Derivative and non-derivative adjectives. About English with love

1. New words are constantly formed in the language on the basis of existing ones. All words of a language can be divided into derivatives and non-derivatives.
Non-derivative words are those that are not formed from any other cognate word existing in the language. The basis of such words is non-derivative.
Night, table, read.
For example, table□ is a non-derivative word, that is, in modern Russian there is no word from which this noun would be formed. The stem of the word stol- is also non-derivative (it includes only the root stol-).
2. A non-derivative stem usually includes only the root, although sometimes a non-derivative stem may include, in addition to the root, a suffix, or less often a prefix.
Brother□, night□, wall-a, window-o.
For example, the stem of the verb to read (chita-) includes the root chit- and the verbal suffix -a-. But given word not derived from any other cognate word. Therefore, the word and its stem are non-derivative.
Note!
1) When we talk about non-derivative or derived stems, only the stems of words are considered, that is, the stems initial form words. Formative suffixes and prefixes are not taken into account.
For example, the form read includes the formative suffix of the past tense -l, but in word formation we do not take this suffix into account. We determine the stem of a word by the infinitive read.
2) Most prefixless non-derivative verbs have stems that include, in addition to the root, special verbal suffixes (-a-, -e-, -i-, etc.). It is by these suffixes that we determine the conjugation of the verb.
Wed: write, run, lead, decide.
There are very few prefixless verbs without special verbal suffixes (when the root is directly related to the ending of the infinitive -т) in the Russian language.
To be, to be, to be, to be, to be.
In order to determine whether the final vowel of the verb stem is part of the root or is a suffix, you can put the word in the present tense form. Part of the root is preserved (although alternations may occur).
Compare: pi-th - pj-yu (alternations at the root pi-/пj-), we-th - moj-yu (alternations at the root we-/moj-).
The verb suffix of underived verbs in the present tense is often (but not always!) lost.
Wed: write - write, run - run.
3) Do not forget that the postfix -sya (to study, to wash) is not formative, therefore it is necessarily included in the word-formation base of the word (to teach and to learn are different words, not different shapes one word!).
3. Derived words are words that are formed from other words with the same root (or combinations of words).
For example: the adjective night is formed from the noun night; the noun reader is formed from the verb to read; The adjective broad-shouldered is formed from the adjective broad and the noun shoulder.
4. The word from which it is derived derivative word, is called producing (or motivating).
For example, the noun night is a generating (motivating) word for the adjective night, the verb to read is a generating word for the noun reader.
The group of a derived word and a generating word (derivative words) forms a word-forming pair.
For example: night → night; read → reader.
5. The base of a derived word is called a derived base, the base of a producing (motivating) word is called a producing (motivating) stem.
For example: noch□ (producing base noch-) → nochn-oh (derived base nochn-); read-th (producing base read-) → reader□ (derived base read-).
Compound words have two or more stems.
For example: seven years → seven-year-old; nose□, horn□ → nose-o-horn□.

Adjective(Adjective) – this is independent part speech that indicates a sign of a person, object or concept and answers the question “ Which?" IN English language they do not have the categories of gender and number, therefore they do not change their form. Adjectives are most often used with nouns and in sentences they act as a modifier or a nominal part of a compound predicate.

  • That good-looking lady is John’s wife.- That good looking Lady is John's wife.
  • Matt's dog was really naughty.– Matt's dog was really naughty.

Types of adjectives by education

Adjectives The English language according to its form is divided into simple, derivatives And complex.

Simple adjectives (simple adjectives) consist of a single root without suffixes or prefixes.

  • good - good
  • bad - bad
  • happy – cheerful, happy
  • sad - sad
  • My bag is old. I want to buy a new one.– My bag is old. I want to buy a new one.
  • You don’t have any right to decide what is good and what is bad for me.– You have no right to decide what is good and what is bad for me.

Derivative adjectives (derivative adjectives) consist of a root with the addition of certain suffixes and prefixes. These adjectives are formed from other parts of speech, mainly verbs.

  • use ful- useful, suitable
  • derivat ive– derivative
  • unexpect ed– unexpected
  • illogic al– illogical
  • scar ing- frightening, terrible
  • curi ous- curious
  • usel ess- useless
  • imposs ible– impossible
  • One unexpected accident has happened to me today.“An unexpected incident happened to me today.
  • I will prove to you that this is not impossible.– I will prove to you that it is possible (not impossible).

Compound adjectives (compound adjectives) formed by the fusion of two or more bases. Such adjectives are written with a hyphen.

  • well-known - well known
  • good-looking – good-looking
  • blue-eyed – blue-eyed
  • Russian-speaking - Russian-speaking
  • alcohol-free – non-alcoholic
  • three-day - three days
  • He drinks only alcohol-free beer.– He drinks only non-alcoholic beer.
  • Haruki Murakami is a well-known writer.– Haruki Murakami is a well-known writer.

Types of adjectives by meaning

According to the rules of the English language adjectives according to their meaning and functions they are divided into quality or descriptive adjectives, quantitative adjectives, possessive adjectives, index fingers And interrogative adjectives.

Qualitative adjectives

Quality or descriptive adjectives (descriptive adjectives or adjectives of quality) indicate a certain quality, characteristic of a living object, object, concept or action. This is the largest group of adjectives. For convenience, they are divided into quality And relative adjectives.

Qualitative adjectives express direct attributes of an object: condition, properties, color, shape, size, taste, weight. Qualitative adjectives form forms of degrees of comparison.

  • straight - straight
  • blue - blue
  • dangerous – dangerous
  • strong - strong
  • Kate's blue eyes can charm anyone.– Kate's blue eyes can charm anyone.
  • It's dangerous to touch a snake. It may be poisonous.– Touching a snake is dangerous. It may be poisonous.

Relative adjectives indicate the material, nationality, relationship to place, time, area of ​​knowledge, interpersonal connections, and more. Usually, relative adjectives do not form degrees of comparison.

  • religious - religious
  • French - French
  • monthly - monthly
  • short-term - short-term
  • Mr. Jefferson prefers French cuisine to American one.– Mr. Jefferson prefers French cuisine to American cuisine.
  • His monthly salary is not that high.– His monthly salary is not that high.

Quantitative adjectives

Quantitative adjectives(quantitative adjectives or numeral adjectives) indicate the number of objects or concepts, their approximate or exact number. They are divided into certain, uncertain And dividing quantitative adjectives.

Definite Quantitative Adjectives (definite numeral adjectives) indicate the exact number of objects and concepts, or their order. They fully correspond to numerals.

  • two - two
  • second - second
  • thirty five – thirty five
  • thirty fifth – thirty fifth
  • Claire has two sisters and three brothers.– Claire has two sisters and three brothers.
  • Usain Bolt runs really fast so he always finishes first .– Usain Bolt runs really fast, so he always finishes first.

Indefinite quantitative adjectives(indefinite numeral adjectives) indicate an indefinite or approximate number of objects without naming it.

  • all – everything, everything
  • no – not a single one, nothing
  • few / a few – a few, a little
  • certain - certain
  • some – a certain amount, a little
  • any - any
  • several – several, different
  • sundry – various, several
  • many - a lot
  • much - a lot
  • most – most
  • little / a little – little, a little
  • more - more
  • none (of) – none
  • too much - too much
  • too many - too much
  • a lot of - a lot
  • plenty of – a lot, completely, in abundance
  • Jack has no patience. Jack doesn't have any patience.
  • There is too much of sugar in this coffee.– There is too much sugar in this coffee.

Disjunctive quantitative adjectives(distributive numeral adjectives) – adjectives that indicate one object or concept from them total number. They are mainly used with nouns singular.

  • neither – none, not one (of two)
  • either – both, both (of two)
  • every – everyone, everyone, everyone
  • each – each, everyone (separately)
  • other - other, others
  • the other – the other (of two), second, last
  • another - another, one more
  • Where is my other sock?-Where is my other sock?
  • You are busy now so i will come to you another day.“You’re busy right now, so I’ll come see you another day.”
  • Neither delegate knows how to fill in this application form.– Neither of the (two) delegates knows how to fill out this application.

Many and much

Adjectives many And much have same value « a lot of" However many is only used with countable nouns, and much- with uncountables. They can be replaced by generic expressions a lot of(lots of)or plenty of(many, full, in abundance).

  • There are many ways to solve this problem.– There are many ways to solve this problem.
  • I have many cats at home.– I have a lot of cats at home.
  • I always put much sugar in my tea. I have a sweet tooth.– I always put a lot of sugar in my tea. I have a sweet tooth.
  • There wasn't much rain yesterday, so we could play rugby.– Yesterday the rain was light, so we were able to play rugby.
  • There are a lot of places you can visit in Paris.– There are many places to visit in Paris.
  • I like spaghetti with plenty of tomato sauce.- I like spaghetti with big amount tomato sauce.

Every and each

Every And each have the same meaning, so in most cases they replace each other. However, they also have differences in use.

Every used to indicate one item from a large number of other similar items. After every the plural form of the verb is never used. Every also used to indicate intervals of time or frequency of action. Every cannot be used alone.

  • Every student of this university has to hand in his paper until the end of this year.– Each of the students at this university must submit their work by the end of this year.
  • Every day I go to the gym.– Every day I go to the gym.
  • My mother calls me every ten minutes.- My mom calls me every ten minutes.

Each indicates one item from two items or from a small number of other items. Each can be used alone at the end of a sentence. It may be followed by a pronoun one(one) to avoid repetition. Each not used to indicate time intervals.

  • In this family each one takes turn throwing garbage.– In this family, everyone takes turns throwing out the trash.
  • These books are worth $100 each.– These books cost 100 dollars each.

Expression each of(each of) can indicate many objects, a singular verb should be used after it, but in colloquial speech Multiple forms are also allowed. Each of also used with pronouns you, us And them, followed by a singular verb.

  • Each of the students in this group have to hand in their papers until the end of this year.– Each of the students in this group must submit their work by the end of this year.
  • Each of them has to apply for this job.“Each of them should apply for this job.”

Few or a few. Little or a little

There is a difference between adjectives few / a few(somewhat, a little) and little / a little(little, a little).

Few And a few are used only with countable nouns. Few has the meaning " very little», « not enough».

  • We have only few eggs left. We should buy more.- We only have a few eggs left. We must buy more.
  • She had only few potatoes It wasn’t enough for a proper meal.“She had very few potatoes.” This was not enough for a full meal.

A few means " A little», « some», « few, But enough».

  • Don’t worry, we still have a few minutes.“Don’t worry, we still have a few minutes.”
  • I have a few cookies, i will give you some.– I have some cookies, I’ll give you a few.

Little And a little used for uncountable nouns . Little has the meaning " very little», « not enough».

  • There is little flour in this box. It's not enough for a cake.- There is not enough flour in this box. That's not enough for the pie.
  • He had little patience to complete this task.– He had little patience to complete this task.

A little means " A little», « some», « few, But enough».

  • I have a little coffee. I don't need more.– I have some coffee. I don't need more.
  • I need a little time to do it. Wait a bit.– I need a little time to do this. Wait please.

Demonstrative adjectives

Demonstrative adjectives(demonstrative adjectives) are demonstrative pronouns that are used not independently, but in pairs with a noun. In a sentence they are used as a modifier of nouns.

  • This dog is aggressive. It's better to keep away from it.– This dog is aggressive. It's better to stay away from her.
  • I like those flowers. Would you buy some for me?– I like those flowers. Will you buy some for me?

Possessive adjectives

Possessive adjectives (possessive adjectives) fully correspond to possessive pronouns. They are always used together with a noun.

  • My car is broken so I will take my mother’s one.- My car is broken, so I'll take my mom's car.
  • His dog broke his house.– His dog broke his house.

Interrogative adjectives

Interrogative adjectives(interrogative adjectives) correspond to question words which And what when they come immediately before nouns.

  • Which house on this street is yours?-Which house on this street is yours?
  • What music do you listen to?- What kind of music do you listen to?

Order of adjectives in a sentence

There is a special sequence in English adjectives in a sentence, which native speakers strictly adhere to.

Exist adjectives, which can only be used before a noun.

  • north, northern – northern
  • countless - countless, countless
  • south, southern – southern
  • occasional – random, rare, periodic
  • east, eastern – eastern
  • lone – lonely, withdrawn, unmarried
  • west, western – western
  • eventful - full of events
  • outdoor - outdoor
  • indoor – happening indoors
  • My aunt lives in the southern district.– My aunt lives in the southern region.
  • I prefer outdoor games.- I prefer games on open air.

Some adjectives are not placed before a noun. These include many common adjectives with the suffix -ed.

  • I think I'm ill.- I think I'm sick.
  • I'm really glad to meet you again.– I'm really glad to meet you again.
  • Our project isn't finished. We have to hurry up!– Our project is not finished. We must hurry.

Adjectives ending in suffixes -able, -ible can come before or after nouns.

  • I have booked the first available flight.
  • I have booked the first flight available.– I booked the first available flight.

Adjectives are always placed after indefinite pronouns and never before them.

  • Yesterday I met someone beautiful.– Yesterday I met a handsome man.
  • Anna is trying to cook something tasty.– Anna is trying to cook something tasty.

In most cases it is used no more than three adjectives together. An adjective that is more closely related in meaning to the noun it modifies is placed before it. Speaker Rating comes before other adjectives.

  • I need a red wooden pencil.- I need red wooden pencil.
  • Lauren bought a beautiful black silk dress.– Lauren bought beautiful black silk dress.

When adjectives more than three are used in a sentence, they are placed in in a certain order:

  1. 1. article, quantity – article, numeral, quantitative adjective (a, one ...)
  2. 2. value, opinion – assessment, opinion (fancy, beautiful, difficult, horrible ...)
  3. 3. size – size (little, large, enormous ...)
  4. 4. quality, temperature – quality, condition, characteristic, temperature (well-tailored, cold, hot ...)
  5. 5. age – age (new, old, young, ancient ...)
  6. 6. shape – shape (flat, square, round, rectangular ...)
  7. 7. color – color (green, blue, pink, gray ...)
  8. 8. origin – origin (American, European, lunar ...)
  9. 9. material – material (metal, wooden, paper ...)
  10. 10. purpose – purpose, purpose (often with -ing: sleeping bag, cutting machine, table cloth ...)
  11. 11. noun – noun
  • I've bought two beautiful middle-sized round red wax candles– I bought two beautiful medium-sized round red wax candles.
  • Ann doesn't want to throw away this big scratched old rectangular brown wooden chest of drawers. Ann doesn't want to throw away this big scratched old rectangular brown wooden chest of drawers.

In English, adjectives do not change by number, case or gender. You just need to remember the meanings of adjectives, and then you don’t have to worry about their endings. It’s completely different in Russian - you need to pay attention to endings, as they change depending on cases, number (singular and plural) and gender (feminine, masculine and neuter).

For clarity, I will write a few phrases and sentences.

Young OH person = YOUNG man;

Young EE people = YOUNG people;

Young AND I girl = YOUNG girl;

Young OE wine = YOUNG wine;

I see young WOW person. = I see YOUNG man.

I'm talking to young people YM human. = I am speaking to the YOUNG man.

I'm telling young WMD person = I am telling YOUNG man.

IN vocabulary There are a lot of adjectives in the English language and you can get stuck in their diversity, besides, adjectives have many synonyms. Most the right way– select the most frequently occurring adjectives, both in Russian and English, and. That is, to compile a minimum semantic dictionary.

According to their structure, adjectives are SIMPLE, DERIVATIVE and COMPOUND.

SIMPLE adjectives have neither suffixes nor prefixes. These are mostly one- and two-syllable words. For example:

red = red; black = black;

big = big; small = small;

narrow = narrow; broad= wide;

DERIVATIVES adjectives contain suffixes or prefixes.

The most characteristic suffixes of adjectives include:

– care FUL= careful, attentive, caring; care LESS= carefree, careless, inattentive;

– eat ABLE= edible; comfort ABLE= convenient;

- dirt Y= dirty; friend LY= friendly, friendly;

—sweet ISH= sweetish; bird LIKE= bird-like, avian;

-hol ED= holey; silk EN= silk; west ERN= western;

Pleas ANT= pleasant; differ ENT= different, different; legend ARY= legendary; contradiction ORY= contradictory, incompatible;

– Africa AN= African; Europ EAN= European; Scandinavian IAN= Scandinavian; hum ANE= humane, humane;

—origin AL= original, genuine; com IC= humorous; histor ICAL= historical;

– accur ATE= precise, neat, correct; compl ETE= complete, complete, finished; defin ITE= definite, clear, precise; resolve UTE= decisive, firm, unshakable; abjec T= low, pitiful, humiliated, despicable;

– Japan ESE= Japanese; grot ESQUE= grotesque; mor O.S.E.= gloomy, gloomy; nerv O.U.S.= nervous, excited;

—creat IVE= constructive, creative, creative; two FOLD= double, doubled; trouble SOME= troublesome, causing concern; in WARD internal, facing inward;

The most common adjective prefixes include.

PREFIXES with NEGATIVE meaning:

— IN complete = incomplete, unfinished; IL literate = illiterate; I.M. measureable = immeasurable; IR responsible = irresponsible;

– UN happy = unhappy, unlucky; UN grateful = ungrateful;

NON – NON-metallic = non-metallic; NON-elastic = inelastic;

– AB normal abnormal, abnormal; A nomalous = incorrect, anomalous, abnormal;

PREFIXES with DIFFERENT meanings:

ANTI (anti -; anti -;) - ANTI-war= anti-war; ANTI-aircraft = anti-aircraft;

INTER (inter-; inter-; inter-; re –;) — INTER national = international, international; INTER dependent = interdependent, depending on one another;

(over-; over-; over-; over –;) – OVER anxious = too worried, panicky, overly diligent;

UNDER (below-; under-;) - UNDER ground = underground, underground, secret;

POST (after-; by-;) – POST glacial = post-glacial; POST-war = post-war;

PRE (pre-; pre-;) – PRE historic= prehistoric; PRE-war = pre-war;

COMPOSITE adjectives consist of two independent words. Let's consider several options for forming compound adjectives.

1. Compound adjectives of the type: adjective (simple) + adjective (simple) and noun + adjective (simple).

For example:

red-hot = red-hot;

light-brown = light brown;

dark -green = dark green;

life-long = lifelong;

blood-red = blood red;

stone-deaf = completely deaf;

2. Compound adjectives with participles.

For example:

hand -made = hand-made;

silk-embroidered = embroidered with silk;

horse - breeding = horse breeding;

3. Compound adjectives of the type: adjective (simple) + derived adjective with the suffix “-ED”.

For example:

bare-footed = barefoot;

grey-haired = grey-haired;

broad-shouldered = broad-shouldered;

4. Compound adjectives with adverbs.

For example:

hard-working = hardworking, working hard;

well-educated = well educated;

short-sighted = myopic;

5. Compound adjectives with numerals.

For example:

one-eyed = one-eyed;

one-decked = single-decked;

two-sided = two-sided;

Non-derivative adjective stems

The high percentage of non-derivative stems of adjectives is due to the fact that our sample represents a class of pronominal adjectives, most of which have non-derivative stems ( my, our, which, any, every etc.), as well as a significant number of words of the category of qualitative adjectives, among which there are many simple words, non-derivative in their structure. For example: sour, great, many, other, big, own, warm, dry, empty, healthy, important, serious, heavy, his, alien, equal and many others.

V.V. Vinogradov notes that quality, grammatically denoted in the form of an adjective by a system of endings - y, -y, -y etc., is found in the properties of the object or action that are expressed by the basis of the adjective. Therefore, the number of non-derivative qualitative stems of adjectives in the Russian language is small.

Non-derivative bases are such from the point of view of the chronological section in which they existed. Diachronically, they are derivative and in most cases go back to the foundations of the common Slavic language fund. Here are some examples:

Sour– general slav., image. from kysati“sour” with pom. suf. – l-.

Huge bn- from the lost Russian language huge, prefix derivative to thunder. Originally ogrom - “space covered in thunder.”

Tart- general slav., image. with assistant suf. - yk- from terpeti. Original meaning - “the kind that makes (the teeth) go numb.”

Great- Common Slav., formed with pom. secondary suf. adjectives – IR- from vel– “big” (cf. other b. vel, veliy- "big").

Stranger– general slav., image. with assistant suf. - j- from tjudъ"people".

Rest– own Russian, image with assistant suf. - n- from the rest- “remaining from something”, still found in dialects.

The etymology of the above adjectives is given according to the short etymological dictionary of N.M. Shansky.

Our analysis of the sample indicates that, from the point of view of the diachronic approach, the vast majority of non-derivative stems of adjectives are suffixal derivatives from the stems of nouns and verbs, partly adjectives.

Derived adjective stems

The high percentage of derived adjective stems in the table is explained by the fact that our sample represents a large number of units of the category of relative adjectives, which are always genetically derived, as well as in the aggregate of categories possessive adjectives and qualitative participles.

From the point of view of word production of the considered adjective stems, two aspects are supposed to be distinguished: intercategorial word production (formation of adjectives from the stems of verbs, nouns, adverbs, numerals) and intracategorial (formation of adjectives from the stems of adjectives). The relationship between two aspects of word production—intercategorial and intracategorical word production—reveals quantitative and qualitative differences throughout the history of the Russian language. The quantitative difference lies in the fact that there is a significant predominance of intercategorical word production over intracategorical one (see table). The qualitative meanings of adjectives are most often derived from the relationship to the object and action, according to the meanings of those nominal or verb stems from which they are formed. As noted by V.V. Vinogradov, the qualitative meaning in derived adjectives is secondary. It follows from qualitative assessment objective relation or from a qualitative understanding of the action. For example, rally denotes attitude towards the rally: rally speaker. But this meaning is layered with another, qualitative-evaluative one: rally habits. The overwhelming majority of adjectives in our sample have either a noun or verb stem, complicated by suffixes. A small percentage are adjectives formed from adverbs and numerals.

The qualitative difference between intercategorial and intracategorical word production of adjectives is that with the help of intracategorical word production, word-forming formants communicate mainly modification meanings to the generating stems - diminutive, intensifying or weakening - in the system of adjectives.

According to our analysis, we have identified the following main ways of word formation of adjectives from the generating stems of nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and numerals.

1. A) The suffixal method of forming adjectives from adjectival words. Word-forming formants for expressing subjective-evaluative relations are suffixes:

-ovat:stooped;

-enk\-onk:small, old, cute, thin, pretty, white, round;

-eysh\-aysh:the greatest, the lowest, the highest, the most merciful, the most sincere, the further, the worst, the most faithful, the bitterest, the most wretched, the most worthy, the oldest;

B) Prefixal way of forming adjectives from adjectival words. Word formants are prefixes:

Not: immature, unwanted, unstable, small, incorrect, unprejudiced, dissatisfied, unpleasant, unsatisfactory;demon: useless, deserted, carefree, immortal, inhuman, fearless;

after: postwar;

semi:translucent;

pre: foolish, most pure, many, most holy, exalted, wise, most merciful;

above: supernatural;

behind: plaintive;

nai: best;

All: all-good, all-powerful, all-holy, all-merciful;

from: surplus;

through: supernatural;

2. A) The suffixal method of forming adjectives from the stems of nouns:

1) suffixes with a possessive meaning:

-s(s):Christovy, elephant, butovy, Spasov, ospodarevy, Kulikov, busurmanov, Olgordov, Edimantov, Eupatiev, Batyev, Velesov, Igorev, Olgov, tsarev, Busov, archangels, Israel;

-in (-yn)\-nin:horse, father, monkey, Kolyazin, goose, swan, Chudin, Gordyatin, Volzin, Mistishin, Vyshatin;

-th:fish, official, landowner, fisherman, god, prince;

2) suffixes with relative value(denote various relationships to objects):

-n:eternal, square, cozy, prosperous, day, sinful, throne, treasonable, good, godfather, mortal, evil, equestrian, glorious, military, bookish, wasteland;

-enn:unique, state, public, mysterious, primal, processional, disastrous;

-aln:social, brilliant, musical;

-he N:infectious;

-ichn: everyday;

-an\-yan (yann):rye, oatmeal, wool, glass, wood, leather, water;

-ov\-ev:food, fat, protein, fruit, regimental;

-sk\esk\chesk:Nazi, European, Hollywood, maritime, medical, children's, prophetic, human, male;

-ichesk:historical, bureaucratic, naturalistic;

-ast:busty;

-ist:assertive, resinous, rocky, impetuous;

-ovat:intricate, thievish;

-at:pregnant, thievish, winged, pinkish;

-liv:talented, happy, special, envious;

-av\-yav: bloody;

-To: dog-like;

B) Suffix-prefix way of forming adjectives from nouns:

at....n: coastal;

without….n: bottomless;

on….n: courtier, pious;

3. A) The suffixal method of forming adjectives from verb stems using suffixes that express different relationships of the attribute to the action:

-teln\-teln:vegetative, significant, lasting, lasting, punitive, touching, charming;

-n:criminal, understandable, paid, prominent, noticeable, formidable;

-liv\chiv:understanding, fussy, obsequious;

-ist:crispy;

-To:small, smooth, hot;

-l:tired, skilled, bright, petrified;

-s: trigger;

-em\-im:significant, visible, loud, intended, worshiped, perishable;

-uch\-yuch, -ush\ -yush:next, boiling, future, corresponding, attracting, volatile, cleansing;

-enn\yonn:elevated, shot through, prohibited;

-T:closed, killed, stretched, rolled, heated;

-wsh\-sh:preserved, soggy, damp, soggy;

B) Suffix-prefix way of forming adjectives from verb stems:

Not….to them:unscathed;

You...enn:bleached;

For...nn:sleepy;

4. Adjectives formed from numerals using suffixes:

-n:double;

-ichn:fivefold, fourfold;

-yak:twofold;

-OK:lonely;

5. Adjectives formed from adverbs using suffixes:

-shn (-eshn, -oshn): yesterday, present, present, there;

-n:early;

-ov:such;

-enne: interior;

The analysis shows that in intracategorical word formation, the prefix method of word formation is most common, since the prefix is ​​attached to the front of the whole motivating word and therefore is not able to change its grammatical inflectional characteristics contained at the end of the word.

In external categorical word production, suffixation is common. The suffix, being a neighbor of the inflection, is closely united with the system of inflections of the motivated word and forms a single word-forming device with it. Forming a word with the help of a certain suffix also means attributing it to a certain part of speech, regardless of the part of speech and the inflectional type of the motivating word. The suffix is ​​attached to the stem and at the same time carries out the grammatical design of the word formed with its help; the prefix is ​​attached to the word as a whole, without affecting its grammatical design. In the first case, the motivating base is equal to the base, in the second - to the word.

Compound stems

The complex derivatives of our card index are formed by two motivating bases. They make up a low percentage in the table, since the main methods of their formation are addition and addition with suffixation, characteristic of the word formation of nouns.

Complex derivatives of the adjective stems of our sample, formed addition and complex-suffix way of education , go back to phrases with a subordinating relation of words. For example: self-interested, poetic, hard-hearted, death-like, malicious, life-giving, monotonous, long-term, sincere, well-disposed, faithful,Great-Russian, only-begotten, trinitarian, pious, same-tribal, victorious, manifold, evil-doing, deadly, miraculous, evil-loving, varied, God-pleasing.

A small number of words are formed by fusion. During fusion, the supporting component is equal to the whole word, and the preceding component is equal to either the whole word unchangeable word, or the whole word form of the word being modified: multi-passionate, short-lived, fleeting.

In the above examples, the adjectives are motivated by more than one word and have a complex complex motivating base, consisting of several simple ones.

So, we can conclude that the word-formation structure of adjectives, both in synchrony and diachrony, is almost identical. The ratio between derived and non-derivative stems is ranked accordingly on average 60% to 40%, complex derived stems make up a low percentage. In the formation of derived stems, intercategorial word production dominates over intracategorical word production, while suffixation is the most productive way of word formation of adjectives.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST

    Vinogradov V.V. Russian language. (Grammatical doctrine of words). M.: Russian language, 2001. 720 p.

    Lopatin V.V. Russian word-formation morphemics. Problems and principles of description. M., 1977. 315 p.

    Shansky N.M., Ivanov V.V., Shanskaya T.V. Brief etymological dictionary Russian language. M.: Education, 1971. 542 p.

A.A. Kim

PRONOMINALIZATION OF NUMERAL NAMES

The systemic-structural approach in modern semasiology has approved the analysis of the meaning of a word as a unit of the lexical-semantic system of language.

Consideration of ordinal numbers as elements of the lexical-semantic paradigm allows us to discover patterns and prospects for varying their specific ordinal meanings, since words often have not any meanings, “but as if given by paradigmatic connections.”

The systematic organization of ordinal numbers determines general trends their semantic change and development according to the law of semantic analogy.

“A certain polysemic structure (a type or subtype of polysemy) usually manifests itself in a whole range of semantically similar units, striking in the proportionality of their relationships and the proportionality of the organization of the semantic structure.”

Regular polysemy in ordinal numerals is generated by semantic word-formation connections with cardinal numerals and/or semantic analogy.

“This process consists in a certain mutual influence of those compared by some semantic features words, is that words belonging to the same subject-semantic group often develop similar “secondary” meanings or generally modify their main meaning in the same direction.”

Lexico- semantic paradigm ordinal numbers - units of the lexical layer of language - are characterized by a number of features that can influence the nature of the meanings motivated by specific ordinal meanings.

The specificity of the systemic organization of ordinal numbers is determined by the peculiarities of the counting system that the numerals express.

“The counting system determines systemic organization the entire class of numerals in the form of an associative series, the structure of which is the same for both cardinal and ordinal numbers: the components of this series occupy strictly specific place V this series, and each of them differs from the previous and subsequent components by the same size: one,two three… etc.; first, second, third… etc. This is an indicator of the semantic correlation of numerals with each other and even the semantic dependence of numerals from each other, that is, each numeral predetermines by its semantics the presence in the language of a number of others: thus, existing in the language, the numeral seven thereby asserting that language has numerals one two,four,five six. The counting system is organized on the basis of gradational relations: the organization of the associative series is based on a steady increase in the numerical (quantitative) value from component to component (in the reverse order - a decrease).”

So, ordinal numbers form a microsystem (part of the lexical macrosystem) - a lexical-semantic paradigm with correlative meanings of components that “mutually presuppose each other.” Each ordinal number has a strict place in a system organized in the form of a gradational series (which distinguishes ordinal numbers from other relatives). To the peculiarities of the organization of the system of definite ordinal words, one should add the opposition of the ordinal number “first” to all other ordinal numbers taken together and to each individually as not the first. “The category of plurality exists in consciousness in opposition to the category of singularity,” wrote L.D. Chesnokova.

The development of indefinite ordinal values ​​is carried out as a result of the expansion of the corresponding definite ordinal value: a numeral in an indefinite ordinal value can correspond to any actually definite ordinal feature, including the one indicated in the motivating definite ordinal value. For example, the ordinal number hundredth in the meaning of “the last in a significant number of objects” can correspond to any really defined ordinal feature ( third, eighth etc., and also hundredth).

Formation of indefinite ordinal values ​​in numerals fourteenth, thirty third, ten thousandth etc. is determined by their paradigmatic connection at the level of basic meanings with numerals hundredth, thousandth, having a secondary indefinite ordinal value. The fact that ordinal numbers in main meanings belong to one lexical-semantic paradigm and the presence of indefinite ordinal meanings in a number of them makes it possible to form other ordinal numbers (starting with tenth) of the same meaning in the process of semantic analogy.

In the paradigmatic conditionality of indefinite-ordinal meanings of a number of numerals (the influence of the unification of ordinal numerals into one lexical-semantic paradigm at the level of basic meanings and the presence of indefinite-ordinal linguistic meanings in two of them), the effect of the factor of unfreedom of lexical-semantic transformations is revealed.

At the same time, the freedom of the appearance of these meanings is associated with the probabilistic nature of their occurrence. “There is no guarantee that a given word in its development will necessarily take one or another meaning or form or, conversely, will not appear in this meaning or form.

It is therefore necessary to distinguish between the possibility associated with the lack of freedom of lexical-semantic changes, and the realization of the possibility associated with the freedom of lexical-semantic transformations (compare with the concept of “potential word” by A.I. Smirnitsky and with the concept of empirical productivity measured the number of actually existing neoplasms, and system productivity, measured by the potential of neoplasms, the number of restrictions restraining neoplasms, etc., proposed by M. Dokulil).

“In Russian vocabulary there is certainly a development of pronominal meanings,” wrote V.V. Vinogradov. In particular, ordinal numbers are pronominalized. “...Pronominalization of other parts of speech,” states V.N. Migirin, “manifests itself in the loss of lexical meaning and in the acquisition of those semantic features that are characteristic of pronouns.” In this regard, it should be said about the features of pronominal semantics. Pronouns “have their own content, their own semantics. If we consider a specific lexical meaning to be such content in a word with a nominative function, then in pronominatives in its place appears what can be called special pronominal semantics,” notes E.N. Sidorenko. She identifies five types of the latter: question, indication, negation, uncertainty and generalization with emphasis, each of which corresponds to a place seme in the meanings of pronominatives. Thus, “when deciding on pronominalization, the main attention should be paid to whether the analyzed word has lost its nominativity and whether it has acquired one of the categorical meanings of the pronoun.”

In the seme organization of both linguistic and purely speech pronominal meanings of ordinal numbers, there is a combination of pronominal and definite ordinal components, therefore ordinal numbers in pronominal meanings can be called ordinal pronominants, which reflects the syncretic nature of their semantics.

The pronominal part of the meanings of ordinal pronominants can be represented by the bit seme of uncertainty (example 1), generalization with emphasis (example 2), indicating (example 3).

1. – There is not a single loser from our graduation; all of them are people. One is an engineer, the other is a doctor, third teacher, fourth, they say, is now a famous singer in St. Petersburg (Chekhov. Lights).

The meaning of the ordinal pronominant third in the above example - “someone called the third”, ordinal pronominant fourth- “someone called the fourth.”

2. [Vasilisa:] - All this is nonsense. Not him - another, not another - third(Bulgakov. The White Guard).

IN in this example ordinal number lexeme third the meaning “someone else, called the third” is manifested.

3. The artist must act on the masses indirectly and directly; first achieved by serving on stage, second– getting to know ordinary people (Chekhov. First Lover).

Pronominal ordinal meaning expressed by the sound complex of an ordinal number first in this example – “that which is mentioned first”, second- “that which is mentioned second.”

Pronominal-ordinal meanings with the bit seme of uncertainty include, as a system, according to BAS and MAS, the intraword semantic paradigm of the ordinal number third.

Third. 3. In the meaning of the pronoun. Someone, something from among several persons or objects when listing them. A similar interpretation of this meaning is given in the MAS. Third. 4. In the meaning of the pronoun. Someone, something from among several persons or objects when listing them. The presented lexicographical definitions of the pronominal meaning of the named numeral are incomplete, because do not contain an ordinal part. IN AND. Chuglov rightly notes that the dictionary definition of the pronominal value of a numeral third one should add: “called third in the series.”

Meanings similar to the pronominal ordinal meaning of a numeral third, with an individual definite ordinal seme as purely speech ones can be manifested by lexemes of any subsequent ordinal numbers due to their proximity to the numeral third according to basic, definite ordinal values. So, in the following example below, the sound complexes of ordinal numbers fourth, fifth, are used to express the meanings, respectively, of “some, called the fourth”, “some, called the fifth”.

1. One the juror told how he drowned, another told how one night... he poisoned his own child by mistakenly giving him zinc sulfate instead of soda... Third, not yet an old, sickly man, described his two suicide attempts... Fourth, a small, smartly dressed fat man, said the following... Fifth The juror sat down more comfortably and opened his mouth to begin his story, when the clock on the Spasskaya Tower was heard striking (Chekhov. Strong sensations).

Preceding numerals third in a definite ordinal series numerals first And second can also develop the meanings “indefinitely first” and “indefinitely second”, although, as a rule, the first and second positions in the pronominal series are occupied by the words one And another.

Problem hidden meanings has, in our opinion, three aspects of consideration: first of which is associated with establishing the reasons for the appearance of hidden semes in semantic structure derivative word, the second is pragmatic", "management"). Based on the presented ideas about the essence and functions scientific term... qualitatively, an array of cultural studies vocabularyRussianlanguage, including original and borrowed words, define, ...

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    • The morphologically unchangeable part of the word that carries the lexical meaning is the base, and it is depending on it that non-derivative and derived words are distinguished. Each basis is characterized in two ways: structurally and semantically.

    Differences

    The non-derivative stem is not semantically motivated, since it cannot be explained with the help of related words, and morphologically it is indivisible. In its structure it is equivalent. For example: forest-A; brave-th; kind-O; rivers-and so on.

    These bases are non-derivative. And derived words can be distinguished precisely by these characteristics: semantically motivated, explained by the selection of a related basis. Its structure is easily divided into two blocks of equal importance, that is, the base itself, which forms derivative words, and the word-forming affix. The examples will be the same: forest-Noah; brave-ost; kind-from-a;

    The first block is the base

    Non-derivative and derived words belong to the area of ​​word formation, where the central concept is the basis - basic or productive. From the basic one in form and meaning, that is, bilaterally, a derivative is derived, which is why it is considered motivating for the derivative basis. This means that the base of the derivative word is the base of the motivating one. For example, in the word forest-east- y basic foundation - forest, and here woodsman- is the basis of the adjective motivating. This is how non-derivative and derived words are distinguished.

    The first block of this word-formation structure is the stem forest, it is basic, as in any other derived word. It, in turn, can become non-derivative, because everything depends on the ability to be broken down into individual terms. For example, the word woodsman-ost. In all cases, everything is decided by the stage of production. That is, the first stage is a derivative word derived from the root morpheme, here the base is non-derivative, and all subsequent stages make the word derivative.

    Scheme

    Derivative and non-derivative in their word-formation structure can be represented by the following schemes:

    1. Basic basis (I) + (II) + inflection. Examples: proud-ost; speech-k-a; books-n-y.

    2. Derivative prefix (II) + basic stem (I) + inflection. Examples: on- always-Yes; great- vnu-To.

    3. Derivational prefix (II) + basic stem (I) + derivational suffix (II) + inflection. Examples: co- conversations-Nick; at- pestilence-sk-y.

    In this way, it is possible to formulate the basic patterns from the above diagrams. The derived and non-derivative basis of the word are quite easily distinguished.

    Basic Basics

    The first rule: a word is always formed from a basic basis that exists in the language, and word-forming affixes help in this process. In general, the basic basis is functional concept, since it can be the same for a number of words, because from one root we form several, and sometimes many others. For example, all sorts of adjectives come from a noun, which differ only in word-forming affixes: goals-A - goals-n-oh- goals-ast-y; eye - eye-n-oh- eye-ast-y and so on.

    All words have the property of derivative and non-derivative, the meaning of the word mainly depends on this. But all derivatives have a basic basis. If the base itself is segmented, then difficulties and even errors arise in determining word-forming affixes. For example: a noun like talent, comes from the adjective talented, and not vice versa, as always happens. Noun talent first had to form talent-liv-yy, and from here a new noun appeared with the help of the affix - awn. Otherwise it would have happened" talent-ost", somehow ugly.

    Affixes

    Second rule: all words in the same meaning of the basic stems are obtained using the same affix or the same type of affix. The principle of semantic inference operates here, serving as the foundation of motivational relations. basic words and their derivatives. Of course, the phenomenon that adds complexity to this principle is that in the Russian language, most of them are polysemic, and this is reflected in word formation.

    The semantic structure of a derivative and a polysemantic original word is quite often radically different from each other. A derived word usually has one, isolated meaning, which is what makes it different from the base word. Here the main role is played by the derivative and non-derivative basis of the word. Examples can be found everywhere. Let's take an adjective old. It has several meanings: a person, animal or object that has reached old age; something ancient, existing since ancient times; long-used, dilapidated, deteriorated by time; old; worthless, invalid; old, outdated, outdated and much, much more. The group of derivatives from this word is numerous and is associated with the first, original meaning of the basic stem: senile, old man, grow old, old man, old woman, old age, growing old and so on. From here derivatives appear that change the original meaning.

    Non-derivative words

    It is known that the boundary between classes that would represent an exact opposition, which words are derived and which are non-derivative, is not strict enough. Accentological analysis makes this distinction so that the category of non-derivatives includes words that do not have any semantic connection with any really existing word in the Russian language. A lot of them: luggage, author, alive, water, strong, take and so on. In addition, words with a monomorphic stem must be non-derivative - barking, running and so on. Also among the non-derivatives there will be words, so to speak, “simplified”.

    What “derived and non-derived words” means becomes clearer when the principle of adding morphemes becomes clearer. The connection may or may not be tight. How are two word forms combined into one word? Its main part is an independently existing word form. Recycling And oil refining, red And beautiful entrance And exit- a million examples. The last one is tightly connected, and the first one is loose.

    Working words

    One should never confuse a derivative and a producing word. What produces - works, directly from it a derivative appears, with its material backbone repeating the parental traits, but not completely, but in the same way that a son resembles both his mother and his father, or even his great-aunt: there the ending is truncated, and sometimes and the suffix disappears. Worker - work; trailer-trailer - trailer-it and so on. Now, the producing word here is unchanged, and the derivative is obtained with the help of affixes and is often not identical to the usual base of the word.

    This topic - “Derived and non-derivative words” - would be interesting, since word formation is very strongly connected with all manifestations of human existence. The teacher simply has freedom in the selection of examples, comparisons, illustrations.

    Analysis

    In the analysis, it is impossible to compare a derived word with words related to it, that is, close in meaning and sound, and this is done very often. It is very difficult to give an exhaustive answer to the question of which words are called non-derivatives. It is easier to operate with derivatives. This term in itself is too broad, since it covers a huge word-formation nest, where there are derivatives not only with the generating base that interests us, but also a lot of words that are not directly related to it, a lot of related formations.

    For example, adjective talkative. Here are related words: I'm talking, I'm talking, I'm talking, I'm talking, I'm talking. And here only one, the second, will be productive, it is from it that this adjective is directly formed. The last two are completely unnecessary; they do not contribute to the direction of analysis we have chosen, because the adjective talkative formed not from a verb, but from a noun talk, that is, from its substantive productive base, and the past tense (form) - from the infinitive, which included, among other things, suffixes as additional elements. From here you can observe what the derived and non-derivative basis of a word means in word formation.

    And yet - the definition

    Non-derivative words can be considered those that are not formed or derived from any other word of the same root existing in the language. Regarding derivative words, the opposite is true. These are formations from words that already exist in the language, using various models of word formation. It is motivated by the relationship between two words with the same root. The value of one of them is determined either through the value of the other ( crab - crab-ik, that is, small, but still a crab), or through identity in all components, excluding the grammatical meaning of the part of speech ( white - white-from-a, beg-a-t - running and so on).

    Name a series of words with a single root that are consistently motivated. The initial, initial link is an unmotivated word, then with each newly formed word, motivation grows. Both derived and non-derivative words are defined in this way. Examples: old - old - old - old - old - old - old - old. There are four degrees of motivation here, and all together they make up a word-forming nest in which there are many more chicks. The original word is like a mother bird, a kind of peak - it is unmotivated. From it come word-forming chains that have the same initial word.

    Morphemes

    First, you need to define each element of the structure. The part of the word where its lexical meaning is expressed is called the stem. Inflection is an ending that always indicates the relationship of this word to others. A root is a part of a word that is common to all related ones. Affixes (or formants) are morphemes that are attached to the root and serve to form new words.

    Modern Russian word formation occurs in different ways - both morphological and non-morphological. First of all, there is a pattern in the combination of morphemes in the process of word formation.

    Methods of word formation

    Morphological methods of word formation are quite numerous.

    1. Addition of basics, that is, the formation of complex and compound words (earth-quake, sky-vault, steam-stroke And rai-com, lik-bez, sber-bank).

    2. A rarely used affix-free method, it works only for nouns, where the consonant sound at the end and the stress change, but the stem remains unchanged.

    3. Affix - one of the most productive, when morphemes are attached to the root, creating both lexical and grammatical forms.

    4. Suffixal - a suffix is ​​added to the base.

    5. Prefixal - a prefix is ​​added.

    6. Suffix-prefix - both are added accordingly.

    7. Postfixal - an affix is ​​added after the ending.

    There are only three non-morphological ways of word formation: lexical-semantic (a word with a new meaning), lexical-syntactic ( former phrases type crazy) and morphological-syntactic, when words become other parts of speech. Having mastered these rules of word formation, a person will be able to answer which words are derivative and which words are never non-derivative.



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