Generative and derived word
Let us recall that the word from which the given derivative is directly formed is called a generating word. Representing the material backbone of the derivative, the generating word usually appears in its structure not completely, but to one degree or another truncated (without endings, and often without final suffixes). For example: worker —works(at); trailer — trailer(it); heiress — on the trail(ovate); gourmet — varnish(it's going on); madman — crazy(ny); Ukrainianism — Ukrainians(skiy); tough guy — crepe(cue) and so on. That part of the generating word that materially appears in the structure of the derivative is called the generating base ( work-, trailer-, on the trail- etc.). It does not coincide with the usual stem of the word (that part of it that remains after subtracting the inflection): worker-, trailer-, heirs-, gourmand-.
If, after separating the inflection from the word, a base that is non-derivative from a synchronic point of view remains, further word-formation analysis is impossible, for example: roads, lake.
If there is a derived stem in a word, subsequent analysis should follow a line of comparison (in order to identify the producing stem) with the word from which the first is derived.
It is also desirable to include in this series, if possible, other derivatives with the same generating base. This can be conveyed like this: Ba - B, BB, Bv, Bg etc., where B- a generating word (or stem), and lowercase letters indicate any word-forming elements.
It is impossible to compare the analyzed derivative simply with related words (close in sound and meaning), as is often done. This term is too broad; it covers a whole word-formation nest, which includes derivatives not only with the generating base that interests us, but also other related formations that are not directly related to it. For example, to the adjective talkative related words such as talk-it-xia (I'm talking), colloquial, we had a conversation. However, only the first can be recognized as producing, from which the adjective was directly formed talkative. The last two are not such; they seem superfluous and do not contribute to the chosen direction of analysis: adjective colloquial formed not from a verbal, but from a substantive productive stem talk, the form of the past tense is from the infinitive, which includes additional elements - suffixes -And-, -s.
No less often the word in question is compared with derivatives of the same root. This approach, to a certain extent, can be justified only when we are dealing with formations that are simple in structure, in which the root is also the producing basis. For example, to prove that nouns vase, wall, bun, martin do not belong to the same word-formation type, let’s select words with the same root. In nouns vase And bun This technique helps to identify the roots ( vase, bun), suffixes (- points-, -To-) and ending (- A), because here the roots are also the producing bases.
In a noun wall with this approach (root walls) the suffix may have been highlighted incorrectly - points(A), because in this case the root does not coincide with the generating base. To avoid mistakes here it becomes necessary to compare the derivative wall not just with cognate formations, but with a producing noun wall.
Focus on the selection of derivatives with the same root can push a person inexperienced in the intricacies of word formation to compare a noun martin with words like flipper, eraser, caress, not to mention the fact that people who are to some extent familiar with folk speech can point to truly cognate formations eraser,gusset and so on. They won't accept the noun martin as a non-derivative in the popular Russian language.
A special case is represented by derivatives whose producing words are not used in a free state, for example: roach, carpenter, raft; calve, calf, calves, heifer, heifer, calves, upskirt, calf etc. Naturally, when analyzing such derivatives, comparisons can be made not with generating words, but only with words directly formed from them, i.e. Ba, BB, Bv, Bg.
If only the generating stem is determined correctly, the residual element in the derivative should be the word- or form-building affix through which the analyzed derivative stem is created. However, the correctness of the identification of the productive basis can and should be supported by data from another series.
For word formation, it is important to find out from which word the given word is directly derived. It is often important to decide which of the two fundamentally producing, and which word is secondary. Therefore, it is necessary to establish the direction of production.
In scientific and educational literature there are several terms that mean generating and derivative base:
base and output word;
motivating and motivated words;
productive and derived base.
Derived base– this is the basis from which the given basis is directly formed. There are certain rules that help determine the direction of production. Derivative and generating bases are closest relatives, this is manifested in the fact that:
derivative base more difficult producing on semantics: red – blush(turn red);
derivative base more difficult producing formally: earth-ya – earth-yang-oh;
with the same formal complexity, a derivative is a word that is more complex in semantics: methodology – methodologist; student - student(it is traditionally accepted that feminine nouns are formed from masculine nouns);
Regardless of the formal complexity of word formation, the motivating word is the one whose meaning corresponds to the categorical meaning of the part of speech. This rule is especially relevant in relation to words formed using zero affixes: dry - sushi(the categorical meaning of a noun is an object or phenomenon, and the word dry denotes a sign);
words marked stylistically are derivative, they cannot be productive: intimate – intimate, neutral – neutral;
in words with connected by root It is impossible to unambiguously determine the direction of productivity: put on shoes - take off shoes;
There are words in the Russian language that are characterized by multiple production(have not one, but several motivating words): nice - nice, nice - nice; introduce - get acquainted, get acquainted - get acquainted.
40. Ways of word formation in Russian
In the languages of the world there are several ways of word formation. Among them the following stand out:
1) morphological(the most productive way of word formation in all Slavic languages): it consists of creating new words by combining morphemes according to the rules existing in the language. This method includes prefixal, suffixal, prefixal-suffixal, suffixless, addition;
2) lexical-semantic, which consists of creating a new word by splitting an old one into two or more homonym:“boxer” is a breed of dog and “boxer” is a boxing athlete;
3) morphological-syntactic: the formation of a new word by moving it from one part of speech to another: dining room, ice cream. At the same time, the word acquires new grammatical features;
4) lexico-syntactic, which consists in creating a new word by merging a combination of words into one lexical unit: evergreen, now evergreen, now.
Prefix method
When words are formed in this way, a prefix is added to the original word. The new word belongs to the same part of speech as the original ones. In this way, nouns are formed: move - exit, light - dawn; adjectives: big - small, tasty - tasteless, sonic - supersonic; pronouns: someone, someone, nobody; verbs: walk - come in, go out, approach, leave; adverbs: always - forever, through the day before yesterday, through, yesterday - the day before yesterday.
Suffix method
With the suffix method, a suffix is added to the base of the original word.
Words formed in this way can be either the same part of speech (forest - forester) or another (les - forest).
The suffix is attached not to the whole word, but to its base, and sometimes the base is modified: part of the base may be cut off, the sound composition may change, sounds alternate: cast - casting, weaver - weaver.
Prefix-suffixal
With this method, a prefix and a suffix are simultaneously attached to the original word: homestead, plantain, Moscow region, rider.
Most often, nouns are formed in this way: premise, window sill; verbs: sign, get carried away; adverbs: in spring, in Russian.
Suffixless
This method is that the ending is discarded from the word (black - mob) or the ending can be discarded and the suffix can be cut off at the same time: rest - rest, scold - scold.
Addition
Addition is the formation of a new word by combining two words or two or more stems into one verbal whole. Words formed as a result of addition are called complex.
Compound words are formed:
1) adding whole words: pay phone, boarding school;
2) laying down the basics: salary, head teacher;
3) addition using the connecting vowels O and E: pathfinder, steelmaker, agriculture;
4) adding the initial letters: RGU, ATS;
5) adding the initial sounds: tyuz, Moscow Art Theater.
41 . Historical changes in the morphemic structure of words
The morphemic composition of a word is not constant. In the process of language development, changes could occur in it.
For example, the word sheet was formed from an adjective simple, the suffix once stood out in it -yn’-(a). Thus, this word once consisted of three morphemes - a root, a suffix and an ending. Now, only two morphemes are distinguished in it - the root and the ending: sheet Consequently, the morphemic structure of the word has become simpler. And this phenomenon - the merging of two morphemes into one, i.e. reducing the number of morphemes in a word - is called simplification. Another example of simplification is the word sour cream.
But in language one can find examples of the exact opposite phenomenon. It's called complication morphemic structure of the word. As a result of complication, one morpheme begins to be divided into two. An example would be the words umbrella And flask. Both of these words are borrowed words, one from the Dutch language (zonnedek), other from Polish (flaszka), therefore, neither originally had a suffix. Later, these borrowings were perceived as diminutive and words were formed for them umbrella And flask.
Finally, the third type of change in the morphemic structure of a word is re-decomposition . The number of morphemes remains the same, but the boundary between morphemes changes: from one of the morphemes one or more sounds move to another morpheme. For example: in the Old Russian language there were the prefixes вън-, сь- and the corresponding prepositions вън, кън, сн. If the root of a word began with a consonant sound, the prefixes въ- and съ- were used, for example: въ-Бати, съ-Бати, but if the root began with a vowel sound, then a variant of the prefix ending in -n- , for example: vn-imati, sun-imati (cf. the colloquial verb imat ‘grab; take’). The use of prepositions before pronouns was distributed in the same way: to that, in that, with that, but to him, to him, to him, to him. Later consonant n went to the root. So, now we are identifying morphemes take off; in-him-a-t. Root him- By analogy with these words, it also appeared in those cognate verbs where it did not appear in this form in the Old Russian language: accept(Old Russian pri-im-a-ti); behind him(Old Russian for-im-a-ti). Similar origin and combination of prepositions with forms of pronouns in him, to him, with him, compare: I say hello to him, But happy with him.
42. Grammar as a science, there is a branch of linguistics that studies the grammatical structure of a language, the patterns of constructing correct meaningful speech segments in this language (word forms, syntagmas, sentences, texts). Grammar formulates these patterns in the form of general grammatical rules.
Morphology(Greek “morphe” - form, “logos” - science) is a section of grammar in which words are studied as parts of speech.
Morphology is closely related to spelling, so the study of morphology is associated with the study of spelling rules.
Spelling(Greek “ortho” - correct, “grapho” - I write) or spelling - a section of the science of language, which sets out a system of rules on the spelling of words and their significant parts, on continuous, separate and hyphenated spellings, on the use of capital letters and hyphens words
Spelling(Greek “ortho” - correct, “gram” - letter sign) - spelling in a word that corresponds to the spelling rule
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the sound side of language. It includes all the sound means of the language, that is, not only sounds and their combinations, but also stress and intonation.
Orthoepy is an area of phonetics that deals with the study of pronunciation norms.
Graphics is a set of signs used in a given writing system along with rules establishing correspondence between signs (graphemes) and sounds (phonemes)
Morphemics- a branch of linguistics in which the system of morphemes of a language and the morphemic structure of words and their forms are studied.
Word formation- a section of linguistics in which the formal semantic derivative of words in a language, means and methods of word formation are studied.
Syntax is a branch of the science of language that studies phrases and sentences. Its main sections are phrase syntax and sentence syntax.
Sentences are formed from words and phrases.
Collocation- unit of syntax. A phrase is a combination of two or more independent words related to each other in meaning and grammatically. A phrase consists of a main and a dependent word.
Offer- one of the basic units of language and the basic unit of syntax. A sentence is one or more words that contain message, question or encouragement(order, advice, request). The sentence is characterized by intonation and semantic completeness, i.e. represents a separate statement.
A sentence has a grammatical basis consisting of the main members (subject and predicate) or one of them.
43 . Grammatical meaning- meaning expressed by an inflectional morpheme (grammatical indicator).
The difference between lexical and grammatical meanings (each of these rules is not absolute and has counterexamples):
1. grammatical meanings are not universal, are less numerous, and form a closed, more clearly structured class.
2. grammatical meanings, in contrast to lexical ones, are expressed in a mandatory, “forced” order. For example, a Russian speaker cannot “evade” the expression of the category of number of a verb, an English speaker cannot “evade” the category of definiteness of a noun, etc. At the same time, for example, in Japanese the category of number is not grammatical, since it is expressed optional at the request of the speaker. The idea of mandatory grammatical meanings goes back to the works of F. Boas and R. O. Jacobson. According to the informal definition given by A. A. Zaliznyak, grammatical meanings are those meanings, “the expression of which is mandatory for all word forms of a given class of lexemes” (“Russian nominal inflection”, 1967)
3. Lexical and grammatical meanings differ in terms of the methods and means of their formal expression.
4. grammatical meanings may not have complete correspondence in the extralinguistic sphere (for example, the categories of number and tense usually correspond to reality in one way or another, while the feminine gender of a noun stool and masculine noun chair motivated only by their endings).
44-45. ways of expressing grammatical meanings. Methods of forming word forms.
Synthetic method. Expressing meanings in the word itself. This includes;
a) affixation (formation of word forms using endings, prefixes, formative suffixes). Table, table, table etc. Do - do, write - write and so on. Justify - justify, exchange - exchange and so on.;
b) internal inflection (alternation of sounds). Lock - lock, die - die, dial - dial and so on.;
c) emphasis. pour - pour, cut - cut and so on.;
d) suppletivism. Talk - say, catch - catch and so on. Person people. Good is better, much is more;
d) repetitions. Blue-blue, walked and walked, barely (see. repeat).
Analytical method. Expressing meanings outside of words. I write and I will write. Handsome is more beautiful.
Mixed (hybrid) method. In the book(preposition and case ending). I I'm reading(personal pronoun and verb ending to express the meaning of the 1st person).
46. Grammatical meanings – abstract, generalized intralingual meanings, which are formed on the basis of generalization of linguistic facts themselves, abstraction from them.
Grammatical form(GF) is a linguistic sign in which the GL finds its regular (standard) expression. Within the GF, the means of expressing GL can be various linguistic means (affixation, reduplication, supletivism, etc.).
On the one hand there is opposition, on the other there is homogeneity.
Members of the same group united by a common civil law(numbers) and differ in private values(meanings of singularity - plurality). Civil Code is a certain system of relations.
An integral feature of the Civil Code is opposition. No opposition - no category.
47. Part of speech(tracing paper from lat. pars orationis, other Greek μέρος τοῦ λόγου) is a category of words in a language, determined by morphological and syntactic features. In the languages of the world, first of all, the name (which can be further divided into a noun, adjective, etc., but this is not universal) and verb, in most languages it is also generally accepted to divide parts of speech into independent and auxiliary.
Principles of classifying words by parts of speech
Independent parts of speech
functional parts of speech,
interjections and
onomatopoeic words.
Independent parts of speech are a group of words with a common grammatical meaning (subject, attribute of an object, action, attribute of an action, number of objects). Functional parts of speech are a group of words that do not have their own meaning, since they do not name objects, signs, actions and cannot be asked a question.
48. The origin of language is an integral part of the problem of the origin of man and human society. There are many theories about the origin of language, which can be divided into two main groups: 1) biological, 2) social.
Biological theories explain the origin of language by the evolution of the human body - sensory organs, speech apparatus and brain. Biological theories primarily include the theory of onomatopoeia and interjection.
Proponents of the onomatopoeia hypothesis believe that words arose from a person’s unconscious or conscious desire to imitate the sounds of the world around him - the roar of animals, the cry of birds, the sound of the wind, etc.
The basis for such views was that all languages actually have onomatopoeic words, such as woof-woof, cuckoo, meow, shadow, ding, bam. But firstly, there are relatively few such words. Secondly, the words most needed by people and most commonly used do not show even a hint of imitation of any sounds: water, earth, sky, sun, grass, man, smart, walk, think, etc.
Thirdly, in order to imitate the sounds of the nature surrounding a person using combinations of sounds, you need to have very flexible speech, which presupposes its long-term previous development. It is hardly possible in our time to take the onomatopoeia hypothesis seriously.
The second influential hypothesis in its time - interjectional (reflexive), which was adhered to by scientists such as Humboldt, Jacob Grimm and others, is that the word is considered as an exponent of a person’s mental states. The first words, according to this theory, are involuntary cries, interjections, and reflexes. They emotionally expressed pain or joy, fear or despair.
Some supporters of the hypothesis under consideration assumed that words arose interjectionally only in the distant past, and later they developed according to the laws of word formation and independently of involuntary emotional cries.
the fact that man and human society arise, essentially different from the animal and its herd.
This is how social theories of the origin of language appeared, which explain its appearance by social needs. Arose in work and as a result of the development of consciousness.
Even in antiquity, the Greek philosopher Diodorus Siculus put forward the theory of the social contract, as a result of which language is viewed as a conscious invention and creation of people. In the 18th century it was supported by Adam Smith and Rousseau, in whom Rousseau's theory of the social contract is associated with the division of human life into two periods - natural and civilized.
At the end of the 70s of the 19th century. The German philosopher Noiret put forward a working theory of the origin of language, or the theory of labor cries. Noiret noted that when working together, shouts and exclamations facilitate and organize work activity. These cries, at first involuntary, gradually turned into symbols of labor processes. The theory of labor cries, in fact, turns out to be a variant of the interjection theory.
49 .Language- a sign system that correlates conceptual content and typical sound (spelling).
One of the main concepts of the theory of language contacts is the concept of bilingualism, as a result of which the study of bilingualism is often recognized even as the main task of contact research (the concept of multilingualism or multilingualism, which in principle is reduced to a set of bilingualisms, is not touched upon here). Bilingual persons are usually understood as speakers of a certain language A, who switch to language B when communicating with native speakers of the latter (more often than not, one of these languages turns out to be native to them, and the other is acquired).
Bilingualism(bilingualism) - the ability of certain groups of the population to communicate in two languages. People who speak two languages are called bilinguals, more than two are called polylinguals, and more than six are called polyglots. Since language is a function of social groupings, being bilingual means belonging to two different social groups at the same time.
Differentiation of languages(in linguistics) - the process of structural divergence of languages as a result of the gradual loss of common elements and the acquisition of specific features. Within a language family, it is modeled by a family tree diagram, the “root” of which is the proto-language, and the “branches” are related languages.
Language integration, reverse process differentiation of languages. At Language integration linguistic communities that previously used different languages (dialects) begin to use the same language, i.e., merge into one linguistic community. There are two possible ways Language integration: 1) complete loss of one language and transition to another, as happened with the Torks, Berendeys and other non-Slavic peoples who lived on the territory of Ancient Rus'; 2) the merging of languages into a new language that has features that distinguish it from any of the original languages. Thus, modern English is the result of the integration of ancient Germanic (Anglo-Saxon) dialects and the French language of the Norman conquerors. Process Language integration usually associated with the political, economic and cultural integration of the peoples concerned and involves ethnic mixing. Especially often Language integration occurs between closely related languages and dialects.
50. The evolution of a language is a quantitative and qualitative update of its structure. It happens continuously.
The causes of language evolution are traditionally divided into external and internal.
EXTERNAL:
- · This includes changes in the inventory and properties of objects in the objective world;
- · Development of science and technology
- · Culture and art
- · Change in the composition of the language community
- · In a word, everything that happens in reality and is reflected in language.
INTERNAL:
- · These include impulses that “arise in connection with the improvement trend that exists in the language system” (B.A. Serebryannikov).
A part of a word without an ending is called the basis of the word.
It consists of root and affixal morphemes. Except for flexion.
Of all the morphemes included in a word, only the root can coincide with the stem.
Depending on the ability of a word to be divided into morphemes, the following are distinguished:
Derivative (motivated) basis
Non-derivative (unmotivated)
The derivative stem consists of individual significant parts of the word, that is, roots and affixes.
Example: suburb, dog walker.
The non-derivative base is only a root, which cannot be further divided in any way.
That is, from here we see that the derived basis is divisible, and the non-derivative basis is not divisible.
The difference between a derivative and a non-derivative stem is:
The non-derivative base is indivisible into small parts, the derivative is divided into parts, each of which has its own meaning.
A derivative base can be transformed into a non-derivative one. Example: the word fable (not a distinct stem), but the suffix sn can be historically distinguished, resulting in the root ba. In the etymological word: bayat - to speak, from which comes the word - tale, bayu.
The meaning of the non-derivative basis is inherent in it itself. Example: a house - it is known that this is a certain building. The meaning of a derived stem is the sum of the meanings of its constituent morphemes.
For every derivative base there is producing the basis. That is, the base from which the derivative is formed. Example: house - from the word house. The house is the productive basis.
Not only stems, but also words can act as producing stems. Example: city - suburb - suburban. Railway - railway. Separate forms of the word, including prepositional cases: calf - from the word calf. Beyond the river is a district. Marry – marriage (infinitive). Phraseological phrases: knock off your feet - stunning.
Words are derivative and non-derivative.
Depending on whether a particular word has word-formation motivation, that is, whether it correlates with any generating basis, all words are divided into derivatives and non-derivatives. A non-derivative word is not motivated by anything. Derived word– a word whose stem is motivated by the form and meaning of the stem of another word. That is, it seems to refer us to the word from which it came. Among derivative words, two groups can be distinguished:
1 – words whose meanings are entirely composed of the meanings of the morphemes they contain. Example: house, table, leaf - there is a root + diminutive suffix, and thus the derived word means something small.
2 – words whose meanings are not just a simple sum of the morphemes they contain. Example: porter.
Grammatical meaning and formal indicator of grammatical meaning.
Unlike the lexical meaning of a word, which is specific, grammatical meaning words are abstract, it can be inherent in a whole range of words. It seems to be superimposed on top of the lexical meaning.
Grammatical meaning– this is a meaning that acts as an addition to the lexical meaning, which expresses various relationships (relationships to other words in a sentence, relationships to the person performing the actions, relationships to reality, relationships to time, etc.)
The grammatical meaning is expressed mainly by the form of the word, which is formed by various ways:
· Most often used in languages affixation, which is divided into 2 types:
Ø Agglutination– when lexical meaning is conveyed using affixes (suffixes, prefixes); not typical for the Russian language, common in Turkic languages, Finno-Ugric languages.
Various suffixes are added to the root, each of which has only one grammatical meaning, these suffixes are glued to the root one after another, agglutination is gluing, peculiarities: the boundaries between morphemes are very clear, there are no mergers or phonetic changes.
Ø Flictivity– resists agglutination – from the name itself it follows that the grammatical meaning is conveyed using inflections. The main difference between these concepts is that inflection, unlike a suffix, can take on several grammatical meanings at once (sisters - ending - am, meanings: plural, feminine, dative case). In addition, with conflict, a phenomenon such as fusion- gradual merging, disappearance of boundaries between morphemes (between the root and the ending, between the root and the suffix (the noun “man”, the adjective “peasant”, from the word “peasant”, but gradually the last sound of the base merged with the suffix). Flictivity is very widespread in Indo-European languages (Russian language).In addition, in Indo-European languages there is also internal inflection(alternation of vowels within the root), with the help of which various grammatical meanings are conveyed (rast - ros, lag - lozh, kas - kos). Of the modern Indo-European languages, internal inflection is widespread in German. Internal inflection is of utmost importance for the Simic languages, where it is the only way to form grammatical meaning (kitab - book, qutub - books: Arabic)
· In addition to affixation, there are other ways to convey grammatical meaning: using the so-called suprasegmental morphemes, which are also called morpheme-operations, which in their function are analogues of affixes. Such morphemes-operations include:
1. Accent, for example, in the Russian language, with the help of stress, aspectual oppositions are expressed in the verb (pour - pour, cut - cut), cases (hands - hands, legs - legs)
2. Meaningful alternation(torn - dud, naked - gol), where we see that differences in the quality of the last consonant of the stem are an indicator of the grammatical category of the word, a hard consonant is an adjective, a soft consonant is a noun
3. Suppletivism(person - people, child - children, good - better, various stems with the verb to be, to go)
4. Doublings (republication), can be complete (whole word) or partial (part of a word), both intensifying and weakening characteristics can be transmitted. Used to convey the meaning of the plural (Armenian gund - regiment, gund-gund - regiments). Partial reduplication (Javanese: disease - lelara, lara - sick)
· The above methods refer to the so-called synthetic methods. However, there are also analytical methods transmission of the grammatical meaning of a word, which manifest themselves in the separate expression of lexical and grammatical meaning. In these cases, special function words are used (Russian: to be - future tense, passive voice, subjunctive mood, degrees of comparison of adjectives, prepositions, postpositions (English), auxiliary verbs (to be, to have, to want, will – want (German).
The analytical method of expressing grammatical meaning also includes special word order. So, for example, in the Russian language, using a special word order, the meaning of approximateness is conveyed (it’s a 20-minute drive to there, 20 minutes to drive there, she’s 30 years old, she’s 30 years old). This method is especially productive in languages with a fixed word order (analytic languages).
· Also, as a special way of conveying the grammatical meaning of a word, it can be used intonation(question, exclamation, narration: He came. He came? He came!) Chinese
· In addition, there is also mixed method (hybrid) conveying the grammatical meaning of a word: when both analytical methods and syntactic methods are used simultaneously (Russian language - in the house: there is inflection, but a preposition is also used here; I carry: on the one hand, 1st person singular ending, on the other hand the pronoun I is added )
1. In a language, new words are constantly formed on the basis of existing ones. All words of a language can be divided into derivatives and non-derivatives.
Non-derivative words- these are those that are not formed from any other cognate word existing in the language. The basis of such words is non-derivative.
For example, table□ is a non-derivative word, that is, in modern Russian there is no word from which this noun would be formed. The stem of the word stol- is also non-derivative (it includes only the root stol-).
2. Non-derivative basis usually includes only the root, although sometimes a non-derived stem may include, in addition to the root, a suffix, or less often a prefix.
Brother□, night□, wall-a, window-o.
Note! 1) When we talk about non-derivative or derived stems, only the stems of words are considered, that is, the stems of the initial form of the word. Formative suffixes and prefixes are not taken into account.
For example, the form read includes the formative suffix of the past tense -l, but in word formation we do not take this suffix into account. We determine the stem of a word by the infinitive read.
2) Most prefixless non-derivative verbs have stems that include, in addition to the root, special verbal suffixes (-a-, -e-, -i-, etc.). It is by these suffixes that we determine the conjugation of the verb.
Wed: write, run, lead, decide.
There are very few prefixless verbs without special verbal suffixes (when the root is directly related to the ending of the infinitive -т) in the Russian language.
To be, to be, to be, to be, to be.
In order to determine whether the final vowel of the verb stem is part of the root or is a suffix, you can put the word in the present tense form. Part of the root is preserved (although alternations may occur).
Compare: pi-th - pj-yu (alternations at the root pi-/пj-), we-th - moj-yu (alternations at the root we-/moj-).
The verb suffix of underived verbs in the present tense is often (but not always!) lost.
Wed: write - write - run, run - run.
3) Do not forget that the postfix -sya (study, wash) is not formative, therefore it is necessarily included in the word-formation base of the word (teach and study are different words, and not different forms of the same word!).3. Derived words– these are words that are formed from other words of the same root (or combinations of words).
For example: the adjective night is formed from the noun night; the noun reader is formed from the verb to read; The adjective broad-shouldered is formed from the adjective broad and the noun shoulder.
4. The word from which the derivative word is formed is called producing(or motivating).
For example, the noun night is a generating (motivating) word for the adjective night, the verb to read is a generating word for the noun reader.
The group of a derived word and a generating word(s) forms word pair.For example: night → night; read → reader.5. The stem of the derived word is called derivative base, the basis of the producing (motivating) word is called productive (motivating) basis.
For example: noch□ (producing base noch-) → nochn-oh (derived base nochn-); read-th (producing base read-) → reader□ (derived base read-).
Compound words have two or more generating stems. For example: seven years → seven-year-n-y; nose□, horn□ → nose-o-hornFrom the point of view of their structure, stems, as parts of a word that contain its real, lexical meaning, are divided into non-derivative and derivative.
A non-derivative base is a whole that cannot be further fragmented from a structural point of view. The derivative stem acts as a unity, consisting from a structural point of view of individual significant parts - morphemes. One of the most important qualities that distinguishes a derived base from a non-derivative one is the dependence of the former on the corresponding non-derivative. Any derived stem necessarily presupposes the presence of a similar non-derivative, with which it is correlated from a semantic-grammatical point of view. If for some reason a non-derivative base disappears from the language or ceases to correlate with a given derivative, the latter loses its derivative, composite character and becomes a non-derivative base. For example, the basics youth, goat, sing, sad, member, step (adverb), etc. appear before us as derivatives, which, therefore, have the ability to be divided into significant parts, due to the fact that next to them there are non-derivatives similar to them: young (oh), goat (a), pe (t), sadness, member, step, etc.
The difference between derived and non-derivative stems also exists in the expression of one or another real, lexical meaning that makes up their content. The meaning of a non-derivative stem seems to be inherent in itself, while the meaning of a derived stem seems to grow from the meanings of its constituent morphemes.
Finally, a very large part of derived bases, as opposed to non-derivative ones, are characterized by such a designation of objects of reality when the latter are expressed in words through the establishment of one or another connection with other objects. The designation of objects of reality by such foundations seems to us to be motivated in a certain way. Being unable to answer the question of why certain facts of reality are called the words forest, water, sing, white, etc., and not any others, it is quite possible to explain the reason for the functioning of the words forest, underwater, sing to denote the corresponding facts of reality , whitewash, etc. Lesok - a small forest, underwater - located under water, sing - start singing, whitewash - make something or someone white, etc.
However, it would be incorrect to assume that every word with a derived base contains an indication of why a given object of reality is denoted by it and not by some other word. There are words, the derivative nature of the basis of which in modern language cannot be doubted, but this motivation in naming is still not there. The word knife, for example, definitely has a derivative stem, since next to it there is the word knife and part of the word knife - in both words it means the same thing. But at the same time, the word knife is the same absolutely conventional designation of a cutting tool as the word knife: there is no relationship that exists between words like leaf and sheet, etc., but the basis of the word knife still remains derivative. In the word ship, without a doubt, the stem is derivative, because the same word in the plural has the non-derivative base court and the sound complex court in the ship and court is unambiguous. And yet, in this case, the designation of the corresponding object of reality by different forms of this word (court - vessel) is absolutely the same - conditional and completely unmotivated.
Similar facts are most clearly observed in related bases, when a non-derivative base does not exist independently, in its pure form, and is distinguished only by comparing two or more derived bases.
Thus, a derivative basis differs from a non-derivative one in its special designation of the object of reality (through its relationship to others), which does not always and not in all words correspond to the morphological structure. However, for a very large number of words with a derived base, this property, unlike words with a non-derivative base, is still extremely characteristic.
Derivative and non-derivative bases are, as it were, opposed to each other. For a derived base it can be noted; 1) its division into individual morphemes; 2) its dependence as a divisible whole on the corresponding non-derivative (as a derivative it exists insofar as the corresponding non-derivative exists);
- the correspondence of its holistic meaning as the basis for the totality of meanings of its constituent parts; 4) designation of an object of reality in a whole series of words indirectly, through the establishment of a certain connection with others.
Taking into account these sharply opposing qualities characteristic of a derived stem, on the one hand, and a non-derivative one, on the other, and their relationship in each specific case is, as already mentioned, the main condition for the derivational analysis of a word.
More on the topic § 17. Derivative and non-derivative stems:
- Indo-European non-derivative and derived stems of non-neuter names using diphthongs o? and ai with a of varying quality.