Active dictionary. Part vocabulary language, most actively used in speech.
Antonymy. Relationships between semantically opposite but correlated units (semes), formally expressed by different lexemes.
Antonyms. Words of the same part of speech that have opposite meanings.
Anthroponym. A person's proper name (personal name, patronymic, surname, nickname, pseudonym).
Anthroponymy. A branch of onomastics that studies anthroponyms.
Argo. The language of individual social groups (professional, youth, criminal).
Argotisms. Vocabulary that is socially limited in use: words or expressions from slang.
Archaisms. Part passive dictionary: outdated vocabulary, crowded out of active use by synonyms.
Archisema. Generic, main seme (in component analysis).
Aphorism. A stable saying (catchwords, proverbs, sayings).
Non-equivalent vocabulary. Words that name realities that are absent in other cultures; vocabulary that cannot be translated into another language; the same as exoticisms.
Valence of the word. The ability of a word to combine with other words.
Barbarism. Unmastered lexical borrowing (word or expression).
Word options. Formal (phonetic and grammatical variants) or semantic (lexico-semantic variants) varieties of the same word.
Variants of phraseological units. Phraseologisms with a variable composition of components.
Internal form of a word. A method of motivating the meaning of a word: a motivated connection between sound and meaning (etymology, etymologization).
East Slavic vocabulary. Original vocabulary common to East Slavic languages (Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian).
Hypernym. A generic word in relation to a specific word.
Hyponymy. Paradigmatic semantic relations of inclusion (genus and species, hyper-hyponymic) between sememes, formally expressed by different lexemes.
Hyponyms. Words that are in hyper-hyponymous (generic) relationships.
The grammatical form of the word. Formal (in the form of word forms) expression of a word and its grammatical meanings.
Grammatical variants of the word. Formal grammatical modifications of a word (inflectional, morphological or formative).
Grammatical meaning. Component of the semantics of a word: a generalized meaning, additional to the lexical one, expressing various relationships (to person, number, aspect, tense, etc.), formally expressed by word form (grammatical form of the word); semantic differences between word forms.
Deixis. Demonstrative (deictic) function of a word.
Deictic vocabulary. Words that perform a demonstrative function (deixis).
Denotation. An object of reality designated by a word.
Denotative meaning. Component of lexical meaning: the attribution of a word to the designated object (denotation) as a class.
Derivatives. Derived words (or meanings); words (or meanings) that are in a relationship of word formation or semantic derivation.
Derivation. The relation of formal or semantic derivation of words; formation of new words and meanings.
Definition. Definition of the word, dictionary interpretation.
De-etymologization. Loss of a motivated connection between sound and meaning (internal form of the word).
Dialect. Territorial variety of language, dialect.
Dialectisms. Vocabulary that is geographically limited in use; words from any dialect (dialect), dialect vocabulary.
Dialect dictionaries. Type of explanatory dictionaries: dictionaries that describe the vocabulary of a dialect.
Disjunctive opposition. Semantic (or formal) opposition of discrepancy between the plan of content (or plan of expression) of words.
Differential semes. Distinctive (vs. integral) or specific (vs. generic) semes in component analysis.
Dominant. The main word of the synonymous series, stylistically neutral and most capacious in meaning.
Doublets. Absolute (complete) synonyms.
Jargon. Social variety of speech, argot.
Jargonisms. Slang words, argotisms.
Borrowing. A word or expression that has passed from another language.
Significant words. Words that perform a nominative function and have an independent lexical meaning.
Meaning of the word. Plan of word content, semantics (lexical and grammatical): the meaning contained in the word, content associated with the concept as a reflection in the consciousness of objects and phenomena (signs, actions, relationships) of the objective world.
Ideographic synonyms. Conceptual, incomplete synonyms: differing in shades of meaning.
Ideographic Dictionary. Linguistic dictionary describing vocabulary according to systematized (thematic) groups; the same as a thematic dictionary.
Idiolect. Individual style of an individual native speaker.
Idiom. Phraseologism, usually unmotivated; the same as phraseological fusion.
Idiomaticity. Unmotivated connection between the plane of expression and the plane of word content (sound and meaning)
Invariant. A unit of language abstracted from specific implementations (variants) (phoneme, morpheme, lexeme).
Foreign language vocabulary. Words borrowed from another language.
Integral semes. Identical, coinciding semes (vs. differential ones in component analysis) in meanings different words, uniting them into lexico-semantic groups.
International vocabulary. Words common origin, functioning in at least three non-closely related languages.
Original vocabulary. Words that appeared on material base own language (as opposed to borrowings).
Historicisms. Part of the passive dictionary: outdated vocabulary that has fallen out of use along with the designated realities; outdated concepts.
Historical Dictionary. A dictionary describing the history of words in a diachronic aspect.
Tracing paper. A word (or meaning) of a native language, modeled after a foreign language.
Tracing. Borrowing a foreign language model for the formation of a new word (derivative tracing paper) or meaning (semantic tracing paper).
Stationery. Vocabulary of official business style; stationery stamps, cliches.
Picture of the world. A person's idea of the world.
Categorical meaning. Component of word semantics: generalized meaning (abstracted from the specific lexical) of words belonging to one part of speech; semantic differences between lexical and grammatical categories (parts of speech).
Quasi-antonyms. Incomplete, imprecise antonyms.
Quasi-synonyms. Incomplete, imprecise synonyms.
Book vocabulary. Vocabulary of book styles of speech (scientific, journalistic, official business).
Component analysis. Division of lexical meaning into smaller units of meaning - semes (generic and specific, distinctive), or semantic factors.
Conversions. Words that name the same thing, but from a different point of view, are in inverse relationships.
Conversion. Semantically reverse relationship units (semes) denoting one situation, formally expressed by different lexemes.
Connotation. Additional (to lexical) semantic, evaluative, expressive. or stylistic shades of meaning.
Constructively determined meaning. A meaning whose implementation in speech is possible only in a certain syntactic structure.
Context. Verbal environment: a segment of speech that makes it possible to accurately establish the meaning of a word.
Culture concept. Element of a conceptual worldview: a single concept (usually abstract) that is especially important to a given culture.
Conceptual picture of the world. Reflection of the real picture of the world through the prism of concepts and ideas of a person as a representative of a certain culture; conceptual, cultural picture of the world.
Winged words. Stable sayings that entered the language from certain literary sources.
Token. Invariant unit of the lexical level of a language: the totality of all variants of a word, its forms and meanings; unit of expression (as opposed to sememe, semanteme).
Vocabulary. The vocabulary of a language (or part of it).
Lexicalization. Transforming a combination of words into a stable phrase that functions as the equivalent of a single word.
Lexico-grammatical attribution of the word. The attribution of a word to a specific part of speech (part-speech attribution).
Lexicography. A branch of linguistics that deals with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries.
Lexicology. A branch of linguistics, the subject of study of which is the word (vocabulary) in semantic, systemic and functional aspects.
Lexico-semantic group (LSG). A relatively closed series of lexical units united by the identity of the archeme.
Lexico-semantic variant (LSV). A word in one of its lexical meanings.
Lexical category. The unity of a generalized lexical meaning and the corresponding forms of its expression, characterizing a certain class of lexical units (polysemy, synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, conversion, homonymy, paronymy).
Lexical system. A hierarchically organized (paradigmatically and syntagmatically) set of interrelated and interdependent lexical units.
Lexical compatibility. The compatibility of words, determined by their lexical meaning.
Lexically related meaning. A meaning that can only be realized in combination with words of a certain group.
Lexical meaning (LZ). Component of the semantics of a word: individual subject-conceptual content of the word; semantic differences between words.
Interstyle vocabulary. The same as neutral: vocabulary that can be used in any style, not stylistically colored.
Metaphor. The use of a word in a figurative meaning based on similarity; hidden comparison.
Metaphorical transfer. Type of semantic derivation: transfer based on similarity.
Metonymic transfer. Type of semantic derivation: transfer based on contiguity.
Metonymy. Using the name of one object instead of the name of another on the basis of contiguity.
Polysemy. The presence of several interconnected lexical meanings in a word that arose as a result of semantic derivation.
Modality. Function of a word: expression of the speaker’s attitude to what is being communicated, characteristic of a certain category of words - modal words.
Modal words. Lexico-grammatical category (class) of words expressing the speaker’s attitude to what is being communicated (reality, probability, doubt, etc.).
Monosemy. The same as unambiguity.
Morphologically related meaning. A meaning that can only be realized in a certain grammatical form of a word.
Motivated word. A word with a derived stem or clear internal form.
Word motivation. Reasoned connection between meaning and name (indication of why given value expressed by this combination of sounds); motivating feature (the feature underlying the name); internal form of the word.
The denomination function of a word. Same as nominative.
National and cultural component. A component of the semantics of a word, reflecting national-cultural knowledge and concepts, connotations, revealed in comparison with other languages.
Neutral vocabulary. Same as inter-style.
Neologisms. Vocabulary of the passive dictionary: new words, meanings, phrases that have not yet entered into wide use.
Incompletely equivalent vocabulary. Vocabulary that does not completely coincide in semantics with the corresponding words of another language, differing in background knowledge.
Nominative function of a word. The main function of a word: the ability to be the name of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.
Nomination. The process (and result) of naming: the formation of linguistic units that perform a nominative function.
Normative dictionary. Dictionary of literary language.
Zero opposition. In paradigmatics - the relation of identity, coincidence of the content plan (or expression plan) of lexical units.
Regional dictionary. Same as dialect dictionary.
Common Slavic vocabulary. Words inherited by the Old Russian language (and other Slavic languages) from the base language (Proto-Slavic language).
Common vocabulary. Vocabulary, the use of which is not limited to any area (social, professional or territorial use).
Coloring. Additional shades of meaning that are superimposed on the main, subject-conceptual meaning of the word and perform an emotionally expressive or evaluative function.
Homographs. Graphic homonyms: words that have the same spelling but differ in pronunciation (stress).
Homonymy. Semantic relations of unrelated meanings, formally expressed by identical lexemes.
Homonyms. Words of the same part of speech, identical in spelling and sound, but different in meaning.
Homophones. Words that sound the same but are spelled differently.
Omoforms. Words that coincide only in certain forms.
Onomasiology. A branch of linguistics that studies nomination (from meaning to sign, name), systemic connections of words united by a common component of meaning.
Onomastics. A section of lexicology devoted to the study of proper names (anthroponyms and toponyms).
Onomathema. Word as an element of the lexical system.
Opposition. Contrasting two lexical units, revealing differences in terms of content (semantic opposition) and/or in terms of expression (formal opposition).
Basic meaning of the word. The most common meaning, not contextually determined.
The main vocabulary fund. Lexical base of the language: primitive, most common words of the language.
Shade of meaning. A meaning that has not taken shape as an independent meaning (use); a separate feature, a component of lexical meaning.
Paradigmatics. System relationships between words, based on oppositions (identities, oppositions, intersections, discrepancies, inclusions), semantic or formal.
Paremiology. A branch of linguistics (or phraseology) that studies proverbs.
Proverb. A stable expression that has a complete meaning (as opposed to a phraseological unit), having the character of a whole statement (proverb or saying).
Paronymy. Semantic relations of close, but not identical semes, formally expressed by close, but not identical lexemes.
Paronyms. Words with the same root, similar in sound, but different or similar in meaning.
Passive dictionary. Words that are rarely used in speech due to the fact that they have either already gone out of use or have not yet come into use (outdated or new).
Transfer. A method of semantic derivation, which consists in transferring a name from one concept to another based on their similarity (metaphor) or contiguity (metonymy).
Figurative meaning. Secondary, derivative meaning, which (unlike direct) is associated with the named object indirectly, through comparison with another object.
Word expression plan. The formal side of the word as a two-way unit of language: phonetic and grammatical design.
Proverb. A figurative allegorical expression, laconic in form, not containing (unlike a proverb) an edifying meaning, often syntactically incomplete.
Word position. Relations between lexical units in a syntagmatic (linear) series, in context.
Polysemy. Semantic relations of close but not identical semes, expressed by the forms of one lexeme; the same as polysemy.
Litter. Lexicographic (dictionary) indication, usually in the form of an accepted abbreviation, for semantic, stylistic, grammatical, etc. characteristics of the word.
Proverb. A type of proverb, a figurative complete saying of an edifying nature.
Potential seme. A seme that is not actual (and therefore not reflected in the interpretation of the meaning), but which can be actualized in stable combinations, figurative meanings, etc.
Pragmatics. An aspect of semantics that takes into account the expression in a word of the speaker’s attitude to the named object.
Predicative-characterizing meaning. The same as syntactically conditioned: a meaning that is usually realized only in a predicative or semi-predicative function (predicate, address, application) and contains an evaluative connotation, often negative, less often positive.
Private opposition. In paradigmatics, the relation of inclusion (kind and species, part and whole) of the content plan or expression plane of lexical units.
Derived meaning. Secondary meaning resulting from semantic derivation, motivated by primary meaning.
Vernacular. A socially conditioned variety of the Russian language, in which means are implemented that are outside the literary norm, inherent in mass urban speech.
Colloquial vocabulary. Vocabulary with reduced stylistic and expressive coloring, characterized by a hint of rudeness.
Professional vocabulary. Vocabulary characteristic of a particular professional group, used in the speech of people united by a common profession.
Direct meaning. The meaning of a word, which (as opposed to figurative) is directly related to the named object.
Conversational vocabulary. Words used in casual conversation, characteristic of everyday (mainly oral) everyday speech; conversational style vocabulary.
Expansion of meaning. Method of semantic derivation: changing (increasing) the scope of a concept - from specific to generic.
Referent. Same as denotation; the object of thought that the speaker has in mind.
The independence of the word. The ability of a word to be used independently, as a separate linguistic unit, in speech.
Free value. The meaning of a word that is not limited by lexical and grammatical compatibility.
Associated meaning. The meaning of the word, determined by the context (lexically related), stable phrase (phraseologically related), grammatical form (morphologically related), grammatical construction(constructively conditioned) or syntactic function (syntactically conditioned).
Sema. In component analysis - the minimum unit of content, lexical meaning, usually corresponding to some attribute of the named object.
Semanteme. A unit of content plan, the entire content of a word (lexeme).
Semantics. The semantic side (plan of content) of any significant linguistic unit (morphemes, lexemes, phrases, sentences).
Semantic derivation. Formation of new meanings for words.
Semantic structure of a word. The semantic structure of a word from the point of view of its semantic components (meanings, seme).
Semantic field. Hierarchical system sets of lexical units united by a common meaning; a set of words and expressions that form a thematic series.
Semasiology. A branch of linguistics that studies the semantic side of linguistic units, semantics (from sign to meaning).
Sememe. Unit of content plan: one of the meanings of a word (lexical-semantic variant).
Significant. Conceptual content of the word.
Significative meaning. Component of lexical meaning: connection of the word with the designated concept, significative, conceptual meaning.
Synecdoche. A type of metonymy: transfer based on the contiguity of the whole and part of the whole.
Synonymous series. A series of words connected by synonymy relations, headed by a dominant.
Synonymy. Semantic relations of identical or extremely close families, formally expressed by different lexemes.
Synonyms. Words of the same part of speech, extremely close or identical in meaning, expressing the same concept, but differing in shades of meaning (conceptual or ideographic synonyms) or use in speech, expressive and stylistic coloring (expressive-stylistic synonyms).
Syntagma. A word as a component of a phrase.
Syntagmatics. Relationships between syntagmic words.
Syntactically determined meaning. A meaning that is realized only in a certain syntactic function of a word, usually a predicate.
Slavicisms. The same as Old Church Slavonicisms.
Slang. Words and expressions used by persons of a certain profession or social group; same as jargon.
Dictionary entry. Part of the dictionary devoted to the characteristics of one linguistic unit, introduced by the head word.
Vocabulary composition of the language. The entire set of words and phraseological units of a language.
Dictionary. A systematic collection of words with linguistic commentary.
Word. Basic minimal independent significant nominative unit language, possessing completeness and idiomaticity.
Word usage. Selection and use of words in speech.
Word form. A word in a separate grammatical form.
Service function. The function of expressing various relations, called significant words, is performed by function words (conjunctions, particles, prepositions), in contrast to significant words.
Meaning. The meaning that a word receives in a given speech situation.
The semantic structure of the word. The same as the semantic structure of a word.
Old Slavonicisms. Words borrowed by the Old Russian language from the Old Church Slavonic language.
Stylistic coloring of the word. Use of a word in a certain functional style(book or colloquial).
Structural meaning. Formal characteristics of lexical meaning, its structure, determined by the paradigmatic and syntagmatic connections of the word.
Narrowing of meaning. Method of semantic derivation: changing (reducing) the scope of a concept - from generic to specific.
Thematic group. A group of words from different parts of speech, united by a common theme.
Term. A word or phrase denoting a specific scientific concept.
Terminological system. A set of terms in a specific field of knowledge.
Dictionary. A linguistic dictionary that explains and interprets the meanings of words (and phraseological units).
Toponym. The name of a specific geographical object: water (hydronym), relief (oronym), settlement (oikonym), etc.
Toponymy. A section of onomastics devoted to the study of toponyms.
Outdated vocabulary. Passive vocabulary vocabulary: words that have fallen out of use (archaisms and historicisms).
Optional seme. Irrelevant, non-main seme, usually not reflected in the interpretation of the lexical meaning.
An optional component of a phraseological unit. An optional component of a phraseological unit that can be omitted in speech.
Phonetic form of the word. Sound form of a word.
Phraseologism. Same as phraseological unit.
Phraseological unit. A lexically indivisible, semantically integral, separately formed unit of language, stable in its composition and structure, reproduced in speech.
Phraseologically related meaning of the word. A meaning whose implementation is possible only as part of a stable phraseological combination.
Phrasebook. A dictionary that describes and explains phraseological units.
Phraseological expression. A stable semantically divisible phrase reproduced in speech.
Phraseological unity. A type of phraseological unit whose figurative meaning is partially motivated by its constituent components.
Phraseological combination. A type of motivated phraseological unit, which includes a component with a phraseologically related meaning.
Phraseological fusion. A type of phraseological unit whose meaning is not derived from the meaning of its constituent components; idiom.
Phraseology. A branch of linguistics that studies phraseological units.
Function of the word. The role played by the word in language and speech, its purpose.
Completeness of the word. The inseparability, impenetrability of a word, the impossibility of inserting other units into it or rearranging them (in contrast to separately formed phrases and phraseological units).
Frequency dictionary. A dictionary that provides numerical characteristics of the frequency of words in speech.
Equivalent opposition. In paradigmatics: the relationship of intersection, partial coincidence of words in terms of content or expression.
Exoticisms. Words and expressions borrowed from other languages and denoting exotic realities alien to Russian culture.
Expressive vocabulary. Words with expressive and stylistic coloring.
Expressive coloring. Connotations expressing affection, irony, disapproval, disdain, familiarity, etc.
Emotive vocabulary. Words are interjections that do not name any emotions or feelings, but only signal them.
Emotional coloring. Same as expressive coloring.
Enantiosemy. Expression of opposites, antonymy of meanings in the same word.
Etymological dictionary. A dictionary that explains the origins of words.
Etymology. A branch of linguistics that studies the origin of words and meanings; origin of the word; etymological meaning, internal form of a word.
Ethnography. Type of dialectism: the name of a reality existing in a certain territory.
Linguistic picture of the world. A certain, usually everyday, “naive” (non-scientific) view of the world, expressed by linguistic means (primarily lexical).
Linguistic personality. Any native speaker who expresses in his vocabulary and speech (discourse) a certain vision of the surrounding reality (picture of the world).
Nizhny Novgorod
Second edition, expanded
IN ENGLISH
FOR V-YEAR CORRESPONDENCE STUDENTS
Published by decision of the editorial and publishing council of the Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "NGLU". Specialty: 022600 – TMPYAK. Direction of training: 035700.62 – Linguistics. Discipline: Lexicology of the English language.
UDC 811.111 "373(075.8)
BBK 81.432.1 – 93
Fundamentals of English lexicology for fifth-year correspondence students. Second edition, expanded. – Nizhny Novgorod: FSBEI HPE “NGLU”, 2013 - 168 p.
The proposed manual includes the materials necessary for successfully mastering the course of lexicology of the English language, including a course of lectures, a series of exercises on the main sections of lexicology, a plan for lexicological analysis of the text, as well as options test work and a list of recommended literature in the discipline. The materials are intended for independent and classroom work by correspondence students.
UDC 811.111 "373(075.8)
BBK 81.432.1 – 93
Compiled by I.N. Kabanova, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences, Associate Professor
Reviewer M.S. Retunskaya, Dr. Philol. sciences, professor
(department English philology)
© FSBEI HPE "NGLU", 2013
Lexicology(from the Greek lexis “word”, lexicos “relating to the word”, logos “teaching”) - a branch of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language. Under vocabulary the entire set of morphemes, words and stable combinations in the language is understood. Basic units of language – words perform a naming function, since they name the objects of reality, their qualities, properties, states, actions; stable combinations they also function as lexical units - they are reproduced by the speaker, but are not formed by him anew each time; morphemes- the minimum significant units of language with the help of which new words are formed.
The units included in the vocabulary of a language are two-dimensional: they have a plane of expression and a plane of content. Word cat is the name of a class of animals, a combination gilded youth And bosom friend have the meaning respectively “golden - idle, rich youth”, “bosom friend”, the morpheme –er has the meaning of an agent of action, with the help of which nouns are formed – teacher, worker.
The subject of lexicology are the problem of words, types of lexical units, the structure of the vocabulary of the language, the functioning of lexical units, ways of replenishment and development of the vocabulary of the language.
In Russian lexicology, the basic approach to studying a word is lexicocentric approach , which recognizes the autonomy of the word, the fundamental separability of the word as the basic unit of lexicological research, the objectivity of the existence of a separate word as an equivalent of elements of dismembered reality fixed in the consciousness of the speaker, in contrast to text-centric approach, the main subject of study of which is the utterance - a unit of speech.
Lexicology as a scientific discipline is divided into historical lexicology – examines the vocabulary of a language in its development, descriptive lexicology modern language - studies vocabulary at a given historical stage of its development. Accordingly, there are two approaches to studying the vocabulary of a language:
· diachronic;
· synchronous.
Diachronic approach is aimed at studying diachronic transformations in the language system and determining their role in the restructuring of the language system as a whole; it is focused on restoring the basic laws (universals) of the development of language as a system. When studying vocabulary, the diachronic approach aims to identify changes and developments in vocabulary over a period of time.
The task of synchronous language learning is to establish the principles of its organization as a system. From the point of view of synchrony, it is possible to study not only the current state, but also individual periods in the history of a language, conventionally identified on the basis of the relative stability of the language system during this period. So the synchronous approach considers the dictionary to be this period time.
Lexicology includes the following sections:
· etymology (from the Greek etymon - “truth”, logos - “teaching”) - the doctrine of the origin of words, the subject of which is to establish the origin of words and their connection with the vocabulary of other languages;
· word formation – the science of the processes, methods, types and rules of the formation of new words, studying the productivity, activity and patterns of use of word-formation models;
· semasiology (from the Greek sema - “meaning”, logos - “teaching”) - the science of the meaning of words, it deals with the analysis of the meaning of a word, semantic relationships between words and changes in the meaning of a word;
· phraseology – a science that studies the phraseological fund of a language, the laws of compatibility of lexical units, the formation of phraseological units, their specific features;
· lexicography (from the Greek lexikòs - “relating to the word” and gráphō - “I write”) - the science of the practice and theory of compiling dictionaries.
Section I. Etymology
From an etymological point of view, all vocabulary is divided into original and borrowed.
Original English vocabulary are units known from the Old English period and having correspondence in other Indo-European and Germanic languages. Their number in modern English is insignificant (about 25% of the total number of lexical units), but they form a stable lexical core, i.e. the most stable lexical layer of the English language.
Original English lexical units have the following Main characteristics:
· simple structure;
· actively participate and serve as the basis for the word formation process;
· are part of phraseological units;
· frequency of use;
Widely developed polysemy;
· wide lexical and grammatical valency;
· stability.
In turn, native English vocabulary is divided into the following two groups:
· lexical units that go back to a common Indo-European source and have correspondences outside the actual Germanic group of languages, for example, in Greek, Latin, French, Italian, Russian, Sanskrit. Thematically this group is represented by:
Kinship terms: father, brother, mother, daughter, son, sister;
Names of objects and natural phenomena: fire, hill, moon, night, star, snow, sun, stone, tree, water, wind, wood;
Names of animals and birds: cat, crow, fish, hare, goose, hound, mouse, wolf;
Names of body parts and organs: heart, knee, mouth, nose, foot, eye, ear, brow;
Adjectives denoting various physical properties: hard, light, quick, right, red, slow, thin, white, raw, cold, new, sad, glad, good;
A series of verbs: bear, come, know, lie, sit, stand, be, eat, sleep, hear, say;
Numeral names: one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, ten, hundred;
Pronouns: personal (except ‘they’), demonstrative;
Prepositions: after, at, by, for, in, on, of.
· lexical units belonging to the Germanic branch proper Indo-European family languages that go back to the common Germanic language and have correspondences in all or almost all Germanic languages (such as German, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Dutch, etc.). In quantitative and thematic terms, this group is much more extensive and heterogeneous, but it seems possible to distinguish the following subgroups:
Names of body parts and organs: head, hand, finger, bone, ankle, breast, cheek;
Names of animals and birds: bear, fox, calf, chicken, goat;
Plant names: oak, fir, grass;
Names of objects and natural phenomena: rain, frost, winter, spring, summer, sea, land, bridge, ground, storm, ship, house, room;
Adjectives: dead, dear, deep, heavy, sharp, soft, broad, deaf, green, grey, thick, old;
Verbs: drink, forget, follow, live, make, send, sing, shake, burn, bake, keep, learn, meet, rise, see, speak, tell, answer, make, give, drink;
Pronouns: all, each, self, such;
Adverbs: again, along, forth, forward, near;
Prepositions: before, from, under, up.
Borrowed vocabulary – these are words of foreign origin; in modern English they make up about 75%.
Borrowing happens immediate (direct) And indirect (through an intermediary language) . Direct borrowing is borrowing from language to language. Indirect borrowing is borrowing through another language. The language to which the borrowed words originate is called source language , and the one through which this borrowing came into a given language - intermediary language . Intermediary languages were, for example, Latin (many Greek words came into English through Latin - for example, paper < French ‘papier’ < Latin ‘papyrus’ < Greek ‘papyros’) и французский (из которого было заимствовано много слов латинского происхождения – например, table < French ‘la table’ < Latin ‘tabula’).
Borrowing can happen in two ways - verbal And written . Oral route – the penetration of foreign words into a given language due to more or less systematic living communication between two multilingual peoples or the assimilation of foreign names for objects of material culture, goods, etc., borrowed from another people; written way – borrowing foreign words from foreign language texts, most often when trying to translate these texts into the native language.
Main ways borrowing vocabulary are:
· transcription (phonetic method) - this is a borrowing of a vocabulary unit in which its sound form is preserved (sometimes slightly modified in accordance with the phonetic features of the language into which the word is borrowed). Examples: regime (Fr); ballet(Fr); bouquet (Fr).
· tracing is a method of borrowing in which the structural model of a word or phrase is borrowed. When tracing, the components of a borrowed word or phrase are translated separately and combined according to the model of a foreign word or phrase. As a result of tracing, tracing paper – words or expressions created on the model of a foreign language word or phrase. Using the tracing method in English, many words and phraseological units arose based on Latin, French, German languages. Examples: superman– German Übermensch; homesickness– German Heimweh; masterpiece– German Meisterstück; wonder child– German Wunderkind; first dancer– Italian prima-ballerina; below one's dignity– Latin infra dignitatem; under consideration– Latin sub judice; vicious circle– Latin circulus vitiosus.
· semantic tracing (borrowing) is a method of borrowing in which English word changes its meaning or acquires a new one under the influence of a cognate word of another language, thus only the meaning is borrowed, since the sound form already exists in the language. Semantic tracing occurs especially easily in closely related languages. Examples: O.E. bread‘piece’ acquired its meaning under the influence of the Scandinavian ‘braud’. Under the influence of Scandinavian, the words got their meanings: OE gift‘wife price, wedding’ (Scandinavian ‘gift, gift’), OE dwellan‘to wander, to linger’ (Scandinavian dvelja ‘to live’).
Assimilation. Classification of vocabulary by degree of assimilation
Finding itself in a new language, and, consequently, becoming an element of a new lexical system, the borrowed word begins to live a new life, which affects both its external form and its lexical content. Over time, borrowed words undergo phonetic and morphological processing.
Assimilation- this is the adaptation of words of foreign origin to the norms of the borrowing language, i.e. partial or complete subordination to the phonetic, grammatical, orthographic norms of the English language, as a result of which borrowed words lose their foreign appearance.
The degree of assimilation of a word depends on the following factors:
· how the word was borrowed - oral or written. In the case of oral borrowing, words are more quickly fully assimilated into the language. Words borrowed in writing retain their phonetic, spelling and grammatical features;
· how long ago the word was borrowed;
· usage, prevalence of a word in a language.
By degree of assimilation distinguish:
· completely assimilated;
· partially assimilated;
· unassimilated vocabulary or barbarisms.
Fully assimilated Borrowed lexical units correspond to all the norms of the modern English language (phonetic, grammatical, spelling). These include the following categories:
Early layer of Latin borrowings: wall, cup, wine, mile;
Scandinavian borrowings: take, get, gift, fellow, call, husband, want;
French loanwords: face, table, chair, figure, finish, matter.
A clear indication that the borrowed word has been completely assimilated and firmly entered into the vocabulary of the English language is the ability of the word to give formation in the English language. This is how they arise words are hybrids , whose morphemes have different origins, for example: money – less(money Fr-Lat; less - N); court-ly(court - Fr; ly- N); gentle – man(gentle - Fr; man - N); woman - servant(woman – N; servant Fr).
Partially assimilated Borrowed lexical units are divided into the following groups:
· words, not assimilated semantically – denoting everyday, geographical and other realities of another people. Examples: domino, minaret, shah, toreador;
· words, not assimilated grammatically – preserving grammatical forms that are not characteristic of the borrowing language. Examples: bacillus – bacilli; phenomenon – phenomena; crisis – crises. It should be noted that there is a constant process of increasing subordination similar words the English morphological system, since along with the unassimilated form the usual English plural form is increasingly used;
· words, not assimilated phonetically – have not undergone phonetic changes, i.e. replacing phonemes in accordance with the sound base of the borrowing language. These lexical units were borrowed after the 17th century. These include French borrowings, for example: machine, bourgeois, protégé, beige, boulevard, fiancé. Some of them retain the stress on the last syllable - police, cartoon; others retain sounds that are not characteristic of the English language: [Z] – prestige, regime; – memoir; [ã] or [õ] – mélange. The pronunciation norm for incompletely assimilated lexical units often varies;
· words, not assimilated graphically – retaining their graphic form, most of them are French borrowings – restaurant, corps, bouquet, cliché, ballet, which either retain the final unpronounceable consonant t, s – buffet, corps; or contain a digraph – ‘ ch, qu, ou etc’ – brioche, or diacritic – cafe, cliché.
Barbarisms – these are not assimilated lexical units, i.e. having retained features in pronunciation and writing that are not characteristic of the English language, they remain equal to themselves in a new language language environment both in external form and in internal content. They are noticeably foreign elements and are limited in their use. Moreover, there are English synonyms for these words, for example: addio, ciao(Italian); coup d'état; hors d'oeuvres; bons vivant; au revoir(French); vita brevis est(Latin); Wehrmacht, Fuhrer(German).
1. Lexicology and its subject.Lexicology studies the lexical composition of a language; sov-th words of modern language as a designation of objects, concepts, phenomena.
Lexicology – a branch of linguistics that studies the totality of words of the modern language (vocabulary) denoting phenomena, objects, concepts.
Enrichment of vocabulary. Is there a loss of words (historicisms: the object has disappeared - the concept has disappeared).
Enriching the vocabulary of the language. Two ways to replenish the vocabulary: 1) quantitative - borrowing and forming new words; 2) qualitative - the acquisition of new stylistic shades by words.
^ Sections of lexicology : lexicography (studies dictionaries), semasiology (studies the meaning of a word), etymology (about the word, the origin of the word).
Lexicology: private and general.
General: direction in the study of vocabulary of different languages and identification of general patterns of vocabulary as a system; Based on observations of this kind, general theoretical conclusions are drawn. Private: examines the specifics of each individual language. English lexicology is considered private, because is a study of the features of modern English. language.
Particular: historical and descriptive.
Historical: examines the origin and development of the word. composition def. language. Descriptive: studies vocabulary in a given story. stage of its development in all its originality, different from the vocabulary of other languages.
Aspects of lexicology:
General lexicology (general patterns);
Comparative lexicology (vocabulary composition in comparison with other languages);
Practical lexicology(description of data necessary for practical language learning):
Theoretical lexicology (philological acquisition of language).
Synchronic lexicology(studies a certain system of simultaneously existing lexical units of a modern language, “relating to the same time”);
^ Diachronic lexicology (studies the lexical composition in the process of its historical development, “change over time”).
There is a stable core in the English vocabulary. language. It includes the part that makes up the lex. the basis of the language. It is also subject to change, but more slowly.
Replenishment of words. composition occurs more actively than a decrease.
The words that make up the main vocabulary fund, characterized by several features. In terms of their content, they express vital concepts that retain their relevance very much. for a long time. In relation to stylistic color - neutral, widely used in any style; national; characterized by stability.
Groups of words included with the main. words fund: pronouns, function words, numerals, kinship terms. names of body parts, environmental objects. nature, names of dwellings and household items, verbs (human production and basic life needs), adjectives (basic qualities), borrowed words (nouns in English for several centuries and denoting vital concepts used as a basis for the formation of new words in the English language).
Basic words the fund is etymologically heterogeneous.
Scandinavian borrowings (they, till, sky, skin, fellow, in, low, wrong, ill, take, want, husband, root).
Franz. borrowings (mountain, soldier, chair, river, pleasure, dress, decide).
Lat. (wall, cup, street, butter, box).
Basic words fund - the basis for the formation of new words. The core of the main vocabulary consists of root words (work, big, man), but this also includes words with a derived base (Englishman, well-known, beginning).
Root words give rise to a whole nest of words, many of which are not included in the main word. words language fund. work - worker, handworking, workable, workability, workman, workbox.
Newly formed words go into the main. words foundation, when they are completely rooted in the language both in their meaning and in the degree of their usage.
The words included in the main words foundation is the basis of phraseology. Go - go bananas - go crazy, go home, go mad, go home - hit the target; go in for honors - pass exams with honors, go one’s better - surpass yourself, go through fire and waters.
Make - make homework, make up, make a fool - remain a fool, make one’s way - move forward.
The border between the main words fund and the rest of the words. composition is mobile. Basic words the fund is replenished with words from the rest. parts of the words of the composition, and on the other hand, the words of the main. words the fund may go beyond its limits, but this happens very slowly.
^ 2. The place of lexicology among other disciplines.
Lexicology, phonetics and stylistics are interdependent and are in certain relationships with each other:
1) with phonetics - the expression of the meaning of a word is carried out with the help of sound means, this happens thanks to articulate speech, from phonemes. composition of the word, sequence of phonemes (old dean, old queen, old door); the semantic distinctive effect of the brevity and length of the sound has the influence: a sheep among wolves, a ship.
2) with stylistics - the same thought can be expressed in different ways and can receive different shades meanings depending on the conditions of communication, on the attitude of the speaker to the subject of the utterance, on the attitude towards the interlocutor and on what kind of reaction they want to get.
Faul - upbeat poetic meaning
So long - colloquial
Good buy is neutral - they are not equivalent and cannot be used in the same communication situation.
Like lexicology, stylistics pays great attention to the figurative meaning of words. In such phenomena, lexicology is interested both in the means of formation of new words and in the reason for the development of polysemy. Stylistics studies similar phenomena as a figurative use of words in the analysis of art. works.
3) with grammar - the meanings of a word have changed in connection with its gram. function are called the grammatically related meaning of the word. to go (NFG) - going (to collect) is due to the fact that the word has changed form. to be gone (disappear). Commonality of word formation (l) and forms (d). Derivative is a derived word.
Lexicology is closely related to many other sciences. Due to the fact that lexicology is a branch of linguistics, it is, therefore, primarily related to linguistics. Also, lexicology is primarily associated with philosophy, which studies the most general laws nature, society and thinking.
Because language is a socio-historical phenomenon, lexicology is part of the sciences of human society and human culture, such as sociology, history, ethnography, archaeology.
Due to the fact that language is directly related to human consciousness, thinking, mental life, lexicology has close connections with logic and psychology, and through psychology with higher physiology nervous activity. Studying the problems of origin and early development language is carried out by lexicology in contact with anthropology.
Lexicology at a number of points comes into contact with literary studies, poetics and folkloristics, uniting with them into a complex discipline - philology, which studies the language, literature and culture of a given people in their interrelations.
Because our speech is embodied in sounds; important areas of lexicology are associated with acoustics - the branch of physics that studies sound, as well as the anatomy and physiology of speech sound production organs in the human body.
Finally, solving various applied problems, lexicology interacts with pedagogy and methodology, medicine, and in our time, increasingly with such disciplines as mathematical logic, statistics, information theory and cybernetics.
In recent decades, as a result of the interaction of lexicology with other sciences, new scientific disciplines have emerged at the intersection of traditional fields of knowledge: sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, mathematical linguistics etc.
^ 3. The word and its meaning.
Language is one of the diverse sign systems that people use for communication purposes. In the process of communication, people use def. signs from which a message is built. Signs replace the objects they point to. Signs and the sign systems formed by them are studied by semiotics (Saussure, Peirce, Maurice). Maurice suggested in the village. highlight 3 aspects: semantics - semantic relationships between signs; syntactics - studies the structural (syntactic) properties of sign systems; pragmatics is the relationship between a sign and a person.
Each sign correlates with one or another phenomenon, fact, event, which is called a referent or denotation. Ex: the table (object) is a denotation, i.e. real. thing. There is a sign, but there is no denotation, there is only a fictitious denotation (ex. love).
The main object of study of lexicology is the word. But there is no generally accepted definition of a word that clearly distinguishes it from other units in science. Defining a word in linguistics is a difficult task, because... even the simplest word can have a very different number of aspects: 1. form/content, 2. phonetic. composition, 3. morphological composition, 4. different forms (walked, walked), 5. different syntactic. f-ii (addition, circumstance), 6. different meanings.
Hobbes(1588-1679) - philosopher, discovered materialism. approach to the problem of words, nominations. He said that words are not empty sounds, but names of matter.
^ Leonard Bloomfield (American linguist, professor, 1887-1949) characterized the word as minim. free form. This implies that freedom of form is defined as forms occurring in the form of sentences.
^ Edward Sapir (American linguist 1884-1939) takes into account semantics. and syntactic aspects, when he calls a word “one of the small units of isolated meaning in which a sentence can be expressed.” He pointed out the indivisibility of the word - it is impossible to separate any part from the word without violating the meaning of the word.
Conclusion: One of the characteristics of words is that it tends to be internally constant but positionally stable.
^ De Saussure began to define a word as a conventional sign, and language as a system of conventional signs. But he believed that only language can be the sole object of linguistics, thereby rejecting the connection between word and concept, i.e. historical aspect. Document: in different languages the same concept is called differently. Lat. menson - table- der Tisch - the connection is arbitrary. There is no direct connection between the denoted and the sound of the word. The word is a sign (non-arbitrary). Each new word is formed from existing ones, because There is nothing in human consciousness that has no cause in the external world.
Functions of the word: nominative (except for interjections, prepositions, conjunctions - function words). A word, naming an object, denotes a concept.
Features of the word: positional independence, syntactic independence (this is how the word differs from a morpheme).
A word is a minimal, relatively independent meaningful unit of language. A. A. Potebnya identified two types of lexical meanings: nearest(used by all native speakers) and further(known in the specific field).
Smirnitsky identified the following components of lexical meaning: expressive, stylistic, emotional (all these are co-meanings) and conceptual meaning in the center.
^ Positional independence of the word lies in the lack of rigidity in the word linear connection with words adjacent in the speech chain, in most cases it is possible to separate it from the “neighbors” by inserting one or more words, in the wide mobility, relocation of a word in a sentence. Positional independence characterizes all types of words in a language, although not in to the same degree(morpheme in a polymorpheme word, prefixes, etc.).
A higher level of independence of the word - syntactic independence– lies in its ability to obtain a syntactic function, acting as a separate one-word sentence or a member of a sentence (subject, predicate, object, etc.). Syntactic independence is not characteristic of everyone. Prepositions, for example, cannot be either separate sentences or themselves members of a sentence. The same can be said about many other types of function words - about conjunctions, articles, particles, etc. Thus, word– a minimal unit that has positional independence and is capable of acting in isolation in the appropriate situation, as a separate sentence.
One of the difficulties of the duality of the word is associated with the so-called analytical(difficult) forms:has read, will read, is reading, has been reading. On the one hand, these and other similar formations are rightly considered as forms of the verb ( to read,etc. ), i.e. forms of one word. On the other hand, it is possible to insert other words between the components of these forms (he has never read this book). Components can sometimes be swapped (you would continue reading not arguing). It turns out that we have before us a combination of words and hence a contradiction: one and the same phenomenon turns out to be simultaneously one word and a combination of words. This contradiction is not the result of a logical error. This is a contradiction in the language itself, between the functional and structural sides of formations called analytical forms: being functionally nothing more than forms of words, these formations in their composition and structure are combinations of words - a significant and a auxiliary (or a significant and several auxiliary).
Word(lexeme) is a typical linguistic sign that has a content plan and an expression plan and performs a nominative (nominal) function.
Distinctive feature The lexical system of a language is its multidimensionality. This means that the word is simultaneously connected in different ways with many other lexemes. There are various thematic groups: natural phenomena, people, housing, clothing, art, sports, etc.
A word can be included in certain synonymous and antonymic series. Moreover, the word correlates only with a word of the same part of speech (to do, to make, to create, to accomplish or clever – stupid, clumsy).
An important type of system-forming connections in vocabulary are word-formation relationships (the possibility of producing one word from another: conversion, affixation, disaffixation, stem formation, compression, etc.)
There is also a syntagmatic or combinational type of connections, when each word has its “habitual” partners in the language, and it is these combinations that first come to the mind of the speaker.
Word position in lexical system determined by belonging to a particular grammatical class. This is also due to its syntactic behavior, i.e. with its functions in a statement (noun - a sign of an object, verb - a sign of an action, etc.).
In addition, among the system-forming connections in the vocabulary, frequency-stylistic ones should be mentioned. Each word belongs to a specific stylistic “layer” of vocabulary. There are sublime words (poetic), neutral, degraded (colloquial, colloquial, vulgar), terms. There are high-frequency words that are actively used in speech (head, good, fine, all right, know, want, only, house) and there are low-frequency words that are rarely found in speech (historicisms).
All of the listed types of connections in which a word enters with other words are reflected and consolidated in dictionaries (translation, bilingual, explanatory, etymological, dictionaries of synonyms (antonyms), dictionaries of neologisms, grammatical dictionaries, combinability dictionaries, phraseological dictionaries, etc.) .
In word-formation dictionaries, lexemes are arranged in nests, i.e. groups united by a common root or basis.
In frequency dictionaries, lexemes are arranged in order of decreasing frequency of use in speech. Here, conjunctions, prepositions, and pronouns will come first.
If language as a whole reflects reality, then a word individually calls item: thing, person, animal, property, attitude, action. Language not only reflects the world, but at the same time refracts it, i.e. transforms in its own way. Words do not just name objects, but do so in accordance with their internal, linguistic logic.
There is no one-to-one correspondence between a word and an object. Language, as it were, imposes its own frame on reality. The uniqueness of the linguistic classification of the world lies, first of all, in the fact that in each language words are distributed in their own way and assigned to objects. The originality of language is also manifested in the fact that it may not notice certain phenomena at all, i.e. do not give the name of the k.-l. fragments of reality: fingers, hand, leg, ear.
Another factor that determines the meaning of a word is concept– an elementary mental unit, which is formed by a combination of essential features identified in a class of objects. Among a certain number of objects, those that stand out in the public consciousness and have formed as individual concepts: father, mother – stepfather, stepmother, son, daughter – stepson, stepdaughter. Also, along with the concepts of “brother” and “sister”, there are the concepts of “an elderly brother” and “an elderly sister”. This is due to a certain family structure, with the responsibilities and rights of each family member.
Subject and concept are two interacting factors that determine the lexical meaning => “subject – concept – word”.
The third factor is language system. The very formation of concepts is based on linguistic units. For example, in the English-speaking consciousness there is a single concept of “mother and father” and there is a corresponding word “parents”. However, there is no special name for the concept of “brother and sister”.
Subject - concept - language system is the basis evolutionary processes in vocabulary. When we talk about the variability of a linguistic sign, we mean a shift in its content. This means that the word had one meaning and became another. Both the change in the meaning of a word, and the emergence of new words and the death of old words are due to the presence in the lexical meaning of the same three components: objective, conceptual and actually linguistic.
In particular, neologisms arise when in objective reality there is new reality and when this reality becomes significant.
The departure of words from a language is usually reduced to three cases: 1) when the name dies off due to the withering away of the subject itself (historicism); 2) when an old name is replaced by a new one (archaisms); 3) when in the consciousness of society this concept merges with another concept (notiolysms).
^ 4. The problem of word identity.
The problem of word identity includes two questions: the question of whether different grammatical forms belong to the same word and the question of whether different meanings belong to the same word.
The problem of word identity is to find out whether the same word is repeated in different contexts (in speech) or whether they are different words, i.e. in identifying different cases of variation in the PV (plan of expression) or PS (plan of content) of a word.
The problem of word identity is closely related to the problem of defining a word. Establishing the identity of a word in various cases of its use presupposes that in each of these cases it appears precisely as one separate word in relation to other words.
Let's look at an example. do not trouble trouble until trouble troubles you. How many individual words can you identify? Are trouble troubles trouble trouble the same word?
The ability to repeat a word seems to be a natural “ability” of the word.
If a word represented in each segment of speech, in each individual case of its actualization in speech, something completely new, not identical to what we find in other segments of speech, then no communication, exchange of thoughts and feelings would occur. In order to understand each other, we need to know in advance, if not all, then at least most of the components, i.e. perceive someone else's speech, knowing its components as reproducible units, or known to us in advance. We must identify them with certain familiar units. The problem of identity arises when a word is repeated regularly on different occasions. At the same time, various specific cases of use are united by the identity of this word and at the same time are contrasted with the entire possible mass of cases of use of other words, even if they are very close to the given one and have much in common with it. Therefore, the main question of word identity is: what are the possible differences between individual specific cases of use of one word. Those. which specific uses of a word are compatible and which are not with the identity of the word.
^ 5. Isolating a word in a stream of connected speech. The problem of word isolation
From a lexical point of view, each word appears as a given, specific, individualized unit, different from other units of the same order, i.e. from other words.
Individual words can be found in the vocabulary of a language in different relationships to each other. Individual words, as special units of language, are characterized by special relationships to each other in coherent speech and specific relationships to various other entities (not words). In terms of the individual problem, each representative of a particular word in each individual case plays the role of such a composite unit, which is characterized as a word. The fact that the role is performed by representatives of not different words, but one word, does not prevent this role from being fully fulfilled.
From a lexical point of view, i.e. In the sphere of the vocabulary of a language, a word, first of all, acts like an arithmetic value.
From a grammatical point of view, a word acts like an algebraic quantity, without being any specific number, it nevertheless represents a certain word, and not a person. other.
In other words, in lexical terms it does not matter which morpheme is present, but it is important that in each case there is a k.-n. of them, and each of them must belong to a specific paradigm. The paradigm characterizes a given word precisely as a word, as a whole unit that remains identical to itself in the various word forms representing it.
From a grammatical point of view, the most significant difference is between the individual word forms that represent a given word. What is important here is not that all grammatical morphemes included in the corresponding word forms belong to the same paradigm, but that they in a certain way distinguish individual forms within this paradigm, and thereby highlight a well-known system of grammatical forms proper.
A word in each specific case of its use in coherent speech is itself a known segment of speech. In order to act as a separate special unit, this segment, which is a word, must be characterized, on the one hand, by a certain and fairly easy separability from the flow of speech, i.e. in relation to neighboring similar segments, and on the other hand, significant internal integrity.
The distinctiveness of a word in speech from adjacent units, neighboring words is necessary in order for the word to differ, as a whole, from one or another meaningful component of the word. At the same time, significant internal integrity of a word is necessary for it to be distinguished precisely as one separate word from a phrase.
^ The problem of word isolation is divided into two main questions:
1) the question of word salience, which is at the same time a question about the difference between a word and a part of a word (a component of a compound word, a stem, a suffix);
2) question of the integrity of the word, which is at the same time a question about the difference between a word and a phrase.
I. The changeability of a word presupposes its formalization. In a word there is something basic, actually dictionary, lexical, which remains the same despite various changes in the word, on the other hand, in a word there is something variable, additional, which at the same time does not belong to a given specific word, but to a known class or category of words - grammatical, associated with the use of the word in different situations, works of speech. Thus, the basic, lexical meaning turns out to be supplemented, complicated by certain grammatical meanings, which are materially expressed in external, sound differences between individual varieties - the grammatical forms of the word - this gives the word a certain design and internal completeness.
Parts of a word lack the degree of formalization that a word has, so they do not have the necessary completeness and are perceived as parts of a word. Problematic in this regard is the position of prepositions and analytical forms. They can hardly be distinguished as words. Are they part of a word, a word or a phrase?
II. Unlike a phrase, a word can be characterized as having a complete form. The word expresses a certain semantic integrity - a given object or phenomenon is thought of as one thing, a whole, even if at the same time its complexity is thought of and individual features are highlighted.
Idiomaticity- non-derivability of the meaning of the whole from the totality of meanings of a given linguistic formation: blackboard railway.
All words as fully formed formations can be divided into idiomatic muskox timetable clockroom and non-idiomatic gray-bearded, black-eyed, etc. Thus, the signs of completeness and idiomaticity intersect.
The phrases are separately formed. Their components are designed in the form of words: in Russian. language have case, in English. obey a certain order words Phraseologisms stand out as special idiomatic phrases. Thus, the components of phraseological units can be considered words, but specifically used.
^ 6. Lexical meaning of the word. Types of lexical meanings
Potebnya(1835-1891): a word contains an indication of a certain content, peculiar only to it alone and, at the same time, an indication of one or more general categories, called gram categories. The indication contained in a word of content peculiar only to it alone is called lexical meaning. Lex. the meaning remains the same in all grammatic forms, incl. and homonymous.
^ Lexical meaning - correlation of the sound shell of a word with the corresponding objects or phenomena of objective reality. Lexical meaning does not include the entire set of features inherent in any object, phenomenon, action, etc., but only the most significant ones that help to distinguish one object from another. Lexical meaning reveals the signs by which common properties are determined for a number of objects, actions, phenomena, and also establishes the differences that distinguish a given object, action, phenomenon. For example, the lexical meaning of the word giraffe is defined as follows: “an African artiodactyl ruminant with a very long neck and long legs,” that is, the characteristics that distinguish the giraffe from other animals are listed.
All words in the Russian language have meaning. A word can have one lexical meaning (unambiguous words): syntax, tangent, cap, secret, etc. Words that have two, three or more lexical meanings are called polysemantic: sleeve, warm. Polysemantic words occur among all independent parts of speech, except numerals. The specific meaning of a polysemantic word can only be determined in context: star - stars lit up in the sky; screen star; Starfish.
The lexical meaning can be explained:
Descriptive, characteristic distinctive features object, action, phenomenon;
Through a single root word;
Selection of synonyms.
The lexical meaning of the word is given in explanatory dictionaries.
The object of reality itself is called a referent (denotation), it is thought by. display is a conceptual meaning.
Under lex. meaning is understood as the implementation of a concept by means of the definitional language system, accompanied by an additional characteristic reflecting accompanying ideas, as well as the emotional and stylistic coloring of the word.
The word is a necessary condition for an existing concept, but not every word has a concept at its core, although every word has a meaning. There are no proper concepts at the heart of names, they do not convey concepts, but they have meanings due to correlation with some person, phenomenon, geographer. place, etc. Interjections do not indicate anything at all; they express feelings (fear, despondency).
The grouping of the range of concepts is nationally specific. Thus, in “exploitation of man by man” the Russian “chelovek” corresponds to the English. “man”, but the Russian combination “she is a good person” - “she is a good person/woman”, because in the circle of concepts enshrined in the English “man”, the central concept is “male person, man”, therefore often one word in English. language corresponds to 2 words of the Russian language. (coat - coat, jacket, cry - cry, scream, blue - blue, blue, lonely). These cases do not indicate that the concepts of “coat” and “jacket” for an Englishman are combined into one concept. The fact is that the meanings of the words related to them in different languages combine concepts in different ways. It happens that in English. In the language, phenomena are separated, which in Russian are called by the same word (clock-watch, sleep-dream, hand-arm). The meaning of each word is part of the semantic system of the language to which it belongs and is determined by the specific features of its vocabulary (the presence of synonyms that are similar in meaning to words, typical contexts of use).
Some meanings inherent in Russian. “to go” are not peculiar to the English word “to go”, because they are included in the system of meanings of another polysemantic word to run (the trains were running over the bridge). Each language in its vocabulary differentiates and generalizes the phenomena of reality in different ways. On the other hand, the verb “go” means active, self-movement, and movement on something is expressed by the verb “to go”, for which in English. There is no exact equivalent in the language, and the meanings of which are conveyed by the same verb to go by bus/by plane or verbs to ride/to drive.
The non-identity of the meanings of words and concepts is also evident from the fact that one concept can be expressed by a stable phrase (to catch cold, postgraduate student). A polysemantic word is a means of existence not of a single concept, but of a whole group of concepts interconnected due to the real connection or similarity of the corresponding phenomena of objective reality. The meaning of a word can be influenced by its belonging to one or another part of speech. The lexical meaning of a word exists in inextricable connection with the definition of a group of meanings and is expressed by group forms of this word in accordance with the group properties of the part of speech to which this part of speech belongs.
The problem of direct and figurative meaning: in the direct - the direct name (head - head, part of the body), figurative - head, chief, chapter. Also - situational meaning, depending on the situation (wasp - wasp and sometimes - angry).
Combination of words. Words are combined with other words. The ability to combine depends on the lexical meaning, as well as on the norms. Any word refers to one or another part of speech, which is defined by the presence of three of its features: 1) the type of concept expressed, 2) its inherent grammatical forms, 3) its syntactic functions. beautiful - expresses a concept/quality, has degrees of comparison (2), function - definition (3).
Context. In connected speech, words appear in connection with other words. It is the context that concretizes and clarifies the meaning of a word. It is in context that a word reveals its meaning and shades of meaning. K. can change the meaning of a word, give new shades of meaning, etc. Thus, the meaning of the word opr-sya is determined by the context.
The core of lexical meaning is in most significant words mental mapping a particular phenomenon of reality, an object (or a class of objects) in a broad sense (including actions, properties, relationships). Denotation(referent) – an object denoted by a word. Denotation display– conceptual meaning of the word ( designat).
Arnold I.V. Lexicology of modern English
Ministry of Higher Education of the USSR
as a teaching aid
for pedagogical institutes
and faculties of foreign languages
PUBLISHING LITERATURE IN FOREIGN LANGUAGES
Moscow 1959
From the author
The language material presented in the book is partly drawn from Soviet and foreign lexicological and lexicographic literature, and partly is the result of the author’s own observations. The book uses material from a number of dissertations defended in recent years, in particular doctoral dissertations by V.A. Zvegintsev and E.I. Klimenko and candidate's theses N.G. Guterman, N.I. Eremeeva, S.A. Kostenko, L.V. Malakhovsky, O.A. Melnik, N.G. Oleksenko, O.S. Simonova and others.
The presentation of the course is illustrated with literary examples taken mainly from English literature of the 20th century, because the author sought to give a description of the vocabulary of the English language in its modern state. Translation is not given for all examples, because... It is assumed that the reader already has a significant vocabulary and some translation skills.
Considering it very important to teach the student to reason independently, comparing different points of view, and to draw his own conclusions and generalizations, the author sought to show the problems of lexicology, and not limit himself to the most common point of view on certain issues. At the same time, a complete critical coverage of all controversial issues in the textbook is impossible and unnecessary. The main difficulty, therefore, was not to overload the textbook with unnecessary polemics and theorizing on the one hand, and not to fall into dogmatism, on the other.
The textbook is a revision of a course of lectures on the lexicology of modern English, given by the author at the 2nd Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute of Foreign Languages and at the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after. A.I. Herzen. In creating the course, the author owes a lot to Assoc. I.P. Ivanova, whose lectures on the lexicology of the English language he had the opportunity to listen to.
The author considers it his duty to express heartfelt gratitude to all his workmates who provided him with great assistance during the discussion of the first edition of the book, and especially to Prof. B.A. Ilyish and candidates of philological sciences V.G. Vilyuman and N.G. Guterman.
Chapter one introduction
1. Subject and sections of lexicology. 2. The tasks of lexicology and its methodological basis. 3. Literature on the lexicology of modern English. 4. The place of lexicology among other linguistic disciplines, the connection between vocabulary and grammar. 5. The importance of lexicology in the practice of teaching foreign languages
1. Subject and sections of lexicology
§ 1. Each language is characterized by its own special grammatical structure, special vocabulary and special sound system, which constitute its three main aspects, each subject to independent theoretical study.
The learning of the three aspects of language has developed unevenly. Before others, they began to study grammatical structure. For a long time, and until very recently, practical rules and scientific laws were established only for grammatical phenomena, and therefore for a long time there was a false idea that the main theoretical problem of a language is the study of its grammatical structure. The grammar included some information about vocabulary and the sound system as minor parts. Only in the 19th century did a deeper study of these latter make it possible to distinguish lexicology and phonetics as independent branches of linguistics.
Currently, the science of language has sufficient data to consider, in accordance with the three main aspects of language, the theory of each individual modern language as consisting of three main parts: grammar, lexicology and phonetics.
Lexicology (from Greek lexis word, lexicòs verbal and logos teaching) - department of linguistics, and studies the word and vocabulary of a language. The vocabulary of any language is the totality of all words and word equivalents available in that language. Word equivalents are understood as stable combinations, which, like words, are not created anew in speech, but are introduced into it in ready-made form.
The terms “lexis” and “lexicology” should not be confused. Lexicon is a set of words, for example, the vocabulary of a language or some part of it; alexicology is the science that studies vocabulary.
§ 2. Lexicology, as the science of words and the vocabulary of any language, is part of general linguistics. The specifics of the vocabulary of each individual language are considered by the private lexicology of that language. This course outlines the lexicology of modern English, i.e. private lexicology. Each particular lexicology is based on the provisions of general lexicology, therefore, in the first chapters of the course, some general lexicological problems are considered, namely: the theory of words, and the basic provisions of the science of the meaning and semantic structure of words - semasiology.
The lexicology of each language, including English, can be divided into historical lexicology, which examines the origin and development of its vocabulary, and descriptive lexicology of the modern language, which studies its vocabulary at a given historical stage of its development in all its originality, distinguishing it from the vocabulary of other languages.
It is necessary to take into account that the vocabulary of a modern language exists as a system of interdependent and interconnected elements that develops over time. Consequently, it can only be understood taking into account this development. Therefore, although descriptive lexicology of modern English has its own special tasks that are different from the tasks of historical lexicology, it still cannot exist in isolation from the latter. From these considerations, this course Descriptive lexicology of modern English examines not only the current state of its vocabulary, but also, partly, the ways of its formation.
The study and description of a language system at a certain stage of its development is called synchronic study, the study of the historical development of its elements is called diachronic. The correct distinction between synchrony and diachrony and the choice of a rational relationship between them is of great importance for any linguistic research.
Consideration of the vocabulary of modern English as a system characterized by certain specific features and developing over time includes a description of various types of words and methods of their formation, a description of word equivalents, i.e. various stable combinations; a description of the fate of foreign language borrowings and their role in enriching the vocabulary of the English language; analysis of various lexical groups and layers in modern English: book and colloquial vocabulary, terms, slang words, neologisms, archaisms, etc. and finally, analysis of semantic relationships between words (synonyms and antonyms).
As you know, English vocabulary has received a detailed description in numerous and varied dictionaries. Familiarization with the rich English lexicography and an understanding of the principles of compiling dictionaries are therefore also mandatory when studying the vocabulary of the English language.
It should be noted that lexicology does not equally study all the words of a given language, but pays primary attention to the so-called significant words. Significant words include words that name objects and phenomena of objective reality, their signs and actions. For example: child, face, pen, big, new, nice, past, look, love, mean, well. Functional words denote relationships and connections between objects and phenomena. These include prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary and copular verbs, and particles. We will consider in detail the difference between significant and auxiliary words in Chapter IV; here it is enough to point out that significant words necessarily have one or more lexical meanings, and in function words the lexical meaning is subordinated to the grammatical meaning, often, although not always, weakened, and in some cases may be completely absent (as, for example, in the pre-infinitive particle to). Therefore, function words are considered primarily in grammar, and lexicology pays main attention to significant or, as they are also called, full-meaning words.