Synonyms are divided into absolute(full) and relative(partial).
Absolute (full) synonyms are called synonymous words, identical in meaning to the word and in stylistic coloring. Absolute synonyms have neither semantic nor stylistic differences. For example: abstract - abstract, spelling - spelling, linguistics - linguistics, bucks - greens - green. Such synonyms are most often completely interchangeable .
Relative (partial) synonyms (quasi-synonyms) These are synonymous words that have semantic and stylistic differences. There are three types of relative synonyms:
· semantic (ideographic) synonyms differ in shades of meaning ( key – spring: key – a source where water flows with pressure, spring– water leaks; semantic synonyms can indicate varying degrees of manifestation of a sign or action: run And rush;(bonfire) was burning– (bonfire) blazing, fast(step) – swift(step), restlessness – confusion, hot(air) - sultry(air), etc.
· stylistic synonyms differ in their style, i.e. used in different functional styles of speech. For example, synonyms eyes - eyes, beauty - beauty differ from each other only stylistically: the first words are stylistically neutral, the second are bookish. In a synonymous series run away - run away, run away the first word is stylistically neutral, the last ones are colloquial.
· semantic-stylistic synonyms differ in shades of meaning and stylistic affiliation. For example, synonymous adjectives interesting And amusing differ in shades of meaning: word interesting used in the sense of ‘stimulating attention with something significant’, and amusing– ‘exciting only external interest’. Besides, interesting– the word is stylistically neutral, and amusing- colloquial. ( Walk - trudge, cough - thump, die).
Synonyms are divided into occasional And general language.
Common linguistic (usual) synonyms synonyms are called, which are characterized by relative independence from the context and sufficient frequency of use. Such synonyms are reflected in modern dictionaries and, as a rule, can be translated literally into another language (if they do not denote special, nationally limited concepts, phenomena, realities, etc.). For example, cheerful - joyful.
Occasional (usual,contextual-speech, contextual, situational, individual, author's ) synonyms These are synonymous words that, taken individually, are not synonyms, but, lined up by the speaker in a certain context, seem to be closer in common meaning, because become exponents of the author's intention. For example, " They're tired of dual power, plurality of power, or rather - anarchy "(Ros. newspaper. 1994). Dual power and plural power are equated to anarchy only in this context.
Contextual synonyms become closer in their meanings only under contextual conditions. The distinctive features of such synonyms are clearly expressed contextual conditioning and fixation, the single (usually individual) nature of semantics (and often word formation), non-reproducibility, i.e. obvious limited use, absence in dictionaries and difficulty of literal translation into another language.
Ideographic synonyms
With the help of ideographic synonyms, Russian speakers can convey the subtlest nuances in the meanings of words, while selecting more and more new lexical units that allow them to detail their ideas about observed facts and objects with extreme accuracy. Let's also compare: gloomy - gloomy - gloomy - gloomy cloudy. All of these words characterize a person, his character, appearance, mood and convey the general meaning of “characterized by severity, unsociability.” Moreover, “gloomy” means “characterized by severity, isolation, unsociability”; “gloomy” - “immersed in heavy, joyless thoughts and therefore withdrawn into oneself, not sociable", "gloomy" indicates slightly less severe, gloominess. depression, "gloomy" and "cloudy" mean “overwhelmed by painful thoughts, in a depressed state": both of the latter usually denote a temporary, rather than permanent, attribute or property. Let's compare their textual implementations: He was a gloomy man who did not like to waste words. Mom's Sibiryak, Nativity scene. Anna had never seen her husband in such a gloomy, depressed state. G. Markov, Strogovs. He often returned from work irritated and gloomy and walked gloomily around his office. K. Chukovsky, Boris Zhitkov. (Sergei Sergeevich) continues to walk around the room, and his face is gloomy, restless, as if he is dissatisfied with himself or with something else. Nikolaev. A story about the director of MTS and the chief agronomist. What does this cloudy look mean? Is this how one greets a father’s affection? Lermontov, Strange Man.
In addition, all of the indicated synonyms, with the exception of the word “cloudy,” are used figuratively when describing the area, landscape, structure, etc. For example: The ancient park, gloomy and strict..., stretched almost a mile from the house to the river. Chekhov, Black Monk. One December morning we arrived in gloomy and inhospitable St. Petersburg... Wanderer, Stages. Just the sight of the house... a gloomy, stone hulk, made him despondent. Berezko. Peaceful City, etc.
In each of the given examples there is exactly the shade that is necessary for a specific syntagmatic segment of speech.
Among ideographic (semantic, nominative) synonyms there are words that, as individual names, completely coincide in their semantic scope. Such identical lexical units of a language are called absolute synonyms, or doublets. Lexical doublets of this kind have minimal and optimal conditions for their coincidence. The minimum conditions for the identity of such words is their complete semantic coincidence: puma - cougar, orthography - spelling, nominative - denominative, etc., when other differences in such words do not play a role, and the words are perceived by the linguistic consciousness of Russian speakers as absolutely identical in meaning meaning. The maximum conditions for doublets are complete semantic identity of words and the absence of stylistic differences (which, to some extent, occurs in doublets of the first type). Such maximum coincidence both in semantics and in the stylistic characteristics of words is extremely rare, for example: octopus - octopus.
The appearance of non-lexical doublets in general is not typical for the Russian language; it reflects peculiar transitional processes in the language, which, as a rule, either exclude one of the doublets from use, or give one of them differential semantic or stylistic shades. The first variety includes examples of a fairly common lexical doublet of the 18th century such as regula - rule, shamad - surrender, sense meaning, etc., which was resolved in favor of one of the doublets (surrender, rule, meaning); to the second - examples like victory - Victoria, sample - model, etc., where both doublets are used either with stylistic (victory is common, and Victoria is bookish, sublime) or with semantic shades (see the article by L.P. Krysin: export - export), or sphere of use (sample - in all spheres of use, model - technical).
Among the synonyms-doublets there are those whose meaning and use do not differ, except for the scope of their application. The overwhelming majority are special or strictly terminological vocabulary. Its characteristic feature is the fact that one of the words usually belongs to the international (or foreign language) and only in rare cases are both synonymous words Russian, for example: viewfinder - sight, spirit level - level, hydrotherapy - hydrotherapy, helicopter - gyroplane, helicopteri, etc. There are especially many cases of doublet terms in narrow specialized areas, the vocabulary of which is not included in the standard national literary language.
The doublet words found in the Russian language include single lexemes with the connotation of belonging to the regional sphere of use. stubble - stubble and so on. If we take this feature into account, i.e. connotative background in synonyms, then one can generally question the very fact of the existence of synonym-doublets. This is precisely the scientific point of view expressed by V.I. Goverdovsky, who states the following: “Identification of the smallest semantic components in semantics, which are connotemes, makes it possible to theoretically distinguish from each other in semantic content the so-called “absolute synonyms.” The connotational structure indicates that the semantics of absolute synonyms do not coincide” (Goverdovsky, 1981, 166). Thus, in zoological terms, the red deer is one and the same, therefore, one and the same at the level of the denotative and significative part of the lexical meaning, but the connotation, indicating the dialectal nature of the use of the word in various areas of Siberia, leads to the need to use each lexeme as an autonomous fact language. Or another example: linguistics and linguistics. The word linguistics clearly represents the connotation of a semantic field, which includes an elephant with an element - knowledge (literary studies, geosciences, scientific studies, regional studies, etc.), uniting this thematic group of words and, as if automatically deriving from it the word “linguistics”.
Style (or stylistic) synonyms are words that have differences in expressive and emotional connotation and are therefore used in different styles of speech. Let's compare: hit, knock (neutral) fuck, grab (spacious); dance (neutral) - dance, dance (colloquial) - break off (spacious); chatter (colloquial) chatter (colloquial) rattle (colloquial) chatter (colloquial) chirp (colloquial) clatter (colloquial); lucky, happy (neutral) lucky (colloquial) lucky (colloquial); fate, destiny (book) - share (colloquial and vernacular) fate, lot (poetic), hermit - recluse monk aiahoret, etc., which are all used primarily in literary book speech. In all of the above synonymous rows, stylistically different words are presented, the use of which, in addition to stylistic coloring, is also associated with the scope of application (colloquial, everyday, professional book, literary speech, etc.). Such a variety of expressive-emotional lexical units allows a native speaker to choose in each specific case exactly the word that is most appropriate in a given speech situation and stylistically justified in a particular context. The presence of the stylistic richness of the Russian language creates unlimited possibilities for artistic creativity, unexpected comparison or opposition of synonyms in speech. For example: Those who can rob, those who cannot, steal. Fonvizin. And you think that I will go to this funny old man, this bald celadon! Herzen, The Thief Magpie. But now I see clearly, I distinguish more and more clearly. How eyes turn into eyes, How lips turn into lips. Martynov. Luck, etc. etc.
Semantic-stylistic synonyms represent a variety (type) of synonyms, which combine both shades of lexical meaning and stylistic differences in synonyms. For example, the synonyms rush to rush mean “quickly, head somewhere in the market” and are used mainly in colloquial speech; to rush means “quickly, instantly.” To go somewhere; rush - “to rush instantly and with force”; or: everyday - “intended for constant use, wearing, use”, the word is stylistically Central; everyday - “unlike holiday, for every day”, the word is also neutral; common “one that is used, worn, used in any conditions of ordinary mining life”, the word is stylistically marked by the colloquial Sphere of use; shabby - “the most everyday, the most outfitted and not new”, used in the colloquial sphere, often with a dismissive assessment, and many others. etc.
We find this type of synonyms in our speech quite often; it is readily used by word artists as an expressive means within one sentence. Let's compare: We stared into each other's eyes, I into his sultry, foggy eyes, he into my faded northern eyes, we were silent. Aksenov, Under the sky of sultry Argentina.
Since synonyms in their pure form are quite rarely represented in the language, it is better to talk about semantic and stylistic synonyms.
Synonymy as a lexical phenomenon and types of synonyms in the Russian language in semasiological studies of recent years are considered from a functional point of view, since synonyms are a form of manifestation of variant relations in the language.
One of the types of variant relations, as is known, is polysemy with its lexical-semantic variants (LSV) (see Chapter IV of this manual). The second type of variant relations in vocabulary is the functional equivalence of words, or synonymy in the broad sense of the word. If with polysemy the lexeme (the outer shell of the word) is invariant, and the individual meanings of this lexeme are variants, then with synonymy the opposite relationship is observed: the invariant is a certain meaning, and different lexemes are variants. Schematically this can be depicted as follows:
The concept of functional equivalence is broader than the concept of ideographic, nominative (according to E.V. Kuznetsova, absolute) synonyms, which represent only one type of verbal opposition - the opposition of identity at the level of words onomathemes (throw, throw). Synonymy at the level of functional equivalence of words is focused on syntagmic words. functioning in a sentence, i.e. in a specific speech segment. With this approach to synonyms, the invariant (general meaning) is not just the meaning of the word, but its semantic function in the sentence. Functional equivalents are words that are capable of performing the same function within the same or the same sentences” (Kuznetsova 1989, 123). The sameness of such a function can be checked by substituting words: if the meaning of a sentence does not change when words are interchanged, then such interchangeable lexical units can be considered lexical variants (i.e. synonyms), since in such syntagmatic segments (sentences) they perform the same semantic function function, i.e. are functional equivalents. Let's compare: He finished his cigarette and threw the cigarette butt into the fire. He finished his cigarette and threw the butt into the fire. Or: The plan for the uprising included a surprise attack on the enemy. - The plan of the uprising provided for an unexpected blow to the enemy. Since these phrases contain the same information, the words thrown, sudden - unexpected can be considered functional equivalents.
The functional equivalence of words is similar to the polysemy of rhemes, in that these types of variant relations are realized only at the level of syntagmic words connected by a certain context. However, the role of context in the formation of polysemy and synonymy is different. When semantically varying a word, the context must be different, and only under this condition can the word have equal meanings. With functional equivalence, on the contrary, the context must be the same. The similarity of the context partially removes the formal dissimilarity of lexemes that perform the same function (Kuznetsova 1989, 123-124).
Taking into account functional equivalence, we can distinguish three types of it (or three types of synonymy in the broad sense of the word).
1. Functional equivalents are absolute synonyms. Such words are connected by semantic oppositions of identity. Their identical function in a sentence (syntagmatic segment) is predetermined by onomathemic (sign) identity, i.e. in that their lexical meanings are complexes of the same semantic contexts. Compare: He closed (squinted) his eyes. As we see, this understanding of absolute synonyms diverges from the traditional one, when absolute synonyms are considered as part of ideographic synonymy as a special kind of semantic relations.
2. Functional equivalents - contextual synonyms. Here we mean words that “are capable of replacing each other in the same phrases, while realizing their basic, not identical, but only similar in content meanings” (Kuznetsova 1989, 125). For example: Chugai hastily scratched the lid of the Mauser that was hanging under his pea coat. But the weapon was not taken out (A.N. Tolstoy). At the onomathemic (sign) level, “Mauser” and “weapon” represent a privative opposition (opposition of inclusion, when a word with its meaning is included in the semantics of another word as part of it), therefore the word “Mauser” with its meaning can be completely absorbed by the meaning of the word “ weapon". With this understanding of contextual synonymy, the functions of synonyms are words that are in hypo-hyperonymic relationships (one word names a genus, acting as a hypernym, and the other, a species, representing a hyponym in relation to the genus). Such facts in the language are also called quasi-synonyms (i.e., as if not real synonyms). For example: The children picked cherry trees in the orchard. Mom washed the fruits and put them on the table. Here, on the basis of interchangeability within the context, “cherry” and “fruit” act as synonyms.
This understanding of contextual synonyms from the position of functional equivalence, as well as absolute synonyms, diverges from the traditional semantic approach, when contextual synonyms are understood not only as words that are in species-generic (hypo-hyperonymic) relationships, but also any words that are not nominatively coinciding in meaning, but becoming synonymous only in a certain context (compare, for example: “talk coldly, in a businesslike manner”).
Functional equivalents are secondary synonyms. This type of synonymy is organically connected with the phenomenon of polysemy of words, since the development of some secondary (figurative) meanings in words can be accompanied by the simultaneous appearance of a new synonymous pair. Philologists have long pointed out such a connection between polysemy and synonymy, since such a dependence is visible to the naked eye. Thus, a word can become a synonym not for the main, but for the secondary, figurative meaning, but this manifests itself only in a certain context (minimal in a phrase and maximum in a sentence). For example, the word exact, along with the main meaning of “fully corresponding to reality, truth” (exact weight, exact time, exact counting), also has a number of secondary LSVs - “fully corresponding to any sample or something specified, established, required” (exact copy , accurate translation, accurate shooting); “specific, definite and exhaustive, extremely complete and correct” (exact address); (about a person) “neat, punctual.” Since there are words in the language for which the indicated secondary meanings of the lexeme “exact” are, on the contrary, the main ones, the word “exact” enters into a synonymous relationship with them. Thus, the secondary function of a polysemantic word becomes a source of secondary synonymy. Let's compare:
1. (about an object, device, etc.) correct, error-free
2. (about time) absolute
3. (about shooting) accurate
(about address, information, etc.) correct, reliable, verified
5. (about language, pronunciation) accurate, correct, error-free
6. (about a person) neat, punctual
Such secondary synonymy is especially clearly presented if the secondary meaning and the secondary synonym are realized in phrases that seem to support the specific meaning of the word. At the same time, the semantic structure of a word may contain intersecting meanings for a polysemantic, but this structure may also contain less related and more distant meanings from one another, which, as a rule, is reflected in secondary synonymy. Compare an example of the latter kind:
Deaf (person) - deaf, hard of hearing;
(alley) - quiet, remote]
(collar) - closed)
(forest, thicket) - dense",
(area, town) - provincial, etc.
A polysemantic word that has independent synonymous rows for its individual meanings (LSV) collectively constitutes a so-called synonymous nest. Consequently, a synonymous nest is a set of rows of synonyms for individual meanings of a polysemant. In a synonymous nest, synonymous rows are arranged vertically, while the members of the synonymous rows themselves are arranged horizontally. Therefore, the linear arrangement of words that are close in meaning is a synonymous row, while the vertical arrangement of synonymous rows constitutes a synonymous nest (or block).
A synonymous nest can be a common fact, like the one given above, but it can also be occasional, when secondary synonyms are created by the author on the basis of individual associative connections. Due to this variety of secondary synonyms, synonymous nests often grow to significant sizes, acting as a figurative device in a literary text. Thus, in the works of K.G. Paustovsky's researchers have established the following synonymous nest for the word heavy, including both common and individual synonyms:
Heavy - about the subject (physical):
ponderous, ponderous, ponderous;
about feeling: painful, bad, languid, bad, languishing;
about thunder; strong, mighty, deafening,
about rain: heavy, torrential]
about fog: impenetrable, impenetrable, dense, thick, pitch-black, viscous, dull, about the bottom, about the sky, etc.: cloudy, cloudy, stormy, gloomy, sunless, gray, grey, muddy, gloomy, stern, gloomy, gelatinous, gray, frowning, etc.
As can be seen from the example, the sphere of distribution and functioning of secondary synonymy is wider than the sphere of functioning of polysemy. At the same time, the criterion for the functional equivalence of words, as well as synonyms in the narrow sense of the word, is interchangeability in specific syntagmatic segments of speech, which does not cause changes in the general content. It is the community meaning of the phrase that in such cases acts as an invariant, against the background of which interchangeable words can be considered as lexical options, united by a common semantic function.
In Russian, synonyms of all types represent an exclusively active functional means. Depending on the type of synonyms, semantic and stylistic functions of synonyms are distinguished.
Semantic functions of synonyms. This function in our speech activity is performed by ideographic (semantic, conceptual) synonyms. The most typical and characteristic of them are the following.
Substitution function. For synonyms, it is noted by all lexicologists without exception. For example, N.M. Shansky writes: “The main property of synonyms is the ability to replace one word with another in certain contexts” (Shansky 1972, 53). This function of semantic, ideographic synonyms is most often realized in successive parts of the text. Wed: The morning fog over the bay has not yet cleared. Sunlight broke through its damp haze. Lavrenev, Letter. The railroad tracks went south and west. There was not a single train on these routes. Sayanov, Heaven and Earth. Vronsky burst out laughing. And for a long time afterwards, speaking of something else, he burst into his healthy laughter, showing his strong solid teeth. - L.N. Tolstoy, Anna Karenina, etc.
Since ideographic, semantic synonyms have the ability to be interchanged in any context, in this function complete (or absolute) synonyms-doublets are most often used, the “semantic distance” between which is zero. These are pairs of words such as linguistics - linguistics, linguist - linguist, linguistics - linguistics, orthography - spelling, monosemy - unambiguity, polysemy - polysemy, dialectism - regionalism, democracy - democracy, etc. Their interchangeability is especially noticeable within the same context when they are used in order to avoid endless repetition of the same words. Let's compare: It was at the end of the 19th century. Russian linguists in their works presented a lot of active material, put forward interesting provisions, the study and generalization of which is necessary not only to supplement our information on the history of Russian linguistics, but also to assess their influence on the subsequent development of Russian, Soviet and European language science. The formulation of the main fundamental questions of linguistics in the works of these linguists was prepared by the entire previous course of Russian linguistic science... This common principle among all Russian linguists is in-depth attention and interest in the study of the Russian language. The specific material of the Russian language allowed Russian linguists to solve the largest theoretical problems of comparative historical and general linguistics: the range of scientific interests (of a linguist) includes various areas of linguistics (F.M. Berezin, Russian linguistics of the late 19th - early 20th centuries).
The substitution function is often performed by semantically equivalent word combinations: university higher education institution, kindergarten-kindergarten, CIS Commonwealth of Independent States; detailed names, including phraseological units: win, win, immediately (at once) in one (one) sitting; seriously, seriously-in all seriousness; to pamper to carry in one's arms; destroy, torment-bring in, drive into the coffin, bring down the grave, live with the light, send to the forefathers of many. etc. Like doublet synonyms, lexical variants of this type allow you to avoid monotony in presentation.
Such a substitution function is characteristic not only of doublet synonyms, but also of ideographic synonyms in general due to the partial coincidence of components (sems) in the structure of their lexical meanings Cf.: I laughed and pulled my mother, and she told me that I'll change where you're supposed to cry. V. Amlinekiy. Clouds have risen over the city, but perhaps at the district doctor there was no hellish stone?...How could this be, my God! Doctor and does not have such a necessary thing! Turgenev. /I rarely see and it’s bad I remember dreams But two. dreams remained in memory, probably for life... M. Gorky. Selection of poems Ermolova had a complete, dry list of things she had read poems would have shown that a red thread of her convictions ran through her entire life. Shchepkina Kupernik, O M.N. Ermolova, and mi. etc.
Ideographic synonyms not only diversify and enrich speech, but also introduce subtle semantic and stylistic shades, especially if they are used side by side within one segment of oral or literary speech. Wed: Marfenka has sunk laughing, and the grandmother frowned, but suddenly laughed good-naturedly. P. Goncharov, Break. The father was embarrassed, disgraced... Mother is outraged. V. Shverubovich, People of the Theater. Living on the edge of the village, in the fresh air. And I was evicted to a new house, in the very center. Soot, soot. Panova, Workers' Village People are needed for this work resistant, strong, iron bones people - right? M. Gorky, Summer. Then in this firm, unyielding A woman's heart has irresistibly ripened a plan of attack. Dostoevsky, Teenager.
Clarification function. It is typical for synonyms in the case when they detail something that underlies their similarity. This function is often also characteristic of ideographic synonyms, the additional semantic shades of which help, as it were, to dismember, differentiate ideas about a certain phenomenon of reality and thereby clarify these ideas, creating a more complete image of the subject. With the help of clarification, various aspects, properties, and characteristic features of the described (called) fact of reality are revealed. In general, clarification is one of the essential semantic functions of language. Most often it is implemented within one sentence with close, contact arrangement of words. For example: Po in this world dodgers, small crooks And businessmen ransomware was encountered and genuine publishing enthusiasts, tireless workers and champions of cultural service to the reading masses. I.P. Pavlov, My life and meetings. The glow began to slowly slope towards the road and suddenly collapsed, crash neighboring pine trees, breaking birch trees Paustovsky, A Tale of Forests. Tatiana comes out into the wide courtyard in an open dress. On month mirror Points; But in the dark mirror one trembles sadly moon. Pushkin, Evgeny Onegin. (In the last example, “month” is a “celestial body, crescent-shaped,” and “moon” conveys the idea of a celestial body of a round shape); And we both, covered with snow, rushed, you don’t know where, like storm spirits among a snowstorm and blizzard. N. Morozov, Stories of my life.
To strengthen the clarification function, often within one syntagmatic segment (context) ideographic and semantic-stylistic synonyms are compared and contrasted, emphasizing even more strongly and clearly the differential semantic features of the named phenomenon. Wed: In boyar plays the actor does not walked, A walked, Not stepped, A performed, Not lay, A reclined Not raised his hand A raised his hand. I. Shneiderman, M.G. Savina. His condition - thank God, not a bastard is he something not a beggar. Chekhov, Drama on the Hunt. Fear, close to horror, was imprinted on his face. Ch. Uspensky, From a village diary. And already a new, unfamiliar feeling took possession of him, and there was no no fear not even a small one fear. E. Kutuzov, Don’t stand on the threshold.
The need for clarification is caused by the fact that the denoted, due to its versatility, is not “covered” by any one lexical-semantic option. And then, with the help of differential semes, the concept of an object (action, phenomenon) is clarified by other names of their synonymous series. For example: I saw a navigator who ran didn’t come to me, namely ran along the shore from the toe. Kaverin, Two captains. Behind the house stood quiet, calm. D. Sergeev, Steep Pass. She wasn't exactly stupid so-so stupid. Kuzminskaya, My life at home and in Yasnaya Polyana.
This function of synonyms is especially noticeable during semantic gradation, when the meaning of one synonym is not simply clarified, but enhanced by the meaning of another (especially if it has a comic connotation). For example: Be brave, be brave in a fierce battle. Gusev, At six o'clock in the evening after the war. Just look at it, and you can immediately see: here brave, fearless, courageous man, hero! Brustein, The road goes into the distance. You had to see how he spoke to understand special, inexpressible the beauty of his speech. M. Gorky, Leo Tolstoy. Here there were taverns, taverns, and lodging houses, in which the Samayogol, the most hopeless poor, huddled. Teleshov, Notes of a writer. The purchase is not served to him, but thrown onto the counter without being wrapped. Kuprin, Black Lightning.
Stylistic functions. Such synonymous functions are qualitatively different from semantic ones. More often, these functions synonymously characterize poetic speech and therefore are the object of study in stylistics. Nevertheless, we will name individual features of synonyms associated with the specified function.
The first place should be given to the evaluation function when stylistic synonyms are semantically identical, but when choosing one or another synonym from the stylistic paradigm with a neutral reference word as a dominant, only the evaluative, pragmatic characteristic of the named phenomenon changes, which changes the attitude towards what is called. It is in this relation of the speaker to the object (action, sign) of reality that the stylistic function of a synonym lies. Wed: (Statue) Give me your hand. (Don Guan) Here it is... oh, it’s hard to shake his stone right hand] Leave me, let me have your hand. Pushkin, The Stone Guest. (In Russian songbooks) next to Pushkin’s poems, illiterate publishers place verses of various obscure verses. Belinsky, Prince Kurbsky. One cannot but agree that G. Benediktov is a poet as brave as he is original. He has his own fans and even write messages to him in poetry. Belinsky. One hundred Russian writers, etc.
As the above examples show, the evaluation function lies in the stylistic affiliation of synonymous words: poet - versifier (colloquial, disdainful), poetry - virgies (colloquial), poet rhymer (colloquial), etc. Moreover, such a negative (or, conversely, positive, positive) assessment can be supported by the context as a whole. For example, in the above illustrations, the positive evaluative connotation of the word “poet” is supported by the definition “brave” containing a positive evaluation, while the evaluation with a minus sign in its synonyms “rhymer”, poetic poet” has nearby definitions consistent with them with the same stylistic evaluative minus sign “dark”, “mediocre”, “talentless”, “petty”.
The different stylistic consolidation of marked lexical units in the language is reflected in explanatory dictionaries and dictionaries of synonyms with the help of marks that indicate either a rating above the neutral “zero” (high, poetic, bookish, official business, etc.), or rating below the neutral “zero” (colloquial, spacious). The accompanying evaluations contained in a word can be edited with additional marks such as: disdainful, vulgar, exalted, diminutive, affectionate. etc. All such synonyms, of course, perform a stylistic evaluation function in specific texts, which can be strengthened by the inclusion of a neutral and stylistically marked synonym in one speech segment (sentence, stanza). At the same time, expressively colored words are, as it were, projected onto their stylistically neutral variants. For example: You burn me with your eyes and hide in a dark dead end... But it’s not for nothing that you shower me with a silent fire. Block. On these yellow days between the houses, the Black Raven glances sideways at me. I would spit in his eyes, but I couldn’t bear it. V. Firsov, Memory. In the staring contest, which is a shame to call with your eyes, there is not a spark of light in any of them. Leskov, At the End of the World, etc.
The reader is usually especially impressed by the use of vocabulary “maximum meaning” or “maximum stylistic range”. For example: The lens could not look into the cold eyes of the fascist, nor into the empty, dead eyes of the traitor policemen. S. Zlobin, Missing people. They shouted that this was sinful, even vile; - that the old man was deceived, cheated, swindled, taking advantage of his dementia. Dostoevsky, Uncle's Dream.
Function of stylistic organization of text. This function is characterized stylistic coordination units of text, taking into account its content as a whole. The text can be constructed either in a bookish, high-key tone, or in a conversational manner, or in a neutral manner. Hence the choice of vocabulary units for the linguistic organization of such a text, including the choice of synonyms. Wed: And in the unclear, diffused light of the night, majestic and beautiful vistas of Leningrad opened up before us: the Neva, calmly and majestically rolling its cold waters, the embankment, canals, palaces (Fadeev, Leningrad during the days of the siege), etc. But here is the text of a different linguistic organization: Lanky, Alyoshka, you have become... - said Aniska... - Yes, and you are a mile away, - he answered. Lidin, Big River. In the first excerpt, the lexeme “majestic from the synonymous series majestic - majestic - regal is consistent in its connotation of bookishness, “highness” with other bookish words in the passage (embankment, perspectives, palace), with poetic metaphors (Neva rolls cold waters; diffused light of the night). In the second context of the dialogue, its entire lexical composition, except for neutral words, is consistent at the level of stylistically colloquial layers (lanky, that one) and the colloquial synonym “verst” about a tall man, organically included in this context.
It should be noted that the listed functions of synonyms are not always presented in their pure form. They can be combined to form mixed functional varieties. Therefore, the above examples from a functional point of view can not always be interpreted unambiguously, but both semantic and stylistic shades can be found in them. Thus, cases of using synonyms eye - eyes in artistic speech do not necessarily represent only their stylistic differences (neutral - bookish, poetic), since the word “eyes” contains both the semantics of the word “eyes” and something more, since, as they said in the old days, eyes are “the mirror of a person’s soul,” and lips are “the source of wise speeches,” and not just a mouth. Wed: They grabbed him, covered his mouth so that he would not scream. Pomyalovsky, Essays on the bursa. - And I sing, but the final judgment is not yours. It is not for you to shut my mouth. Block, Retribution.
A teacher’s ability to use synonymous possibilities and the riches of the Russian language in literature lessons is a sure sign of his professionalism and a certain skill: the task that he must set for himself is to teach his students to feel the Russian language and use its riches, including in the form of synonymy.
IDEOGRAPHIC AND STYLISTIC SYNONYMS: LEXICOGRAPHICAL ASPECT © Mukhamadyarova A.F. Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University, Kazan The article analyzes three synonymous series with the same dominants in the German and Russian languages (geizig - stingy, beharrlich - persistent, engherzig - soulless, selfish). Key words: synonym, synonymous series. Practice shows that when working with texts in a foreign language, translators encounter difficulties in selecting the necessary synonyms. The difficulty lies in the fact that it is necessary to accurately and completely express by means of one language what is already expressed by means of another language, while taking into account the expressive and stylistic marking of the word. In our research, we analyzed synonymous rows of adjectives that denote a person’s character with the same dominants in German and Russian and identified semantic differences and common features. For analysis, we took three synonymous series with the same dominants in German and Russian (geizig - stingy, beharrlich - persistent, engherzig - soulless, callous, petty, selfish). Let's consider a synonymous series with the dominant geizig. Let us present this synonymous series geizig – filzig (ugs.) – knauserig (ugs.) – knickerig (ugs.) – schäbig (abw.) – popelig (ugs., abw.) – schofel (ugs., abw.) – sparsam. Also members of the synonymous series include words such as raffgierig, knorzig, hartleibig, gnietschig, mickerig (landsch.). When compared with the synonymous next to the dominant stingy (stingy - greedy - stingy (colloquial) - tight-fisted (colloquial) - tight-fisted (colloquial) we came to the conclusion that in German schäbig has the following meaning: petty-stingy and emphasizes that stinginess causes a feeling of shame, and in the Russian language there is no synonym with such a connotation. One more difference should be noted, namely: in the Russian language skvalyzhny (simple) with the meaning of very greedy, whose stinginess causes disgust, disgust is not a synonym for the word greedy, and in German the meaning of this word corresponds to the adjective filzig. The next difference is that in Russian all members of the synonymous series have a negative connotation, while the synonymous series with the dominant geizig is characterized by neutral coloring and the word sparsam with the meaning economical, that is, spending something thriftily, observing economy, is a member of the synonymous Institute of Philology and Arts. Scientific supervisor: Kolpakova G.V., Associate Professor of the Institute of Philology and Arts, Doctor of Philology. 98 INTELLECTUAL POTENTIAL OF THE XXI CENTURY: STAGES OF COGNITIVE series and, thus, characterizes a person from a positive point of view and has a positive meaning. When comparing, we identified differences between members of synonymous series with the dominants geizig - stingy. This can be explained by the fact that the worldview of the German and Russian peoples was formed differently, as a result of which differences in the differentiation of synonyms are noted. Now consider the synonymous series with the dominant beharrlich (aus-dauernd (hardy, patient, persistent) – fest – geduldig – hartnäckig – unbeirrt – unentwegt (persistent, unshakable) – ungebrochen (persistent, unbroken) – unverdrossen – unverwüstlich (strong, indestructible , iron) – krampfhaft (tense) – verbissen – verzweifelt – entschlossen (decisive) – zäh (persistent) – fleißig – standhaft (persistent, unshakable) – zielstrebig). As synonyms of the dominant, persistent Dictionary, ed. A.P. Evgenieva gives the following words (persistent - stubborn - assertive - persistent (simple, disapproving) - stubborn (simple). It should be noted that in the synonymous row with the dominant persistent there are no words such as purposeful and diligent, only noted , that in the meaning of the words persistent and obstinate, the special perseverance and persistence with which someone strives for something, achieves something is emphasized... It should also be noted that patient is not a synonym for the word persistent, but in German in the language geduldig with the meaning “able to endure, persistent, stubborn in some matter, work" is a member of the synonymous series with the dominant beharrlich. The next difference is that unverdrossen, which means cheerful, tireless, is member of the synonymous series and has no analogue in the Russian synonymic series with the dominant persistent. Now consider the following synonymic series with the dominant engherzig. It has the following members engherzig - kleinlich - unduldsam - intolerant - spießbürgerlich (abw.) - kleinbürgerlich - kleinständlisch - spießig - provinziell - hinterwäldlerisch (in the dictionary under the general guidance of O.I. Moskalskaya 2002 is marked as colloquial) – krähwinklig – ehrpusselig (in the dictionary under the general guidance of O.I. Moskalskaya 2002 is marked as colloquial) – ehrpusslig – muckerhaft – muffig – plüschen – philiströs – pedantisch – kleinkariert (abw. ) – pinslig – pingelig – übergenau. Let’s move on to the synonymous series with the dominant soulless, which contains such members as soulless (devoid of sensitivity, responsiveness, capable of being cruel) – unresponsive – insensitive – callous (one who is little affected by the sorrows and joys of others) – dry - cold . It should be noted that the dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language, in 2 volumes, 1970, gives the following terms: ruthless, heartless, cruel, hard-hearted and hard-hearted. When comparing the synonymous series engherzig - soulless, we found that in the Russian synonymous series there are no adjectives with the meanings petty, Philological Sciences 99 picky, intolerant, philistine, petty-bourgeois, provincial, provincial, plush, philistine, philistine, ignorant, grumpy, dissatisfied, which are present in the synonymous row with the indifferent synonym engherzig. And in the German language such words as kleinlich with the meaning petty, picky, intolerant - intolerant (to something), irreconcilable, spießbürgerlich - philistine, kleinbürgerlich - petty-bourgeois, bourgeois, kleinständlisch, spießig - provincial, provincial, provinziell – provincial, hinterwäldlerisch – provincial, ignorant, krähwinklig – provincial, ehrpusslig – philistine, having a false idea of honor, plüschen – plush, philiströs – philistine, philistine, philistine, limited, pedantisch – pedantic, petty. When comparing the synonymous series engherzig - soulless, we identified sharp differences in members. This is due to the mentality of the German people, which is very different from the Russian mentality. The word philistine with the meaning of petty, purely personal interests, with a narrow outlook and underdeveloped tastes, indifferent to the interests of society is not synonymous with the word soulless, which has the following meaning: without a sympathetic, lively attitude towards someone, something, indifferent to people, heartless, devoid of living feeling, brightness, sharpness. Members of the synonymous series soulless express mostly a category of feeling, for example, cold, dry, ruthless with the meaning of not feeling or showing pity for the suffering and grief of others, as well as the word heartless, which means “devoid of mental softness, responsiveness”, while in the members of the synonymous series with the dominant engherzig the category of intellect and reason prevails. As proof, let us cite words such as philiströs (philistine), that is, with a narrow philistine outlook and sanctimonious behavior, hinterwäldlerisch (ignorant) with the meaning of little educated, little culture, little knowledge. The next difference is that in the synonymous row with engherzig there are members unduldsam and intolerant with the meaning “intolerant of anything, irreconcilable”, also pedantisch, that is, pedantic, petty, and kleinlich with the lexical meaning “petty, picky." In the synonymous row with the dominant, soulless, members with the meanings “devoid of tolerance, not taking into account other people’s views”, “not allowing any reconciliation, conciliation”, “attaching importance to trifles, trifles”, “prone to find fault, containing fault-finding” are absent. Muffig, denoting a grumpy, grumpy, dissatisfied person, has no analogue in the synonymous row with the dominant soulless. Thus, we have identified differences between the synonymous series engherzig - soulless. It should be noted that the differences between them are quite significant. This can be explained by the difference in the psychological structure of the German and Russian peoples. Analysis of synonymous rows with identical dominants of the German and Russian languages allows us to conclude that in interlingual synonymy there are no synonyms that are completely identical in meaning. We can only talk about significant similarity in the meanings of words despite their semantic differences. List of references: 1. German-Russian synonymous dictionary: approx. 2680 rows / I.V. Rakhmanov, N.M. Minina, D.G. Maltseva, L.I. Rakhmanova. – M.: Rus. lang., 1983. 2. Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language OR RAS / Ed. A.P. Evgenieva. - M.: Astrel Publishing House LLC, 2002. 3. Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language: in 2 volumes - 1970. 4. Ozhegov S.I. Dictionary of the Russian language: 70,000 words / Ed. N.Yu. Shvedov. – 22nd ed., erased. – M.: Rus. lang., 1990. 5. Duden. Sinn – und Sachverwandte Wörter Synonymwörterbuch der deutschen Sprache. Duden Verlag, Mannheim; Leipzig; Wien; Zürich, 1997. 6. Synonymwörterbuch. Sinnverwandte Ausdrücke der deutschen Sprache. Herausgeben von Herbert Görner und Günter Kempche. VEB Bibliographisches Institut, Leipzig, 1978. THE PRINCIPLE OF POLITICAL CORRECTNESS IN MODERN COMMUNICATION © Romashchenko E.A., Chekalova V.Yu. Kostanay branch of Chelyabinsk State University, Republic of Kazakhstan, Kostanay The article discusses the sociocultural features of the implementation of the principle of political correctness in Western countries and the post-Soviet space. The authors note the contradictions in the perception of this phenomenon by the linguistic and cultural communities of Kazakhstan and Russia and come to the conclusion that it is necessary to further comprehensively study political correctness, taking into account the specifics of the cultural and historical situation. Key words: political correctness, language policy, intercultural communication, euphemism, tolerance. Department of Philology. Scientific supervisor: Kotlyarova T.Ya., Associate Professor of the Department of Philology, Candidate of Philological Sciences.
With the help of ideographic synonyms, Russian speakers can convey the subtlest nuances in the meanings of words, while selecting more and more new lexical units that allow them to detail their ideas about observed facts and objects with extreme accuracy. Let's also compare: gloomy - gloomy - gloomy - gloomy cloudy. All of these words characterize a person, his character, appearance, mood and convey the general meaning of “characterized by severity, unsociability.” Moreover, “gloomy” means “characterized by severity, isolation, unsociability”; “gloomy” - “immersed in heavy, joyless thoughts and therefore withdrawn into oneself, not sociable", "gloomy" indicates slightly less severe , gloominess. depression, "gloomy" and "cloudy" mean “overwhelmed by painful thoughts, in a depressed state": both of the latter usually denote a temporary, rather than permanent, attribute or property. Let's compare their textual implementations: He was a gloomy man who did not like to waste words. Mom's Sibiryak, Nativity scene. Anna had never seen her husband in such a gloomy, depressed state. G. Markov, Strogovs. He often returned from work irritated and gloomy and walked gloomily around his office. K. Chukovsky, Boris Zhitkov. (Sergei Sergeevich) continues to walk around the room, and his face is gloomy, restless, as if he is dissatisfied with himself or with something else. Nikolaev. A story about the director of MTS and the chief agronomist. What does this cloudy look mean? Is this how one greets a father’s affection? Lermontov, Strange Man.
In addition, all of the indicated synonyms, with the exception of the word “cloudy,” are used figuratively when describing the area, landscape, structure, etc. For example: The ancient park, gloomy and strict..., stretched almost a mile from the house to the river. Chekhov, Black Monk. One December morning we arrived in gloomy and inhospitable St. Petersburg... Wanderer, Stages. Just the sight of the house... a gloomy, stone hulk, made him despondent. Berezko. Peaceful City, etc.
In each of the given examples there is exactly the shade that is necessary for a specific syntagmatic segment of speech.
Among ideographic (semantic, nominative) synonyms there are words that, as individual names, completely coincide in their semantic scope. Such identical lexical units of a language are called absolute synonyms, or doublets. Lexical doublets of this kind have minimal and optimal conditions for their coincidence. The minimum conditions for the identity of such words is their complete semantic coincidence: puma - cougar, orthography - spelling, nominative - denominative, etc., when other differences in such words do not play a role, and the words are perceived by the linguistic consciousness of Russian speakers as absolutely identical in meaning meaning. The maximum conditions for doublets are complete semantic identity of words and the absence of stylistic differences (which, to some extent, occurs in doublets of the first type). Such maximum coincidence both in semantics and in the stylistic characteristics of words is extremely rare, for example: octopus - octopus.
The appearance of non-lexical doublets in general is not typical for the Russian language; it reflects peculiar transitional processes in the language, which, as a rule, either exclude one of the doublets from use, or give one of them differential semantic or stylistic shades. The first variety includes examples of a fairly common lexical doublet of the 18th century such as regula - rule, shamad - surrender, sense meaning, etc., which was resolved in favor of one of the doublets (surrender, rule, meaning); to the second - examples like victory - Victoria, sample - model, etc., where both doublets are used either with stylistic (victory is common, and Victoria is bookish, sublime) or with semantic shades (see the article by L.P. Krysin: export - export), or sphere of use (sample - in all spheres of use, model - technical).
Among the synonyms-doublets there are those whose meaning and use do not differ, except for the scope of their application. In its overwhelming majority – This is a special or actual terminological vocabulary. Its characteristic feature is the fact that one of the words usually belongs to the international (or foreign language) and only in rare cases are both synonymous words Russian, for example: viewfinder - viewfinder, spirit level - level, hydrotherapy - hydrotherapy, helicopter - gyroplane, helicopteri, etc. There are especially many cases of doublet terms in narrow specialized areas, the vocabulary of which is not included in the standard national literary language.
The doublet words found in the Russian language include single lexemes with the connotation of belonging to the regional sphere of use. stubble - stubble and so on. If we take this feature into account, i.e. connotative background in synonyms, then one can generally question the very fact of the existence of synonym-doublets. This is precisely the scientific point of view expressed by V.I. Goverdovsky, who states the following: “Identification of the smallest semantic components in semantics, which are connotemes, makes it possible to theoretically distinguish from each other in semantic content the so-called “absolute synonyms.” The connotational structure indicates that the semantics of absolute synonyms do not coincide” (Goverdovsky, 1981, 166). Thus, in zoological terms, the red deer is one and the same, therefore, one and the same at the level of the denotative and significative part of the lexical meaning, but the connotation, indicating the dialectal nature of the use of the word in various areas of Siberia, leads to the need to use each lexeme as an autonomous fact language. Or another example: linguistics and linguistics. The word linguistics clearly represents the connotation of a semantic field, which includes an elephant with an element – knowledge (literary studies, geosciences, scientific studies, regional studies, etc.), uniting this thematic group of words and, as if automatically deriving from it the word “linguistics”.
Style (or stylistic) synonyms are words that have differences in expressive and emotional connotation and are therefore used in different styles of speech. Let's compare: hit, knock (neutral) fuck, grab (spacious); dance (neutral) – dance, dance (colloquial) – chop off (spacious); chatter (colloquial) chatter (colloquial) rattle (colloquial) chatter (colloquial) chirp (colloquial) clatter (colloquial); lucky, happy (neutral) lucky (colloquial) lucky (colloquial); fate, destiny (bookish) - share (colloquial and vernacular) fate, lot (poetic), hermit - recluse monk aiahoret\ etc., which are all used primarily in literary bookish speech. In all of the above synonymous rows, stylistically different words are presented, the use of which, in addition to stylistic coloring, is also associated with the scope of application (colloquial, everyday, professional book, literary speech, etc.). Such a variety of expressive-emotional lexical units allows a native speaker to choose in each specific case exactly the word that is most appropriate in a given speech situation and stylistically justified in a particular context. The presence of the stylistic richness of the Russian language creates unlimited possibilities for artistic creativity, unexpected comparison or opposition of synonyms in speech. For example: Those who can rob, those who cannot, steal. Fonvizin. And you think that I will go to this funny old man / this bald celadon! Herzen, The Thief Magpie. But now I see clearly, I distinguish more and more clearly. How eyes turn into eyes, How lips turn into lips. Martynov. Luck, etc. etc.
Semantic-stylistic synonyms represent a variety (type) of synonyms, which combine both shades of lexical meaning and stylistic differences in synonyms. For example, the synonyms rush to rush mean “quickly, head somewhere in the market” and are used mainly in colloquial speech; to rush means “quickly, instantly.” To go somewhere; rush - “to rush instantly and with force”; or: everyday – “intended for constant use, wearing, use”, the word is stylistically Central; everyday – “unlike holiday, for every day”, the word is also neutral; common “one that is used, worn, used in any conditions of ordinary mining life”, the word is stylistically marked by the colloquial Sphere of use; shabby - “the most everyday, the most outfitted and not new”, used in the colloquial sphere, often with a dismissive assessment, and many others. etc.
We find this type of synonyms in our speech quite often; it is readily used by word artists as an expressive means within one sentence. Let's compare: We stared into each other's eyes, I into his sultry, foggy eyes, he into my faded northern eyes, we were silent. Aksenov, Under the sky of sultry Argentina.
Since synonyms in their pure form are quite rarely represented in the language, it is better to talk about semantic and stylistic synonyms.
Synonymy as a lexical phenomenon and types of synonyms in the Russian language in semasiological studies of recent years are considered from a functional point of view, since synonyms are a form of manifestation of variant relations in the language.
Synonyms (from the Greek synonymos - same name) - words belonging to the same part of speech, close or identical in meaning, but sounding differently, for example: moment - moment (nouns); scold - scold (verbs); huge - huge (adjectives); in vain - in vain (adverbs); near - about (prepositions).
In modern Russian the following groups of synonyms are distinguished:
- semantic (ideographic) synonyms that differ in shade of meaning: youth - youth (youth - the first stage of youth); red - scarlet - crimson (the general meaning of these words is the same, but red is the color of blood, scarlet is lighter, crimson is darker);
- stylistic synonyms that have different spheres of use or different stylistic colors, but denote the same phenomenon of reality: forehead (neutral) - brow (sublimely poetic); excerpt (neutral) - fragment (book); cut off (neutral) - snatch, chop off (colloquial);
- semantic-stylistic synonyms that differ in lexical meanings and stylistic coloring: angry (neutral) - angry (colloquial, i.e. angry to a large extent) - angry (colloquial, i.e. angry to a very strong extent) - angry (colloquial , i.e., to be slightly angry).
It is necessary to distinguish contextual synonyms from general linguistic synonyms (sometimes they are called individual synonyms). Contextual synonyms are words whose meaning is similar only in a certain context, and outside of this context they are not synonyms. Contextual synonyms, as a rule, are expressively colored, since their main task is not to name a phenomenon, but to characterize it. For example, the verb talk (to say) is very rich in contextual synonyms: Marya Kirillovna poured out about her loved ones, he was silent (V. Shishkov); Nobody believed grandfather. Even angry old women muttered that devils never had beaks (K. Paustovsky).
Synonymous words can form a synonymous series, that is, a union of words that are close in meaning; At the same time, in a synonymous series there is always a main, core word that has a general meaning, is neutral in stylistic coloring and is included in the commonly used layer of vocabulary. The core word always stands at the beginning of the synonymous series and is called the dominant (from the Latin dominans - dominant). Gakov, for example, the verb fall among the words synonymous with it: fall, fall, plump, flop, crash, crash, slam, fly, thump, thunder, etc. Synonyms are also associated with the phenomenon of polysemy: a polysemantic word can be included in different synonymic rows. Synonyms help to show the difference in shades of meaning of a polysemantic word: fresh - fresh fish (unspoiled), fresh bread (soft), fresh newspaper (today's), fresh linen (clean), fresh wind (cool), fresh person (new).
Synonyms arise as a result of various processes occurring in the language. The main ones are:
- “splitting” of one lexical meaning of a word into two or more, i.e., turning a single-valued word into a new, polysemantic word. In this case, the developed new meanings can be synonymized with the meanings of other words existing in a given language. Thus, in the post-revolutionary period, the word interlayer, in addition to the direct meaning of ‘a thin layer, a strip between layers of something’ (a layer of cream in a cake), developed a figurative meaning - ‘a social group, part of a society, an organization’. In this new meaning, the word interlayer entered into a synonymous relationship with the words group, layer;
- divergence of different meanings of the same word, leading to the loss of semantic connection between them. As a result, each of the homonyms arising in this way has its own synonymous series. Thus, the adjective dashing, which already had several meanings in the Old Russian language, gradually began to mean two completely different qualities: a) ‘bad, difficult, dangerous’ (dashing time); b) ‘brave, selfless’ (dashing cavalryman). The homonyms dashing (1) and dashing (2) that arose in this way are included in different synonymous rows: dashing (1) - evil, heavy; dashing (2) - brave, daring, brave;
- borrowing foreign words that are close in meaning to the original words of the Russian language, as a result of which synonymous series and pairs of words may arise: region - sphere; universal - global; preliminary - preventive; prevail ~ prevail;
- the appearance of synonymous pairs as a result of word-formation processes that constantly occur in the language: digging - digging; piloting - aerobatics; timing - timing; faceting - cutting; equipment - equipment.
More on the topic SYNONYMS AND THEIR TYPES:
- Synonyms, types of synonyms. The communicative and stylistic role of synonyms. Causes of errors when using synonyms. Dictionaries of synonyms.