Calendar- a table of days, numbers, months, seasons, years familiar to all of us - ancient invention humanity. It records the periodicity of natural phenomena based on the pattern of movement heavenly bodies: Sun, Moon, stars. The earth rushes on its own solar orbit, counting down years and centuries. It makes one revolution around its axis per day, and around the Sun per year. The astronomical, or solar, year lasts 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 46 seconds. Therefore, there is no whole number of days, which is where the difficulty arises in drawing up a calendar, which must keep the correct time count. Since the time of Adam and Eve, people have used the "cycle" of the Sun and Moon to keep time. The lunar calendar used by the Romans and Greeks was simple and convenient. From one rebirth of the Moon to the next, about 30 days pass, or more precisely, 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes. Therefore, by changes in the Moon it was possible to count days, and then months.
IN lunar calendar at first there were 10 months, the first of which were dedicated to the Roman gods and supreme rulers. For example, the month of March was named after the god Mars (Martius), the month of May is dedicated to the goddess Maia, July is named after the Roman emperor Julius Caesar, and August is named after the emperor Octavian Augustus. IN ancient world From the 3rd century before the birth of Christ, according to the flesh, a calendar was used, which was based on a four-year lunar-solar cycle, which gave a discrepancy with the value of the solar year by 4 days in 4 years. In Egypt, a solar calendar was compiled based on observations of Sirius and the Sun. The year in this calendar lasted 365 days, it had 12 months of 30 days, and at the end of the year another 5 days were added in honor of the “birth of the gods.”
In 46 BC, the Roman dictator Julius Caesar introduced an accurate solar calendar based on the Egyptian model - Julian. The value of the calendar year was taken solar year, which was slightly more than astronomical - 365 days 6 hours. January 1 was legalized as the beginning of the year.
In 26 BC. e. The Roman Emperor Augustus introduced the Alexandrian calendar, in which 1 more day was added every 4 years: instead of 365 days - 366 days a year, that is, 6 extra hours annually. Over 4 years, this amounted to a whole day, which was added every 4 years, and the year in which one day was added in February was called a leap year. Essentially this was a clarification of the same Julian calendar.
For the Orthodox Church, the calendar was the basis of the annual cycle of worship, and therefore it was very important to establish the simultaneity of holidays throughout the Church. The question of when to celebrate Easter was discussed at the First Ecumenical Council. Cathedral*, as one of the main ones. The Paschalia (rules for calculating the day of Easter) established at the Council, together with its basis - the Julian calendar - cannot be changed under pain of anathema - excommunication and rejection from the Church.
In 1582 the head Catholic Church was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII a new style calendar - Gregorian. The purpose of the reform was supposedly more precise definition Easter day so that the spring equinox returns to March 21st. The Council of Eastern Patriarchs in 1583 in Constantinople condemned the Gregorian calendar as violating the entire liturgical cycle and the canons of the Ecumenical Councils. It is important to note that in some years the Gregorian calendar violates one of the basic church rules for the date of celebration of Easter - it happens that the Catholic Easter falls earlier than the Jewish one, which is not allowed by the canons of the Church; Petrov’s fast also sometimes “disappears”. At the same time, such a great learned astronomer as Copernicus (being a Catholic monk) did not consider the Gregorian calendar more accurate than the Julian calendar and did not recognize it. The new style was introduced by the authority of the Pope in place of the Julian calendar, or the old style, and was gradually adopted in Catholic countries. By the way, modern astronomers also use the Julian calendar in their calculations.
In Rus', starting from the 10th century, New Year celebrated on March 1, when, according to biblical tradition, God created the world. 5 centuries later, in 1492, in accordance with church tradition, the beginning of the year in Russia was moved to September 1, and was celebrated this way for more than 200 years. The months were clean Slavic names, the origin of which was associated with natural phenomena. The years were counted from the creation of the world.
On December 19, 7208 (“from the creation of the world”) Peter I signed a decree on calendar reform. The calendar remained Julian, as before the reform, adopted by Russia from Byzantium along with baptism. A new beginning of the year was introduced - January 1 and the Christian chronology "from the Nativity of Christ." The tsar’s decree prescribed: “The day after December 31, 7208 from the creation of the world (the Orthodox Church considers the date of the creation of the world to be September 1, 5508 BC) should be considered January 1, 1700 from the Nativity of Christ. The decree also ordered that this event be celebrated with particular solemnity: “And as a sign of that good undertaking and the new century, in joy, congratulate each other on the New Year... Along noble and thoroughfares, at the gates and houses, make some decorations from trees and pine branches , spruce and juniper trees... to fire small cannons and rifles, fire rockets, as many as anyone can, and light fires.” The counting of years from the birth of Christ is accepted by most countries of the world. With the spread of godlessness among the intelligentsia and historians, they began to avoid mentioning the name of Christ and replace the counting of centuries from His Nativity with the so-called “our era.”
After the great October socialist revolution, the so-called new style (Gregorian) was introduced in our country on February 14, 1918.
Gregorian calendar excluded three leap years within each 400th anniversary. Over time, the difference between the Gregorian and Julian calendar increases. The initial value of 10 days in the 16th century subsequently increases: in the 18th century - 11 days, in the 19th century - 12 days, in the 20th and XXI centuries- 13 days, in XXII - 14 days.
The Russian Orthodox Church, following the Ecumenical Councils, uses the Julian calendar - unlike Catholics, who use the Gregorian.
At the same time, the introduction of the Gregorian calendar civil authority led to some difficulties for Orthodox Christians. The New Year that celebrates everything civil society, found himself moved to the Nativity Fast, when it is not appropriate to have fun. In addition, according to church calendar January 1 (December 19, old style) commemorates the holy martyr Boniface, who patronizes people who want to get rid of alcohol abuse - and our entire huge country celebrates this day with glasses in hand. Orthodox people celebrate the New Year “in the old way,” on January 14.
The converter converts dates to the Gregorian and Julian calendars and calculates the Julian date; for the Julian calendar, the Latin and Roman versions are displayed.
Notes
- Gregorian calendar(“new style”) introduced in 1582 AD. e. Pope Gregory XIII, so that the day spring equinox corresponded on a certain day(21 March). More early dates converted using standard rules for Gregorian leap years. Conversion up to 2400g is possible.
- Julian calendar (« old style") introduced in 46 BC. e. Julius Caesar and totaled 365 days; Every third year was a leap year. This error was corrected by Emperor Augustus: from 8 BC. e. and until 8 AD e. additional days Leap years were skipped. Earlier dates are converted using standard rules for Julian leap years.
- Roman version The Julian calendar was introduced around 750 BC. e. Due to the fact that the number of days in the Roman calendar year changed, dates before 8 AD. e. are not accurate and are presented for demonstration purposes. The chronology was carried out from the founding of Rome ( ab Urbe condita) - 753/754 BC e. Dates before 753 BC e. not calculated.
- Month names Roman calendar are agreed modifiers (adjectives) with a noun mensis'month':
- Days of the month determined by the phases of the moon. In different months, the Kalends, Nonas and Ides fell on different dates:
The first days of the month are determined by counting the days from the upcoming Nons, after the Nons - from the Ides, after the Ides - from the upcoming Kalends. The preposition is used ante‘before’ c accusative case(accusatīvus):
a. d. XI Kal. Sept. (short form);
ante diem undecĭmum Kalendas Septembres (full form).
The ordinal number agrees with the form diem, that is, put in the accusative case singular male(accusatīvus singulāris masculīnum). Thus, the numerals take following forms:
tertium decimum |
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quartum decimum |
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quintum decimum |
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septimum decimum |
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If a day falls on the Kalends, Nones or Ides, then the name of this day (Kalendae, Nonae, Idūs) and the name of the month are placed in instrumental case plural female(ablatīvus plurālis feminīnum), for example:
The day immediately preceding the Kalends, Nones or Idams is designated by the word pridie(‘the day before’) with the feminine accusative plural (accusatīvus plurālis feminīnum):
Thus, month adjectives can take the following forms:
Form acc. pl. f |
Form abl. pl. f |
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- Julian date is the number of days that have passed since noon on January 1, 4713 BC. e. This date is arbitrary and was chosen only for coordination various systems chronology.
The Russian Orthodox Church uses in liturgical life Julian calendar(the so-called old style), developed by a group of Alexandrian astronomers led by the famous scientist Sosigenes and introduced by Julius Caesar in 45 BC. e.
After the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in Russia on January 24, 1918, the All-Russian Local Council decided that “during 1918, the Church in its daily life will be guided by the old style.”
On March 15, 1918, at a meeting of the Department on worship, preaching and church, the following decision was made: “In view of the importance of the issue of calendar reform and the impossibility, from the church-canonical point of view, of a quick independent decision his Russian Church, without prior communication on this issue with representatives of all autocephalous Churches, to leave in the Russian Orthodox Church the Julian calendar in its entirety.” In 1948, at the Moscow Conference of Orthodox Churches, it was established that Easter, like all movable church holidays, should be calculated according to the Alexandrian Paschal (Julian calendar), and non-movable ones - according to the calendar adopted in the local church. According to the Gregorian calendar, Easter is celebrated only by the Finnish Orthodox Church.
Currently, the Julian calendar is used only by some local authorities. orthodox churches: Jerusalem, Russian, Georgian and Serbian. It is also adhered to by some monasteries and parishes in Europe and the USA, the monasteries of Athos and a number of monophysic churches. However, all Orthodox churches that have adopted the Gregorian calendar, except for the Finnish one, still calculate the day of Easter celebration and holidays, the dates of which depend on the date of Easter, according to the Alexandrian Paschal and the Julian calendar.
To calculate rolling dates church holidays The calculation is based on the date of Easter, determined according to the lunar calendar.
The accuracy of the Julian calendar is low: every 128 years it accumulates an extra day. Because of this, for example, Christmas, which initially almost coincided with the winter solstice, is gradually shifting towards spring. For this reason, in 1582, in Catholic countries, the Julian calendar was replaced by a more accurate one by a decree of Pope Gregory XIII. Protestant countries abandoned the Julian calendar gradually.
The difference between the Julian and Gregorian calendars is constantly increasing due to different rules for determining leap years: in the 14th century it was 8 days, in the 20th and 21st centuries - 13, and in the 22nd century the gap will be 14 days. Due to the increasing change in the difference between the Julian and Gregorian calendars, Orthodox churches using the Julian calendar, starting from 2101, will celebrate the Nativity of Christ not on January 7 according to the civil (Gregorian) calendar, as in the 20th–21st centuries, but on January 8, but , for example, since 9001 - already March 1 (new style), although in their liturgical calendar this day will still be marked as December 25 (old style).
For the above reason, one should not mix the recalculation of real historical dates Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar style with recalculation to the new style of dates of the Julian church calendar, in which all celebration days are fixed as Julian (that is, without taking into account which Gregorian date corresponded to a specific holiday or memorial day). Therefore, to determine the date, for example, of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary according to the new style in the 21st century, it is necessary to add 13 to 8 (the Nativity of the Virgin Mary is celebrated according to the Julian calendar on September 8), and in the XXII century it is already 14 days. The translation to the new style of civil dates is carried out taking into account the century of a particular date. So, for example, the events of the Battle of Poltava took place on June 27, 1709, which according to the new (Gregorian) style corresponds to July 8 (the difference between the Julian and Gregorian styles in the 18th century was 11 days), and, for example, the date of the Battle of Borodino is August 26, 1812 year, and according to the new style it is September 7, since the difference between the Julian and Gregorian styles in the 19th century is already 12 days. Therefore, civilians historical events will always be celebrated according to the Gregorian calendar at the time of year in which they occurred according to the Julian calendar ( Battle of Poltava- in June, battle of Borodino- in August, the birthday of M.V. Lomonosov - in November, etc.), and the dates of church holidays are shifted forward due to their strict link to the Julian calendar, which quite intensively (on a historical scale) accumulates calculation errors (after several thousand years Christmas will no longer be a winter holiday, but a summer holiday).
To quickly and conveniently transfer dates between different calendars, it is advisable to use
- number system large gaps time, based on frequency visible movements celestial bodies.
The most common solar calendar is based on the solar (tropical) year - the period of time between two successive passages of the center of the Sun through the vernal equinox.
A tropical year has approximately 365.2422 average solar days.
The solar calendar includes the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar and some others.
The modern calendar is called the Gregorian (new style), which was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582 and replaced the Julian calendar (old style), which had been in use since the 45th century BC.
The Gregorian calendar is a further refinement of the Julian calendar.
In the Julian calendar, proposed by Julius Caesar, the average length of a year in an interval of four years was 365.25 days, which is 11 minutes 14 seconds longer than the tropical year. Over time, the onset seasonal phenomena According to the Julian calendar, they fell on earlier and earlier dates. Particularly strong discontent was caused by the constant shift in the date of Easter, associated with the spring equinox. In 325, the Council of Nicaea decreed a single date for Easter for all christian church.
© Public Domain
© Public Domain
In subsequent centuries, many proposals were made to improve the calendar. The proposals of the Neapolitan astronomer and physician Aloysius Lilius (Luigi Lilio Giraldi) and the Bavarian Jesuit Christopher Clavius were approved by Pope Gregory XIII. He issued a bull (message) on February 24, 1582 introducing two important additions to the Julian calendar: 10 days were removed from the 1582 calendar - October 4 was immediately followed by October 15. This measure made it possible to preserve March 21 as the date of the vernal equinox. In addition, three out of every four century years were to be considered ordinary years and only those divisible by 400 were to be considered leap years.
1582 was the first year of the Gregorian calendar, called the new style.
Gregorian calendar different countries ah was introduced at various times. The first countries to switch to the new style in 1582 were Italy, Spain, Portugal, Poland, France, Holland and Luxembourg. Then in the 1580s it was introduced in Austria, Switzerland, and Hungary. In the 18th century, the Gregorian calendar began to be used in Germany, Norway, Denmark, Great Britain, Sweden and Finland, and in the 19th century - in Japan. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Gregorian calendar was introduced in China, Bulgaria, Serbia, Romania, Greece, Turkey and Egypt.
In Rus', along with the adoption of Christianity (10th century), the Julian calendar was established. Because the new religion was borrowed from Byzantium, the years were counted according to the Constantinople era “from the creation of the world” (5508 BC). By decree of Peter I in 1700, it was introduced in Russia European chronology- "from the Nativity of Christ."
December 19, 7208 from the creation of the world, when the reformation decree was issued, in Europe corresponded to December 29, 1699 from the Nativity of Christ according to the Gregorian calendar.
At the same time, the Julian calendar was preserved in Russia. The Gregorian calendar was introduced after October revolution 1917 - from February 14, 1918. The Russian Orthodox Church, preserving traditions, lives according to the Julian calendar.
The difference between the old and new styles is 11 days for the 18th century, 12 days for the 19th century, 13 days for the 20th and 21st centuries, 14 days for the 22nd century.
Although the Gregorian calendar is quite consistent with natural phenomena, it is also not completely accurate. The length of the year in the Gregorian calendar is 26 seconds longer than the tropical year and accumulates an error of 0.0003 days per year, which is three days per 10 thousand years. The Gregorian calendar also does not take into account the slowing rotation of the Earth, which lengthens the day by 0.6 seconds per 100 years.
The modern structure of the Gregorian calendar also does not fully meet the needs public life. Chief among its shortcomings is the variability of the number of days and weeks in months, quarters and half-years.
There are four main problems with the Gregorian calendar:
— Theoretically, the civil (calendar) year should have the same length as the astronomical (tropical) year. However, this is not possible because tropical year does not contain an integer number of days. Because of the need to add an extra day to the year from time to time, there are two types of years - ordinary and leap years. Since the year can begin on any day of the week, this gives seven types of ordinary years and seven types of leap years—for a total of 14 types of years. To fully reproduce them you need to wait 28 years.
— The length of the months varies: they can contain from 28 to 31 days, and this unevenness leads to certain difficulties in economic calculations and statistics.|
- Neither ordinary nor leap years do not contain an integer number of weeks. Half-years, quarters and months also do not contain the whole and equal amount weeks
— From week to week, from month to month and from year to year, the correspondence of dates and days of the week changes, so it is difficult to establish the moments of various events.
In 1954 and 1956, drafts of a new calendar were discussed at sessions of the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), but final decision the issue was postponed.
In Russia State Duma was proposing to return the country to the Julian calendar from January 1, 2008. Deputies Viktor Alksnis, Sergei Baburin, Irina Savelyeva and Alexander Fomenko proposed to establish transition period from December 31, 2007, when for 13 days chronology will be carried out simultaneously according to the Julian and Gregorian calendars. In April 2008, the bill was rejected by a majority vote.
The material was prepared based on information from RIA Novosti and open sources
A calendar is a number system for large periods of time, based on the periodicity of the visible movements of celestial bodies. The most common is the solar calendar, which is based on the solar (tropical) year - the period of time between two successive passages of the center of the Sun through the vernal equinox. It is approximately 365.2422 days.
History of development solar calendar- this is the establishment of alternation calendar years of different durations(365 and 366 days).
In the Julian calendar, proposed by Julius Caesar, three years in a row contained 365 days, and the fourth (leap year) - 366 days. All years were leap years serial numbers which were divisible by four.
In the Julian calendar, the average length of a year in an interval of four years was 365.25 days, which is 11 minutes 14 seconds longer than the tropical year. Over time, the onset of seasonal phenomena occurred on increasingly earlier dates. Particularly strong discontent was caused by the constant shift in the date of Easter, associated with the spring equinox. In 325 AD, the Council of Nicaea decreed a single date for Easter for the entire Christian church.
In subsequent centuries, many proposals were made to improve the calendar. The proposals of the Neapolitan astronomer and physician Aloysius Lilius (Luigi Lilio Giraldi) and the Bavarian Jesuit Christopher Clavius were approved by Pope Gregory XIII. On February 24, 1582, he issued a bull (message) introducing two important additions to the Julian calendar: 10 days were removed from the 1582 calendar - October 4 was immediately followed by October 15. This measure made it possible to preserve March 21 as the date of the vernal equinox. In addition, three out of every four century years were to be considered ordinary years and only those divisible by 400 were to be considered leap years.
1582 was the first year of the Gregorian calendar, called the "new style".
The difference between the old and new styles is 11 days for the 18th century, 12 days for the 19th century, 13 days for the 20th and 21st centuries, 14 days for the 22nd century.
Russia switched to the Gregorian calendar in accordance with the Decree of the Council people's commissars RSFSR dated January 26, 1918 "On the introduction of the Western European calendar." Since by the time the document was adopted the difference between the Julian and Gregorian calendars was 13 days, it was decided to count the day after January 31, 1918, not as the first, but as February 14.
The decree prescribed that until July 1, 1918, after the number in the new (Gregorian) style, the number in the old (Julian) style should be indicated in brackets. Subsequently, this practice was preserved, but they began to place the date in brackets according to the new style.
February 14, 1918 became the first day in the history of Russia that officially passed according to the “new style”. By the middle of the 20th century Gregorian calendar used by almost all countries of the world.
The Russian Orthodox Church, preserving traditions, continues to follow the Julian calendar, while in the 20th century some local Orthodox churches switched to the so-called. New Julian calendar. Currently, besides the Russian, only three Orthodox churches - Georgian, Serbian and Jerusalem - continue to fully adhere to the Julian calendar.
Although the Gregorian calendar is quite consistent with natural phenomena, it is also not completely accurate. The length of its year is 0.003 days (26 seconds) longer than the tropical year. An error of one day accumulates over approximately 3300 years.
The Gregorian calendar also, as a result of which the length of the day on the planet grows by 1.8 milliseconds every century.
The modern structure of the calendar does not fully meet the needs of social life. There are four main problems with the Gregorian calendar:
— Theoretically, the civil (calendar) year should have the same length as the astronomical (tropical) year. However, this is impossible, since the tropical year does not contain an integer number of days. Because of the need to add an extra day to the year from time to time, there are two types of years - ordinary and leap years. Since the year can begin on any day of the week, this gives seven types of ordinary years and seven types of leap years—for a total of 14 types of years. To fully reproduce them you need to wait 28 years.
— The length of the months varies: they can contain from 28 to 31 days, and this unevenness leads to certain difficulties in economic calculations and statistics.
— Neither ordinary nor leap years contain an integer number of weeks. Semi-years, quarters and months also do not contain a whole and equal number of weeks.
— From week to week, from month to month and from year to year, the correspondence of dates and days of the week changes, so it is difficult to establish the moments of various events.
The issue of improving the calendar has been raised repeatedly and for quite some time. In the 20th century it was raised to international level. In 1923, the International Committee for Calendar Reform was created in Geneva at the League of Nations. During its existence, this committee reviewed and published several hundred projects received from different countries. In 1954 and 1956, drafts for a new calendar were discussed at sessions of the UN Economic and Social Council, but the final decision was postponed.
New calendar can be introduced only after it is approved by all countries under a generally binding international agreement, which has not yet been reached.
In Russia, in 2007, a bill was introduced into the State Duma proposing to return the country to the Julian calendar from January 1, 2008. It proposed establishing a transition period from December 31, 2007, when, for 13 days, chronology would be carried out simultaneously according to the Julian and Gregorian calendars. In April 2008, the bill.
In the summer of 2017, the State Duma again discussed Russia’s transition to the Julian calendar instead of the Gregorian calendar. It is currently under review.
The material was prepared based on information from RIA Novosti and open sources