasia that were very distant from each other? And besides, significantly differing from each other in basic technical and typological characteristics?

And further. According to archaeological data, a person of a modern physical type settled in Australia 50, and maybe 60 thousand years ago, while in the territories adjacent to East Africa on the African continent itself he appeared... later! In South Africa, judging by anthropological finds, about 40 thousand years ago, in Central and Western Africa, apparently, about 30 thousand years ago, and only in Northern Africa, about 50 thousand years ago. How can we explain the fact that modern man first penetrated into Australia, and only then settled across the African continent?

And how, from the point of view of monocentrism, can we explain the fact that Homo sapiens was able to cover a gigantic distance (more than 10 thousand km) in 5–10 thousand years without leaving any traces along the path of its movement? Indeed, in South, Southeast and East Asia 80–30 thousand years ago, in the event of the replacement of the autochthonous population by newcomers, a complete change of industry should have occurred, but this is not at all visible in East Asia. Moreover, between the regions with the Upper Paleolithic industry there were territories where the Middle Paleolithic culture continued to exist.

Did you swim on something, as some suggest? But in Southern and Eastern Africa, at the sites of the final middle and early stages of the Upper Paleolithic, no means of swimming were found. Moreover, in these industries there are no tools for working wood, and without them it is impossible to build boats and other similar means on which one could go to Australia.

What about genetic data? They show that all modern people are descendants of one “father” who lived precisely in Africa and just about 80 thousand years ago...

Well, in fact, monocentrists, based on a study of DNA variability in modern people, suggest that it was in the period 80 - 60 thousand years ago that a demographic explosion occurred in Africa, and as a result of a sharp increase in population and a lack of food resources, a migration wave spilled into Eurasia .

But with all due respect to the data of genetic research, it is impossible to believe in the infallibility of these conclusions without having any convincing archaeological and anthropological evidence to support them. And yet there are none!

Look here. It must be borne in mind that with the average life expectancy at that time being about 25 years, offspring in most cases were left without parents at an immature age. With high postnatal and child mortality, as well as mortality among adolescents due to the early loss of parents, there is no reason to talk about a demographic explosion.

But even if we agree that 80 - 60 thousand years ago in East Africa there was a rapid population growth, which determined the need to search for new food resources and, accordingly, the settlement of new territories, the question arises: why migration flows were initially directed far to the east , all the way to Australia?

In short, the extensive archaeological material from the studied Paleolithic sites of South, Southeast and East Asia in the range of 60–30 thousand years ago does not allow us to trace the wave of migration of anatomically modern people from Africa. In these territories there is not only no change in culture, which should have happened if the autochthonous population was replaced by newcomers, but also clearly expressed innovations indicating acculturation. Such authoritative researchers as F.J. Habgood and N.R. Franklin draws a clear conclusion: the indigenous people of Australia never had the full African “package” of innovations, since they were not from Africa.

Or let's take China. Extensive archaeological material from hundreds of studied Paleolithic sites in East and Southeast Asia indicates the continuity of industrial development in this territory over the last million years. Perhaps, as a result of paleoecological disasters (cold snap, etc.), the range of ancient human populations in the Chinese-Malayan zone narrowed, but archanthropes never left it. Here, both man himself and his culture developed evolutionarily, without any significant outside influences. No similarity with African industries can be traced in the chronological interval 70–30 thousand years ago in Southeast and East Asia. According to the extensive archaeological material available, no migration of people from the west to the territory of China can be traced in the chronological interval of 120–30 thousand years ago.

But over the past 50 years, numerous finds have been discovered in China that make it possible to trace the continuity not only between the ancient anthropological type and modern Chinese populations, but also between Homo erectus and Homo sapiens. In addition, they have a mosaic of morphological characteristics. This indicates a gradual transition from one species to another and indicates that human evolution in China is characterized by continuity and hybridization or interspecific crossing.

In other words, the evolutionary development of Asian Homo erectus took place in East and Southeast Asia for more than 1 million years. This does not exclude the arrival of small populations from neighboring regions and the possibility of gene exchange, especially in areas bordering neighboring populations. But taking into account the closeness of the Paleolithic industries of East and Southeast Asia and their difference from the industries of the adjacent western regions, it can be argued that at the end of the Middle - beginning of the Upper Pleistocene, a person of the modern physical type Homo sapiens orientalensis was formed on the basis of the autochthonous erectoid form of Homo in East and Southeast Asia, along with Africa.

That is, it turns out that the path to sapiens was traversed by different descendants of erectus, independent of each other? From one cutting did different shoots develop, which then intertwined again into one trunk? How can this be?

To understand this process, let's look at the history of the Neanderthals. Moreover, over 150 years of research, hundreds of different sites, settlements, and burials of this species have been studied.

Neanderthals settled mainly in Europe. Their morphological type was adapted to the harsh climatic conditions of northern latitudes. In addition, their Paleolithic locations have also been discovered in the Middle East, Western and Central Asia, and southern Siberia.

They were short, stocky people with great physical strength. Their brain volume was 1400 cubic centimeters and was not inferior to the average brain volume of modern people. Many archaeologists paid attention to the great efficiency of the Neanderthal industry at the final stage of the Middle Paleolithic and the presence in them of many elements of behavior characteristic of a person of a modern anatomical type. There is much evidence of the deliberate burial of their relatives by Neanderthals. They used tools similar to those that developed in parallel in Africa and the East. They also exhibited many other elements of modern human behavior. It is no coincidence that this species – or subspecies – is also considered “intelligent” today: Homo sapiens neanderthalensis.

But it originated between 250 and 300 thousand years ago! That is, it also developed in parallel, not under the influence of “African” man, who can be designated as Homo sapiens africaniensis . And we are left with only one solution: to consider the transition from the Middle to Upper Paleolithic in Western and Central Europe as an autochthonous phenomenon.

- Yes, but there are no Neanderthals today! Just as there is no Chinese Homosapiensorientalensis…

Yes, according to many researchers, Neanderthals were subsequently replaced in Europe by humans of a modern anatomical type who came out of Africa. But others believe that perhaps the fate of Neanderthals was not so sad. One of the leading anthropologists, Erik Trinkaus, having compared Neanderthals and modern humans using 75 traits, came to the conclusion that about a quarter of the traits are characteristic of both Neanderthals and modern humans, the same amount are characteristic of Neanderthals only, and approximately half are characteristic of modern humans.

In addition, genetic research suggests that up to 4 percent of the genome of modern non-Africans is derived from Neanderthals. The famous researcher Richard Greene and his co-authors, including geneticists, anthropologists and archaeologists, made a very important remark: “... Neanderthals are equally closely related to the Chinese, Papuans and French.” He notes that the results of studying the Neanderthal genome may not be compatible with the hypothesis of the origin of modern humans from a small African population, which then displaced all other forms of Homo and spread across the planet.

At the current level of research, there is no doubt that in the border areas inhabited by Neanderthals and modern humans, or in the territories of their cross settlement, processes not only of cultural diffusion, but also hybridization and assimilation took place. Homo sapiens neanderthalensis undoubtedly contributed to the morphology and genome of modern humans.

Now is the time to remember your sensational discovery in the Denisovskaya Cave in Altai, where another species or subspecies of ancient man was discovered. And also - the tools are quite sapiens, but in terms of genetics - they are not of African origin, and there are more differences with Homo sapiens than with Neanderthals. Although he is not a Neanderthal either...

As a result of field research in Altai over the last quarter of a century, over 70 cultural horizons belonging to the Early, Middle and Upper Paleolithic have been identified at nine cave sites and more than 10 open sites. The chronological range of 100–30 thousand years ago includes about 60 cultural horizons, to varying degrees saturated with archaeological and paleontological material.

Based on extensive materials obtained as a result of field and laboratory studies, it can be rightfully stated that the development of human culture in this territory occurred as a result of the evolutionary development of the Middle Paleolithic industry without any noticeable influences associated with the infiltration of populations with a different culture.

- So no one came and made innovations?

Judge for yourself. In Denisova Cave, 14 cultural-containing layers have been identified, in some of them several habitat horizons have been traced. The most ancient finds, apparently dating back to the Late Acheulean time - the Early Middle Paleolithic, were recorded in the 22nd layer - 282 ± 56 thousand years ago. Next is the gap. The following culture-containing horizons from the 20th to the 12th belong to the Middle Paleolithic, and the 11th and 9th layers are Upper Paleolithic. Please note: there is no gap here.

In all Middle Paleolithic horizons, the continuous evolution of the stone industry can be traced. Particularly important are materials from cultural horizons 18–12, which belong to the chronological interval of 90–50 thousand years ago. But what is especially important: these are things, in general, of the same level that a person of our biological type had. A clear confirmation of the “modern” behavior of the population of the Altai Mountains 50–40 thousand years ago is the bone industry (needles, awls, bases for composite tools) and non-utilitarian items made of bone, stone, shells (beads, pendants, etc.). An unexpected find was a fragment of a stone bracelet, the design of which used several techniques: grinding, polishing, sawing and drilling.

About 45 thousand years ago, a Mousterian-type industry appeared in Altai. This is the culture of the Neanderthals. That is, some group of them got here and settled for a while. Apparently, this small population was forced out of Central Asia (for example, Uzbekistan, Teshik-Tash cave) by a person of a modern physical type.

It did not exist for long in Altai. Its fate is unknown: either it was assimilated by the autochthonous population, or it died out.

As a result, we see: all the archaeological material accumulated as a result of almost 30 years of field research of multilayer cave sites and open sites in Altai convincingly testifies to the autochthonous, independent formation here 50-45 thousand years ago of the Upper Paleolithic industry - one of the brightest and expressive in Eurasia. This means that the formation of the Upper Paleolithic culture, characteristic of modern humans, occurs in Altai as a result of the evolutionary development of the autochthonous Middle Paleolithic industry.

At the same time, genetically they are not “our” people, right? A study conducted by the famous Svante Pääbo showed that we are even less related to them than to Neanderthals...

We didn't expect this ourselves! After all, judging by the stone and bone industry, the presence of a large number of non-utilitarian items, methods and techniques of life support, the presence of items obtained through exchange over many hundreds of kilometers, people living in Altai had modern human behavior. And we, archaeologists, were sure that genetically this population belonged to people of a modern anatomical type.

However, the results of deciphering human nuclear DNA, made from the phalanx of a finger from Denisova Cave at the same Institute of Population Genetics, turned out to be unexpected for everyone. The Denisovan genome deviated from the reference human genome 804 thousand years ago! And they separated from the Neanderthals 640 thousand years ago.

- But there were no Neanderthals then?

Yes, and this means that the common ancestral population of Denisovans and Neanderthals left Africa more than 800 thousand years ago. And it settled, apparently, in the Middle East. And about 600 thousand years ago, another part of the population migrated from the Middle East. At the same time, the ancestors of modern man remained in Africa and developed there in their own way.
But on the other hand, Denisovans left 4–6 percent of their genetic material in the genomes of modern Melanesians. Like Neanderthals - in Europeans. So, although they did not survive to our time in their guise, they cannot be attributed to a dead-end branch in human evolution. They are in us!

Thus, in general, human evolution can be represented as follows.

At the heart of the entire chain leading to the emergence of a modern anatomical type of man in Africa and Eurasia is the ancestral basis of Homo erectus sensu lato. Apparently, the entire evolution of the sapiens line of human development is connected with this polytypic species.

The second migration wave of erectoid forms came to Central Asia, Southern Siberia and Altai about 300 thousand years ago, probably from the Middle East. From this chronological point, we trace in Denisova Cave and other locations in caves and open-air sites in Altai the continuous convergent development of stone industries, and, consequently, of the physical type of man himself.

The industry here was in no way primitive or archaic compared to the rest of Eurasia and Africa. It was focused on the environmental conditions of this particular region. In the Chinese-Malay zone, there was an evolutionary development of both industry and the anatomical type of man himself based on erectoid forms. This allows us to distinguish the modern type of man, formed in this territory, into the subspecies Homo sapiens orientalensis.

In the same way, Homo sapiens altaiensis and its material and spiritual culture developed convergently in Southern Siberia.

In turn, Homo sapiens neanderthalensis developed autochthonously in Europe. Here, however, the case is less pure, since modern people came here from Africa. There is some debate about the form of the relationship between these two subspecies, but genetics in any case shows that part of the Neanderthal genome is present in modern humans.

Thus, there is only one conclusion left to draw: Homo sapiens is a species that includes four subspecies. These are Homo sapiens africaniensis (Africa), Homo sapiens orientalensis (Southeast and East Asia), Homo sapiens Neanderthalensis (Europe) and Homo sapiens altaiensis (North and Central Asia). All archaeological, anthropological and genetic studies, from our point of view, indicate exactly this!

Alexander Tsyganov (ITAR-TASS, Moscow)

Subsections

Today there is a prevailing hostility in science towards the very idea of ​​"gods", but in reality this is simply a matter of terminology and religious convention. A striking example is the cult of airplanes. After all, oddly enough, the best confirmation of the theory of the Creator-God is himself Man - Homo sapiens. Moreover, according to the latest research, the idea of ​​God is embedded in humans at the biological level.

Since Charles Darwin shocked the scientists and theologians of his time with evidence of the existence of evolution, man has been considered to be the final link in a long evolutionary chain, at the other end of which are the simplest forms of life, from which life has evolved over billions of years since the emergence of life on our planet. vertebrates, then mammals, primates and Man himself.

Of course, a person can be considered as a set of elements, but even then, if we assume that life arose as a result of random chemical reactions, then why did all living organisms on Earth develop from a single source, and not from many random ones? Why does organic matter contain only a small percentage of chemical elements that are abundant on Earth, and a large number of elements that are rarely found on our planet, and our life balances on a razor’s edge? Does this mean that life was brought to our planet from another world, for example by meteorites?

What caused the Great Sexual Revolution? And in general, there are many interesting things in a person - sensory organs, memory mechanisms, brain rhythms, mysteries of human physiology, a second signaling system, but the main topic of this article will be a more fundamental mystery - the position of man in the evolutionary chain.

It is now believed that the ancestor of man, the ape, appeared on Earth approximately 25 million years ago! Discoveries in East Africa made it possible to establish that the transition to the type of ape (hominid) took place about 14,000,000 years ago. The genes of humans and chimpanzees split from a common ancestral trunk 5 - 7 million years ago. Even closer to us were the bonobos pygmy chimpanzees, which separated from chimpanzees about 3 million years ago.

Sex occupies a huge place in human relationships, and bonobos, unlike other monkeys, often copulate in a face-to-face position, and their sex life is such that it overshadows the promiscuity of the inhabitants of Sodom and Gomorrah! So it is likely that our common ancestors with apes behaved more like bonobos than like chimpanzees. But sex is a topic for a separate discussion, and we will continue.

Among the skeletons found, there are only three contenders for the title of the first fully bipedal primate. All of them were discovered in East Africa, in the Rift Valley, cutting through the territories of Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania.

About 1.5 million years ago, Homo erectus (upright man) appeared. This primate had a much larger cranium than its predecessors, and it was already beginning to create and use more complex stone tools. The wide range of skeletons found suggests that between 1,000,000 and 700,000 years ago, Homo erectus left Africa and settled in China, Australasia and Europe, but disappeared altogether between about 300,000 and 200,000 years ago for unknown reasons.

Around the same time, the first primitive man appeared on the scene, dubbed by scientists a Neanderthal, after the name of the area where his remains were first discovered.

The remains were found by Johann Karl Fuhlrott in 1856 in the Feldhofer Cave near Düsseldorf in Germany. This cave is located in the Neandertal Valley. In 1863, the English anthropologist and anatomist W. King proposed the name for the find Homo neanderthalensis. Neanderthals inhabited Europe and Western Asia from 300 thousand to 28 thousand years ago. For some time they coexisted with anatomically modern humans, who settled in Europe about 40 thousand years ago. Previously, based on a morphological comparison of Neanderthals with modern humans, three hypotheses were proposed: Neanderthals are the direct ancestors of humans; they made some genetic contribution to the gene pool; they represented an independent branch that was completely supplanted by modern man. It is the latter hypothesis that is confirmed by modern genetic research. The existence of the last common ancestor of humans and Neanderthals is estimated at 500 thousand years before our time.

Recent discoveries have forced us to radically reconsider the assessment of Neanderthals. In particular, in the Kebara Cave on Mount Carmel in Israel, the skeleton of a Neanderthal man who lived 60 thousand years ago was found, whose hyoid bone was completely preserved, completely identical to the bone of a modern person. Since the ability to speak depends on the hyoid bone, scientists were forced to admit that the Neanderthal had this ability. And many scientists believe that speech is the key to unlocking the great leap in human development.

Nowadays, most anthropologists believe that the Neanderthal was a full-fledged man, and for a long time, in terms of his behavioral characteristics, he was quite equivalent to other representatives of this species. It is quite possible that the Neanderthal was no less intelligent and human-like than we are in our time. It has been suggested that the large, coarse lines of his skull are simply the result of some kind of genetic disorder, like acromegaly. These disturbances quickly dissipated into a limited, isolated population through interbreeding.

But, nevertheless, despite the huge period of time - more than two million years - separating the developed Australopithecus and the Neanderthal, both used similar tools - sharpened stones, and the features of their appearance (as we imagine them) were practically no different.

“If you put a hungry lion, a man, a chimpanzee, a baboon and a dog in a large cage, then it is clear that the person will be eaten first!”

African folk wisdom

The emergence of Homo sapiens is not just an incomprehensible mystery, it seems incredible. For millions of years there was only slight progress in the processing of stone tools; and suddenly, about 200 thousand years ago, it appeared with a cranial volume 50% larger than before, with the ability to speak and a body anatomy quite close to modern one. (According to a number of independent studies, this happened in Southeast Africa.)

In 1911, anthropologist Sir Arthur Kent compiled a list of the anatomical features inherent in each species of primate monkey that distinguishes them from each other. He called them "common features." As a result, he got the following indicators: gorilla - 75; chimpanzees - 109; orangutan - 113; gibbon - 116; humans - 312. How can one reconcile Sir Arthur Kent's research with the scientifically proven fact that the genetic similarity between humans and chimpanzees is 98%? I would reverse this relationship and ask the question - how does a 2% difference in DNA determine the striking difference between humans and their primate cousins?

We must somehow explain how a 2% difference in genes gives rise to so many new characteristics in a person - brain, speech, sexuality and much more. It is strange that the Homo sapiens cell contains only 46 chromosomes, while the chimpanzee and gorilla have 48. The theory of natural selection was unable to explain how such a major structural change - the fusion of two chromosomes - could occur.

In the words of Steve Jones, “...we are the result of evolution—a series of successive mistakes. No one would argue that evolution has ever been so abrupt that an entire plan for the restructuring of an organism could be realized in one step.” Indeed, experts believe that the possibility of a successful large evolutionary leap, called macromutation, is extremely unlikely, since such a leap is likely to be harmful to the survival of species that are already well adapted to the environment, or in any case ambiguous, for example due to mechanism of action of the immune system, we have lost the ability to regenerate tissue like amphibians.

Catastrophe theory

Evolutionist Daniel Dennett describes the situation elegantly with a literary analogy: someone tries to improve a classic literary text by making only proofreading changes. While most editing—placing commas or correcting misspelled words—has little effect, significant text editing in almost all cases spoils the original text. Thus, everything seems to be stacked against genetic improvement, but a favorable mutation can occur in a small isolated population. Under other conditions, favorable mutations would have dissolved into the larger mass of “normal” individuals.

Thus, it becomes obvious that the most important factor in the splitting of species is their geographical separation to prevent mutual crossing. And as statistically unlikely as it may be for new species to arise, there are currently about 30 million different species on Earth. And earlier, according to calculations, there were another 3 billion, now extinct. This is only possible in the context of the catastrophic development of history on planet Earth - and this point of view is now becoming increasingly popular. However, it is impossible to give a single example (with the exception of microorganisms) where any species has recently (during the last half a million years) improved as a result of mutations or split into two different species.

Anthropologists have always sought to present the evolution from Homo erectus to as a gradual process, albeit with sharp leaps. However, their attempts to adjust archaeological data to the requirements of a given concept each time turned out to be untenable. For example, how can we explain the sharp increase in skull volume in Homo sapiens?

How did it happen that Homo sapiens gained intelligence and self-awareness, while its relative the ape spent the last 6 million years in a state of complete stagnation? Why has no other creature in the animal kingdom been able to advance to a high level of mental development?

The usual answer to this is that when a person rose to his feet, both hands were freed and he began to use tools. This advancement accelerated learning through a feedback system, which, in turn, stimulated the process of mental development.

Recent scientific research suggests that in some cases, electrochemical processes in the brain can promote the growth of dendrites—tiny signal receptors that connect to neurons (nerve cells). Experiments with experimental rats have shown that if toys are placed in a cage with rats, the mass of brain tissue in rats begins to grow faster. Researchers Christopher A. Walsh and Anjen Chenn were even able to identify a protein, beta-catenin, that is responsible for why the human cerebral cortex is larger than that of other species. Walsh explained the results of their research: "The cerebral cortex of mice is normally smooth. In humans, it is highly wrinkled due to the large volume of tissue and lack of space in the skull. It can be compared to putting a piece of paper in a ball. We found that mice with increased production of beta catenin's cerebral cortex was much larger in volume, it was wrinkled in the same way as in humans." Which, however, did not add clarity. After all, in the animal kingdom there are a lot of species whose representatives use tools, but at the same time do not become intelligent.

Here are some examples: the Egyptian kite throws stones from above at ostrich eggs, trying to break their hard shells. The Galapagos woodpecker uses cactus twigs or needles in five different ways to pluck tree beetles and other insects from rotten trunks. A sea otter on the Pacific Coast of the United States uses one stone as a hammer and another as an anvil to break the shell to obtain its favorite delicacy, the bear's ear shell. Our closest relatives, chimpanzees, also make and use simple tools, but do they reach our level of intellectual development? Why did humans become intelligent, but chimpanzees not? We always read about the search for our earliest ape ancestors, but in reality it would be much more interesting to find the missing link of Homo super erectus.

But let's return to man. According to common sense, it should have taken another million years to move from stone tools to other materials, and perhaps another hundred million years to master mathematics, civil engineering and astronomy, but for inexplicable reasons man continued living a primitive life, using stone tools, only for 160 thousand years, and about 40-50 thousand years ago, something happened that caused the migration of humanity and the transition to modern forms of behavior. Most likely it was climate change, although the issue requires separate consideration.

A comparative analysis of the DNA of different populations of modern people suggested that even before leaving Africa, about 60-70 thousand years ago (when there was also a decrease in numbers, although not as significant as 135 thousand years ago), the ancestral population was divided at least into at least three groups, which gave rise to the African, Mongoloid and Caucasian races.

Some racial characteristics may have arisen later as an adaptation to living conditions. This applies at least to skin color, one of the most significant racial characteristics for most people. Pigmentation provides protection from solar radiation, but should not interfere with the formation, for example, of certain vitamins that prevent rickets and are necessary for normal fertility.

Since man came out of Africa, it would seem to go without saying that our distant African ancestors were similar to the modern inhabitants of this continent. However, some researchers believe that the first people who appeared in Africa were closer to the Mongoloids.

So: just 13 thousand years ago, Man settled almost throughout the entire globe. Over the next thousand years, he learned to farm, and after another 6 thousand years he created a great civilization with advanced astronomical science). And finally, after another 6 thousand years, man goes into the depths of the solar system!

We do not have the means of determining an accurate chronology for the periods where the carbon isotope method ends (about 35 thousand years before our time) and further into history throughout the middle Pliocene.

What reliable data do we have about Homo sapiens? At a conference held in 1992, the most reliable evidence obtained by that time was summed up. The dates given here are averages for a number of all specimens found in the area and are given with an accuracy of ±20%.

The most significant discovery, made in Kaftsekh in Israel, is 115 thousand years old. Other specimens, found in Skule and Mount Carmel in Israel, are 101 thousand-81 thousand years old.

Specimens found in Africa, in the lower layers of the Border Cave, are 128 thousand years old (and using ostrich egg shell dating, the age of the remains is confirmed to be at least 100 thousand years old).

In South Africa, at the mouth of the Klasis River, dates range from 130 thousand to 118 thousand years before the present (BP).
And finally, in Jebel Irhoud, in South Africa, specimens with the earliest dating were discovered - 190 thousand-105 thousand years ago.

From this we can conclude that Homo sapiens appeared on Earth less than 200 thousand years ago. And there is not the slightest evidence that there are earlier remains of modern or partially modern humans. All specimens are no different from their European counterparts - the Cro-Magnons, who settled throughout Europe about 35 thousand years ago. And if you dressed them in modern clothes, they would be practically no different from modern people. How did the ancestors of modern humans appear in Southeast Africa 150-300 thousand years ago, and not, say, two or three million years later, as the logic of evolution would suggest? Why did civilization begin in the first place? There is no obvious reason why we should be more civilized than the tribes in the Amazon jungle or the impenetrable forests of New Guinea, who are still at a primitive stage of development.

Civilization and Methods of Controlling Human Consciousness and Behavior

Summary

• The biochemical composition of terrestrial organisms indicates that they all developed from a “single source,” which, however, does not exclude either the hypothesis of “random spontaneous generation” or the version of “the introduction of the seeds of life.”
• Man is clearly out of the evolutionary chain. Despite the huge number of “distant ancestors,” the link that led to the creation of man has never been found. At the same time, the speed of evolutionary development has no analogues in the animal world.
• It is surprising that modification of just 2% of the chimpanzee's genetic material caused such a radical difference between humans and their closest relatives, the apes.
• Features of the structure and sexual behavior of humans indicate a much longer period of peaceful evolution in a warm climate than determined from archaeological and genetic data.
• The genetic predisposition to speech and the efficiency of the internal structure of the brain strongly indicate two essential requirements of the evolutionary process - its incredibly long period, and the vital need to achieve an optimal level. The course of the supposed evolutionary development does not at all require such efficiency of thinking.
• Infants' skulls are disproportionately large for safe delivery. It is quite possible that we inherited the “skulls” from the “race of giants”, so often mentioned in ancient myths.
• The transition from gathering and hunting to agriculture and cattle breeding, which occurred in the Middle East about 13,000 years ago, created the preconditions for the accelerated development of human civilization. Interestingly, this coincides in time with the supposed Great Flood, which destroyed the mammoths. By the way, around that time the Ice Age ended.

For a long time in the Anthropocene, biological factors and patterns were gradually replaced by social ones, which finally ensured the appearance of a modern type of man in the Upper Paleolithic - Homo sapiens, or reasonable man. In 1868, five human skeletons were discovered in the Cro-Magnon cave in France, along with stone tools and drilled shells, which is why Homo sapiens are often called Cro-Magnons. Before Homo sapiens appeared on the planet, there was another humanoid species called Neanderthals. They populated almost the entire Earth and were distinguished by their large size and serious physical strength. Their brain volume was almost the same as that of a modern earthling - 1330 cm3.
Neanderthals lived during the Great Ice Age, so they had to wear clothes made from animal skins and hide from the cold in the depths of caves. Their only rival in natural conditions could only be a saber-toothed tiger. Our ancestors had highly developed brow ridges; they had a powerful, forward jaw with large teeth. The remains found in the Palestinian cave of Es-Shoul, on Mount Carmel, clearly indicate that Neanderthals are the ancestors of modern humans. These remains combine both ancient Neanderthal features and features characteristic of modern humans.
It is assumed that the transition from Neanderthal to man of the current type took place in the most climatically favorable regions of the globe, in particular in the Mediterranean, Western and Central Asia, Crimea and the Caucasus. Recent studies show that Neanderthal man lived for some time even at the same time as Cro-Magnon man, the direct predecessor of modern man. Today, Neanderthals are considered to be a kind of side branch of the evolution of Homo sapiens.
Cro-Magnons appeared about 40 thousand years ago in East Africa. They populated Europe and, within a very short period, completely replaced the Neanderthals. Unlike their ancestors, Cro-Magnons were distinguished by a large, active brain, thanks to which they took an unprecedented step forward in a short period of time.
Since Homo sapiens lived in many regions of the planet with different natural and climatic conditions, this left a certain imprint on his appearance. Already in the Upper Paleolithic era, the racial types of modern man began to develop: Negroid-Australoid, Euro-Asian and Asian-American, or Mongoloid. Representatives of different races differ in skin color, eye shape, hair color and type, skull length and shape, and body proportions.
Hunting became the most important activity for Cro-Magnons. They learned to make darts, tips and spears, invented bone needles, used them to sew the skins of foxes, arctic foxes and wolves, and also began to build dwellings from mammoth bones and other improvised materials.
For collective hunting, building houses and making tools, people began to live in clan communities, consisting of several large families. Women were considered the core of the clan and were mistresses in common dwellings. The growth of the frontal lobes of a person contributed to the complexity of his social life and the variety of work activities, and ensured the further evolution of physiological functions, motor skills and associative thinking.

The technology for producing labor tools was gradually improved, and their range increased. Having learned to take advantage of his developed intellect, Homo sapiens became the sovereign master of all life on Earth. In addition to hunting mammoths, woolly rhinoceroses, wild horses and bison, as well as gathering, Homo sapiens also mastered fishing. The way of life of people also changed - a gradual settlement of individual groups of hunters and gatherers began in forest-steppe areas rich in vegetation and game. Man learned to tame animals and domesticate some plants. This is how cattle breeding and agriculture appeared.
A sedentary lifestyle ensured the rapid development of production and culture, which led to the flourishing of housing and economic construction, the production of various tools, and the invention of spinning and weaving. A completely new type of economic management began to take shape, and people began to depend less on the vagaries of nature. This led to an increase in the birth rate and the spread of human civilization to new territories. The production of more advanced tools became possible thanks to the development of gold, copper, silver, tin and lead around the 4th millennium BC. There was a social division of labor and specialization of individual tribes in production activities, depending on certain natural and climatic conditions.
We draw conclusions: at the very beginning, human evolution occurred at a very slow pace. It took several million years since the emergence of our earliest ancestors for man to reach the stage of his development at which he learned to create the first cave paintings.
But with the appearance of Homo sapiens on the planet, all of his abilities began to develop rapidly, and in a relatively short period of time, man became the dominant form of life on Earth. Today our civilization has already reached 7 billion people and continues to grow. At the same time, the mechanisms of natural selection and evolution are still at work, but these processes are slow and rarely amenable to direct observation. The emergence of Homo sapiens and the subsequent rapid development of human civilization led to the fact that nature gradually began to be used by people to satisfy their own needs. The impact of people on the biosphere of the planet has produced significant changes in it - the species composition of the organic world in the environment and the nature of the Earth as a whole has changed.