Surveying is a complex of geodetic work with the aim of creating a topographic map or topographic plan.

I. – Horizontal – contours and local objects on the plan.

Vertical – on the plan there is only the relief, the heights of terrain points (shown as horizontal lines)

Topographical - and contours, terrain, objects.

II. 1) Theodolite survey, which consists of field angular and linear measurements, from which, in office conditions, the position of terrain objects is determined relative to the vertices and sides of the theodolite traverse, i.e. create a contour plan of the area, on which the terrain objects (situation) are depicted without relief.

2) Tacheometric survey- a method for creating topographic plans of the area based on the results of angular and linear measurements on the ground relative to the tops and sides of the tacheometric traverse. During tacheometric surveys, the horizontal and altitude positions of points are mainly determined by the method of spatial polar coordinates, i.e. by pointing the crosshairs of the threads at a staff placed at a certain point, and measuring horizontal angles with the apex at the point of the tacheometric traverse relative to the reference line (side of the tacheometric traverse), vertical angles relative to the horizontal plane passing through the vertex of the angle, and the distance to the point being taken.

3) Mensular shooting- method of creation topographic maps and plans in the field on a scale consisting of a tripod, stand and tablet, by determining the position and height of a point using the polar method. Measurements are performed with a cypregel, consisting of a telescope and a vertical circle mounted on a column, which is mounted on a ruler, the beveled edge of which is parallel to the sighting axis of the pipe. The crosshairs of the grid of threads are pointed at the point to be determined (staff), while the beveled edge of the ruler should pass through the image on the tablet of the point of standing of the mensule; Using a thread rangefinder, they measure the distance, bring it to a horizontal position and plot it on the plan scale from the station point on the tablet in the direction of the beveled edge of the ruler and thus obtain a determined point on the tablet.

The heights of the points are found by measuring the vertical angle, the height of the device and the height of the sighting target using formula (255).

4) Phototopographic - topographic maps are created from photographs of the area.

a) Aerial phototopographic - images of the area are obtained from an airplane or other imaging equipment.

b) Space - Images are received from spaceships and artificial satellites.

Scale. L=3m on the ground; l=3mm. M= l/L=1/1000.

The choice of scale is determined by the characteristics of the terrain, terms of reference, recommendations.

Section height; h=0.2*N

Scale	h (m)
1:10000	5, 2, 1
1:5000	5, 2, 1, 0,5
1:2000	2, 1, 0,5
1:1000	1, 0,5
1:500	1, 0,5

On the plain h=0.25 m or 0.1 m.

30. Tacheometric survey - topographic survey performed using a theodolite or tacheometer and a rangefinder rod (a pole with a prism), as a result of which a terrain plan is obtained depicting the situation and relief.

Tacheometric surveys are performed independently to create plans or digital models of small areas of terrain on large scales (1: 500 – 1: 5000) or in combination with other types of work when performing stereotopographic or scale surveys is economically impractical or technically difficult. Its results are used when maintaining a land or city cadastre, for planning settlements, design of land allocations, reclamation measures, etc. Its use is especially beneficial for shooting narrow stripes terrain when surveying canal routes, railways and roads, power lines, pipelines and other extended linear objects.

The word "tacheometry" translated from Greek means "quick measurement". The speed of measurements during tacheometric surveys is achieved by the fact that the position of the terrain point being surveyed in plan and height is determined by simply pointing the instrument tube at a staff installed at this point. Tacheometric surveys are usually carried out using technical theodolites or tacheometers.

When using technical theodolites, the essence of tacheometric survey comes down to determining the spatial polar coordinates of terrain points and the subsequent plotting of these points on the plan. In this case, the horizontal angle B between the initial direction and the direction to the point being taken is measured using a horizontal circle, vertical angle v is the vertical circle of the theodolite, and the distance to point D is the range finder. Thus, the planned position of the surveyed points is determined by the polar method (coordinates c, d), and the elevation of the points is determined by the trigonometric leveling method.

The advantages of tacheometric surveys compared to other types of topographic surveys are that it can be carried out under unfavorable conditions weather conditions, and office work can be carried out by another contractor following the production of field measurements, which reduces the time required to draw up a plan of the area being surveyed. In addition, the survey process itself can be automated by using electronic total stations, and drawing up a plan or DTM can be done on the basis of a computer and plotters. The main disadvantage of tacheometric survey is that the preparation of a site plan is carried out in office conditions based only on the results of field measurements and sketches. At the same time, it is impossible to timely identify mistakes made by comparing the plan with the terrain.

29. The essence of theodolite survey of the area. Field measurements, survey methods, planning

Theodolite (horizontal) survey is a situational survey in which horizontal angles measured with a theodolite, and horizontal projections of distances with various measuring instruments. The elevations between terrain points are not determined, therefore theodolite survey is a special case of tacheometric survey

1) Reconnaissance

2) Laying theodolite passages

3) Capture the details of the situation

1) Rectangular coordinates

2) Polar coordinates

3) Corner serifs

4) Linear serifs

5) Bypass method

6) Target method

7) Ground - space method

30. The essence of tacheometric survey of the area. Field measurements. Planning

Tacheometric survey is the most common type of topographic survey. When tacheometric surveying plus theodolite surveying, the excesses between points are measured.

31. Concept and types of research. Composition of engineering and geodetic surveys.

The design and construction of structures is carried out on the basis of engineering surveys, as a result of which the economic and natural conditions construction area, predict the interaction of construction projects with the environment, justify their engineering protection and safe living conditions for the population.

Research is divided into: 1) preliminary at the stage of feasibility study (TES) or technical and economic calculation (TEC); 2) at the project stage; 3) at the stage of working documentation. In addition, research is divided into economic and technical. Economic research precedes technical research and determines the economic feasibility of building a structure in this place taking into account the provision of raw materials, building materials, transport, energy, labor force and so on. Technical surveys provide information about the natural conditions of the site to take them into account during design and construction.

The main surveys carried out on all types of structures include: engineering and geodetic; engineering-geological and hydrogeological; hydrometeorological, climatic, meteorological, soil-geobotanical, etc.

Engineering and geodetic surveys provide information about the situation and terrain and are the basis for the design and conduct of other types of surveys. They consist of work to create geodetic justification and topographic survey of the construction site, tracing of linear structures, linking of geological workings, hydrological sections, etc.

Engineering-geological and hydrogeological surveys provide information about geological structure work site, soil strength, groundwater etc., allowing you to evaluate construction conditions. Hydrometeorological surveys provide information about rivers and reservoirs, their depths, changes in water levels, slopes, directions and speeds of currents, water flows, etc.

During engineering surveys, geotechnical control is also carried out to assess the hazard and risk from natural and man-made processes, provide justification for the engineering protection of the territory, carry out cadastral and other work and research during the construction, operation and liquidation of objects.

32. . Concept and types of master plans. Project for the production of geodetic works. (PPGR)

GP– project for placement on a large-scale map or plan (1:500 1:1000)

Types of GP:

1) Schematic - serves for preliminary. Economical Calculations required for design

2) Main - all designed structures are drawn on it

3) Builds. GP – applied only to auxiliary structures (operating AD, warehouses...)

4) Combined GP - apply the contents of the main and construction GP

5) Perform. GP - applied to structures put into operation

PPGR consists of:

1) Decree. General principles geodical organizations Work on a construction site

2) Decree. Information about the execution of basic Types of work

3) Point. Issues of geodetic support of the route

4) Provide for work related to the implementation of marking work on the route

33. Concept of route, route highway. Elements of the route, main points of the route and their fixation.

A route is a spatial line located on the ground along the axis of an engineering structure being designed or under construction.

The highway route, both in plan and profile, contains straight and curved sections that meet at the main points of the curves. If in plan it consists of transitional and circular curves that smoothly fit into the terrain, with almost no straight lines between them, then it is called a clothoid route. The road curves of the route are different. They can consist of circular arcs with different radii, called Korobov curves. If straight sections of the route meet a circular curve through curves variable radius(transitional curves), then they are called roundings with transitional curves, and if they consist of 2 transitional curves - clothoids, then biclotoids.

Route lin. Facilities– the axis of the structure being designed is marked. on a plan, map, digital terrain model or marked and fixed on the ground.

Route AD - a spatial line coinciding with the axis of the road

Ch. AD route points:

NT, VU, CT

Route elements:

1) projection of the route onto the horizon. Plane

2) longitudinal profile of the route

3) straight sections of rounding

34. Highway and its elements. Road structures.

Highways have a subgrade (Fig. 148), consisting of a road surface, side ditches and edges. The roadway has a carriageway and shoulders. Within the edges of the roadbed, either decorative and snow-protective forest planting strips and soil reserves are arranged when the roadbed transitions into an embankment (Fig. 149), or cavaliers (Fig. 150) - when constructing wetlands. The boundary of the roadbed is the exclusion line established land surveyors when allocating land for a highway.

The route of a highway is a spatial line that coincides with the axis of the road. If the elevation of the roadbed above the surface is achieved due to soil removed from the ditch, then the transverse profile of this type of roadbed is called a profile at zero elevations.

The depth of the side ditches is determined depending on climatic and soil conditions and the design of the sand foundation.

With complex, rugged terrain, the roadbed is usually located above the surface of the earth - in an embankment or below - in a recess (see Fig. 149 and 150).

The height of the embankment (depth of the excavation) is the elevation (lowering) of the edge of the roadbed above the surface of the earth, taken along the axis of the roadbed (see Fig. 149 and 150). On flat terrain, to facilitate exiting the road from the edge and to reduce snow drifts, the transverse profile of the road is given a streamlined shape. On slopes, the roadbed is arranged in a half-embankment, half-cut (Fig. 151).

On steep slopes, the base of the embankment is cut into ledges. On rocky slopes, retaining walls are built to support the embankment.

City streets have carriageways, sidewalks and lawns. Underneath them are underground networks: pipelines, cables, drainage devices. Their depth is assumed to be at least 0.7 m (Fig. 152).

Between the sidewalk and the roadway, a rib (edge ​​stone) or a valance (a reinforced steep slope) is installed. Adjacent to the sidewalks and lawns is a lowered strip of the roadway (loto k). Water flows along it to the receivers of the underground storm sewer (drainage).

Separate traffic lanes on main roads and streets are separated from each other by marking lines or strips of lawn and green spaces. They ensure traffic safety and decorative design of the road or street.

Road structures

Highways have a variety of artificial structures designed to overcome various obstacles or to give stability to the road surface. Road structures are divided into:

1) bridges (Fig. 153, a), designed for the road to pass through water obstacles, rivers, bays, reservoirs, canals and streams;

2) viaducts that carry roads through deep valleys, ravines, ravines and dry lands;

3) overpasses designed to allow one road to pass over another crossing it;

4) overpasses (Fig. 153, b), bridge structures that replace embankments when the road passes above the ground when crossing built-up or wetlands, when approaching large bridges or when crossing small lakes and reservoirs;

5) pipes (Fig. 154) installed under the road (in its embankment) to pass small watercourses, storm water and snow water through it, or to allow local transport, pedestrians or livestock to pass through the road;

6) aqueducts and bypasses - structures designed to pass various watercourses and canals over the road;

7) tunnels - underground structures, arranged for laying roads through high ridges and passes, under a layer of unstable rocks, under large canals or bays;

8) galleries installed above the road to protect it from avalanches, landslides, rockfalls and mudflows;

9) retaining walls - structures designed to hold an earthen slope or slope from sliding or collapse;

10) dressing walls - structures that protect slopes or unstable slopes from erosion or collapse;

11) filter structures in the form of filter embankments and layers, consisting of rock fill in areas of ravines (thalwegs), instead of bridges and pipes of small holes.

Bridges have a span and supports. The span structure can be single-span or multi-span. The outer supports at the junction of the bridge with the bank or embankment are usually called abutments, and the middle supports are called bulls.

Bridges are divided into wooden, stone, concrete, reinforced concrete and metal. Based on operating conditions, they distinguish between beam, arch, frame and suspension bridge systems, and based on the nature of the location of their roadways - bridges with traffic on top, bottom and in the middle.

36. The concept of field tracing. Trace order. Pinning route points.

Tracing– a set of survey works to select a route in accordance with technical and economic conditions.

Field tracing– the process of transferring the designed route to the terrain with clarification of its position and closure on the terrain.

1) removal and fixation on the ground of the main points of the route (NT, VU, CT)

From local items

From geodetic points Networks

2) setting the direction of the route

3) calculate the length of the curve, B, and D, for each vertex of the rotation angle.

4) breakdown of picketage and plus points

5) leveling the route

6) Fixing points on the ground: NT, VU, CT, plus points, cross-section points

7) Comp. Scheme "Kroki"

37. Purpose of the picket log. Introducing it during tracing.

Simultaneously with the breakdown of the picket, the situation is photographed and a picket log is kept, which is usually created on mm paper. It sketches the situation, shows the location of the transverse profiles to be removed and the benchmarks placed to the side of the route, and the diagrams for linking them to permanent objects in the area. The axis of the structure in the picket log is shown straight, straightened in the corners, with symbol rotation angles with arrows. Instead of conventional signs of land, their name is written down in the picket log, and the slopes of the area are indicated. arrows. The picket log is kept on an approximate scale, approximately 1:2000, and the scale is not always kept constant. When shooting a situation up close corner point with an abundance of contours, in addition to the picket log, an outline is taken at the top of a given angle.

39. Types of road curves. The concept of transition curves.

When routing highways, for road curves with radii smaller than those recommended by standards, circular curves are used, mating with straight sections, transition curves that have a gradually changing radius of curvature from infinity to a value equal to the radius circular curve. Transition curves are necessary for a smooth transition of a moving vehicle from a straight direction to a circular curve and vice versa. Various curves are used as transition curves. The most convenient for this is considered to be a clothoid (radioid), which is close in shape to the curve described by a moving car on road curves. The main points of such roundings are: the beginning of the rounding NZ (the beginning of the first transition curve NPK 1), the end of the first transition curve KPK 1 (the beginning of the circular curve NKK), the end of the second transition curve KPK 2 (the end of the circular curve KKK) and the end of the rounding KZ (the beginning of the second transition curve NPK 2).

In order to more harmoniously combine the highway with the landscape of the area and give its curves better smoothness, road design began to be carried out with continuous clothoid curves. Each such clothoid rounding consists of two mutually conjugate clothoids - biclotoid with the possible insertion of a circular curve between them. Sometimes biclotoid curves have complex clothoids composed of clothoids different parameters. This combination of curves is used to smoothly fit the roadway into the existing natural conditions of the area.

If both clothoids of the rounding are the same, then such a rounding is called symmetrical. If the clothoids have roundings different elements, then the rounding is called asymmetrical

40. Determining the chainage position of the main points of a circular curve.

Picketing position – the distance of the nearest pickets to the main straight line. The picketing position of NK, SK, KK is calculated using formulas.

PC NK = PC VU – T;

PC SK = PC NK + ½ K; = PC KK – K/2

PC KK = PC SK + ½ K; = PC NK + K

Control: PC QC = PC VU + T – D

On the ground at small T, to find NK and KK from the top of the corner on both sides along the route, tg T is laid off. CK is found by setting aside the value B from the angle along its bisector. At large T, NK and KK are found by setting aside the distances from the nearest pickets equal to the differences between the picketage of the point being staked out and the nearest picket.

PC NK = 7 + 24, 17 then from PC7 they lay off along the route 24.17 m and get NK

41. Concept, purpose and content of desk tracing.

Tracing– a set of survey works to select a route in accordance with technical and economic conditions

Cameral tracing– designing a route using maps and plans, aerial photographs or digital terrain models

Subsequence:

1) In accordance with the design slope, the laying d=h/i is calculated

2) Outline the initial and end point tracks

3) Using a compass solution equal to d, we mark on adjacent horizontal lines, thus obtaining broken line tracks

4) Straighten the route

5) Construct the angle of rotation of the route

6) Assign R and enter a circular curve

7) Calculate: T, K, B, D

They break up the picket line, plus points, def. their heights...

43. Leveling the route. Field measurements at the station, tolerances. Calculation of excesses, page-by-page control.

Leveling the route is carried out immediately after routing

Before leveling the route, fundamental benchmarks are laid along it every 20-30 km

Temporary benchmarks after 2-3 km

The heights of all points are tied to these benchmarks

Performed using the geometric niv method

Sequence:

1) Niv-e issue. Directly and back

2) B straight ahead level all travel points, in the opposite direction only pickets

Calculation of excesses

1) calculate the excess on the black side of the rail h h = a-b

2) on the red side h k = a-b

3) control h h - h k<5 мм

4) h cp = h h + h k /2

44. Transfer of marks through water barriers with a reservoir width of up to 300 m.

At 10-20m from A and B, select J 1 and J 2 for setting up the device so that J 1 A = J 2 B, J 1 B = J 2 A.

Set the level on J 1, take a count on both sides of the slats, set it at A and B, sight on A, and then on B. I don’t change the focus of the pipe, place the level on A 2 and take a count on both sides of the slats at points A of the pipe, take counting along the staff at B. Before reading, bring the level bubble to the middle of the tube. Let a' and b' be the readings at the first station, a'' and b'' - at the 2nd, then the desired prev. t. We get B over A twice.

h’ = a’ – b’ h’’= a’’ – b’’

The discrepancy between h’ and h’’ should not exceed 10mm for every 100m of distance.

Finish h = (h’ + h’’) / 2.

45. Transfer of marks through water barriers with a reservoir width of more than 300 m.

The task is the same as the previous one, counting down accordingly. position horizon inside the axis def. by calculations, because Due to the range, it cannot be obtained directly. I pricked 2 black narrow strips onto the rail - marks, so that the reading corresponded to the horizon and the position of the axis was between them. The width of the runner depends on l between points, with l=600m, d=2-5cm.

Install the level, sight at the middle of the upper strip a’ and note by what number of divisions the level bubble has deviated from the middle of the tube, then to the middle of the lower strip a’’ and a certain number of division points by which the level bubble has deviated in the other direction from the middle of the tube. The distance l between the middle of the strips is known, in order to get an accurate calculation using the rail, you need to add x to the measurement made at the middle a'' from the proportion x/(l-x)=m/n → x = lm/m+n, m=1, n =2, l=60cm, x=20mm

m and n – number of level divisions.

48. Moving the picket onto a curve.

y=R-ô = R - cosj = R(1- cosj)

j/360 = k/2pR j = k*R/r R = 57.3 degrees

49. The essence of the Gaussian projection. The Gauss-Kruger projection is obtained by projecting the globe onto the surface of a cylinder touching the Earth along some meridian. To ensure that distortions in the length of lines do not exceed the accuracy limits of the map scale, the projected part of the earth's surface is limited by meridians with a longitude difference of 6 0, and when drawing up plans at scales of 1:5000 and larger - 3 0. Such an area is called a zone. The middle meridian 3 of each zone is called the axial meridian. The zones are counted from the Greenwich meridian to the east.

After unfolding the cylinder into a plane, the axial meridian of the zone and the equator 5 will be depicted as mutually perpendicular straight lines 6 (projection of the axial meridian) and 7 (projection of the equator). The image of the axial meridian and the equator is taken as the axes of the zonal system of rectangular coordinates (Fig. 17 b) with the origin at the point of their intersection. The X axis is aligned with the image of the axial meridian, and the Y axis is aligned with the equator.

50. Vertical curves, its main elements and their calculation.

In places where the terrain breaks, vertical curves are created.

T= Rôi/2 K= Rôi B= T 2/2R

Subsequence:

1)calc. Basic Elements of a vertical curve (T, ...)

2) calculate the design elevations of the main points of the vertical curve

3) calculate the picket position of the NVK, SVK, KVK

4)calc. Mark N pr nvk

6) N pr svk

53.The essence of leveling the surface by squares.

The level is installed at any point, located inside the site. A point with a known absolute value is taken as the point of survey justification. mark. Leveling on the current of the survey justification and the top of the square is carried out from one station, using the geometric leveling method (readings are taken only on the black side of the staff). The readings made on the staff are recorded on a diagram of a network of squares. Based on the results obtained, the tool horizon is calculated using the formula: GI = H 16 + B 16, where H 16 is the absolute elevation of point 16; B 16 counting on the staff at point 16. Then, through the instrument horizon, the absolute marks of the points of the vertices of the squares are calculated: Н i = GI – C i, where Н i is the absolute mark of the vertex of the square, C i is the reading on the staff for the corresponding vertex. The resulting marks are recorded on the diagram of the network of squares at the corresponding vertices. The construction of a grid of squares is carried out using a theodolite and tape. For this purpose, a rectangle is built along the border of the site, on the sides of which the vertices of the square are fixed at specified intervals. The main square is divided into fillers with sides of 10 m. The tops of the main square are secured with pegs with guards, and the filling ones with pegs without guards.

Leveling the surface into squares is carried out by laying out a grid of squares on the ground using a theodolite and a measuring tape with a side of 20 m when shooting at scales of 1:500 and 1:1000, 40 m and 100 m when shooting at scales of 1:2000 and 1:5000. Simultaneously with the breakdown of the grid of squares, the terrain situation is photographed and an outline is drawn up. To photograph a situation, the same methods are used as in theodolite survey. In addition to the tops of the squares, characteristic relief points are fixed on the terrain. Plus points: edges, bottom, holes.

55.The procedure for compiling an outline log of leveling by squares. The essence of the method of applying contour lines to a plan using a palette.

Palette – made from a transparent sheet of wax, tracing paper or cellulon, etc. On which a network of squares is applied with sides whose lengths, taking into account the scale, of the plan, create a round value for the cost of dividing the palette. So, for a plan on a scale of 1:10000, a square with a side of 1 cm corresponds to 1 hectare, etc. To determine the area, place the palette on the defined area. contour and count the number of whole squares that fit inside the contour. The total sum of squares n is determined and, knowing the cost of dividing each square μ, the total area, the definition of the figure, is found. S = μn.

Outline Palette.

2) dir. direction angle α i

3) original benchmark

4) counting on the staff and pn is set on the benchmark

5) readings b i installed at the vertices of the squares

6) absolute marks of the vertices of the square

– level horizon mark H gi = H pn + a pn

– mark of the vertices of the squares H i = H gi – B i

Meaning H pn a pn, the mark H gi is written on the outline.

57.The concept of settlement, subsidence of a structure. Definitions of structure settlement.

Settlement - due to compaction of the soil under and inside the foundation → constant pressure of the mass of the structure; vertical offsets. Subsidence is a rapidly flowing o., define o. geom leveling method. method from the middle or forward.

It is necessary to measure the excess between the deformation reference. sign on the building

l 1 = l 2

h i =a i -b i

h 2 =a 2 -b 2

∆h=h 2 -h 1 – draft.

Causes of precipitation: underground channels, groundwater

58.The concept of deformations of structures. Types of deformations, reasons for their occurrence. Main types of deformation marks and their placement.

In geodesy, the term deformation refers to a change in the position of an object relative to its original state. The constant pressure of the mass of the structure leads to compaction of the soil under and near the foundation and vertical displacement, or settlement, of the structure. In addition to pressure, the mass of sedimentary structures can occur from changes in groundwater levels, karst, landslide and seismic phenomena, from the operation of heavy mechanisms, etc. When porous and loose soils are compacted, rapid deformation occurs over time, called subsidence.

If the soils under the foundation of a structure are compressed unequally or the load on the soil is different, then the settlement is uneven and leads to horizontal displacements, shifts, distortions, deflections, resulting in cracks and even faults.

Bias structures in the horizontal plane can occur due to lateral pressure of soil, water, wind, etc. High tower-type structures (TV towers, chimneys, etc.) due to uneven heating by the sun, wind pressure and other reasons experience torsion And bend

Absolute, or full, sediments of S grades are determined as the difference in marks obtained relative to a reference point located behind the funnel of the sediment of the structure and taken as stationary, at the current moment of time (N current) and at the beginning of observations (N us), i.e. S - N current - N start.

Bank, or incline, structure is equal to the difference in settlement (S 2 -Si) of two points along the selected axis or at opposite edges of the building. The inclination along the longitudinal axis is called a blockage, and along the transverse axis - skewed.

Torsion is equal to the change in the angular position of the radius of a point with the origin at the center of the horizontal section under study. Torsion about the vertical axis is mainly observed in tower-type structures.

Average speed vcp deformation is equal to the ratio of the magnitude of the deformation to the time period t during which this deformation occurs. Average settlement rate

59.Methods for measuring horizontal displacements of structures.

Horizontal displacements are determined by the alignment or trigonometric method.

The sliding method is used to observe the displacements of points of structures belonging to a vertical plane with approximately the same heights. They have special stamps on them. Target points are easily marked on straight dams, bridges, retaining walls, crane tracks, tunnels, etc. The displacement of target marks is determined either by measuring small angles or by moving the target mark.

Reliable determination of the magnitude of horizontal shifts largely depends on the correct choice of support points created outside the structure on stable ground. To control their immobility, another system of points can be used, the stability of which has a higher degree of reliability.

When the target mark moves, its linear displacement is measured directly using a guide screw with a micrometer. The mark is centered over the point and then moved by the aiming screw until its vertical axis aligns with the collimation plane of the theodolite. The reading on the micrometer scale characterizes the displacement of the point from the target.

The trigonometric method is used to determine horizontal displacements of points when it is impossible to create alignments, for example, on curved dams, in curved railway tunnels and other structures, especially if they are located in the mountains. However, the trigonometric method is more labor-intensive than the folding method.

When determining displacements of large structures, the alignment and trigonometric methods are sometimes combined. The position of the reference points is determined trigonometrically, and the displacement of the points of the structure is determined using a alignment.

To facilitate the measurement of horizontal displacements of dam foundations, reverse plumb lines are used, which are installed in the vertical shafts of the dam.

60.The essence of determining the tilt of a structure.

Roll - measurement of the inclination of a structure relative to the vertical. axes

Н = Вb – height of the structure.

a – pr-i. t = arctan a/H

The roll (or inclination) is equal to the difference in the draft of two points along the selected axis and on the opposite edge of the building. Tilt along length. axis - blockage, along the transverse - skew. Relative roll – K = S 2 – S 1 /l. S 2, S 1 – precipitation at points 1 and 2; l is the distance between them.

What is a topographic survey of a land plot? This is part of the cadastral work performed during land surveying.

You can find out what land surveying is at.

It is carried out directly on the ground, on the basis of a technical specification previously drawn up by a cadastral engineer, using information about the site obtained from the state real estate cadastre (GKN).

Requires subsequent processing and calculations, on the basis of which a topographic document with explanations is compiled directly.

In what form is it provided?

Preparation of a survey project

The design of the development area is carried out based on the availability of a topographic document, which acts as a geobase. Here, the buildings planned for construction are plotted on the existing land survey plan (see). Or an internal land survey is established for a plot that has been registered under a single cadastral number and is not subject to division. As a result, the planned ones appear:

• buildings or structures;
• conditional boundaries of development zones;
• conditional boundary lines.

Sometimes such a document is used to establish encumbrances on part of the land plot.

Conducting communications

This procedure requires drawing up or allotment. Here, in addition to the existing buildings within the site and beyond, transport lines are indicated, as well as the exact location:

• electrical wiring;
• gas pipes or other, in accordance with the application.

Such work is carried out in strict compliance of the manufactured circuit with the real state of affairs, requiring the utmost care in measurements and calculations. As a result, the customer receives, which indicates the location of the electrical or gas infrastructure in the area where the charger is located.

Making cuts

This type of photography allows up to 10% of the total area free of charge (Article 60 of the Land Code). Or – the purchase of adjacent ownerless lands from the administration.

You can read the text of Article 60 of the RF Land Code below.

When carrying out geodetic work, a new site takes over the old territory. The topographic plan shows the initial and subsequent structure of the land.

Land Code of the Russian Federation, Article 60. Restoration of the situation that existed before the violation of the right to a land plot, and suppression of actions that violate the right to a land plot or create a threat of its violation

1. The violated right to a land plot is subject to restoration in the following cases:
   • the court invalidates an act of an executive body of state power or an act of a local government body that entailed a violation of the right to a land plot;
   • unauthorized occupation of a land plot;
   • in other cases provided for by federal laws.
2. Actions that violate the land rights of citizens and legal entities or create a threat of their violation can be suppressed by:
   • invalidation in court in accordance with Article 61 of this Code of acts of executive bodies of state power or acts of local government bodies that do not comply with the legislation;
   • suspension of execution of acts of executive bodies of state power or acts of local government bodies that do not comply with the legislation;
   • suspension of industrial, civil, residential and other construction, development of mineral and peat deposits, operation of facilities, carrying out agrochemical, forest reclamation, geological exploration, prospecting, geodetic and other work in the manner established by the Government of the Russian Federation;
   • restoration of the situation that existed before the violation of the right, and suppression of actions that violate the right or create a threat of its violation.

Reorganization of the storage facility

This procedure is carried out only by land surveying. Surveyors measure the total area of ​​the merging areas into one, highlighting its boundaries along the perimeter. Or they divide one plot into a specified number of them, taking into account the norms established for this procedure.

Topographic documentation is provided to customers, containing information about the old and newly formed site.

Office stage– application of the obtained data in the preparation of a finished topographic document that meets the customer’s goals. Preparation of a cadastral report, with the transfer of an electronic version to Rosreestr.

Each stage of work is provided with appropriate methods of carrying out and calculations, as well as the necessary tools. Responsibility for their implementation rests with a cadastral engineer who has a license to conduct them.

Placing an order

The application is submitted to the geodetic company at the location of the landfill. Attached to it are documents confirming the ownership of the site and the customers’ passports.

How much does topographic survey of a plot of land cost?

Prices for the designated work are set depending on regional prices, taking into account the profitability of the company and the list of services provided.

In particular, the highest prices for the cost of topographic survey of a land plot are in Moscow and St. Petersburg, approximately for different types of services they are:

1. Cadastral work on plots up to 10 acres – from 10-20 thousand rubles, depending on the location of the memory. As the area increases, prices increase.
2. Drawing up a boundary plan for a building up to 200 m. – from 8-10 thousand.
3. Establishment of turning points, if the site has no more than four of them - from 8-14 thousand, depending on location.
4. Drawing up of the SPOS for electrification or gasification of the charger – from 6 thousand.

Simplified topographical survey of the area. It is done using a tablet, a sight line and a compass by eye, with a small degree of accuracy and using the simplest instruments. A local historian must be able to draw up such plans of the area.

Take tablet- a square board or folder. Attach a sheet of thick paper measuring 24x36 cm to it, a compass; it is also necessary to have a triangular sight line about 30 cm long, a simple pencil and an eraser. Using thin pencil lines, draw a sheet of paper into one- or two-centimeter squares. The north-south line on the compass should be parallel to the long edge of the tablet. At the bottom right of the sheet, mark the linear scale in steps or meters. Mark the starting point on the tablet. If the area being photographed lies to the north of it, then place a point on the southern, lower part of the tablet. Now you need to orient the tablet according to the cardinal points, turning it until the letter “C” on the compass coincides with the direction of the dark end of the magnetic needle pointing north.

Having marked the starting point with a pencil, you should inspect the area, noticing a separate hill, tall tree, building, pond, bridge, embankment, etc. This landmarks. From the starting point, use a pencil to draw, for example, the direction of the road to the turn. To do this, raise the tablet to eye level, aim the sight line along the road line and draw its direction on the tablet.

It is more convenient to work together: one monitors the position of the tablet, the other endorses. Even better - install the tablet on a tripod, peg, stump, stone. Next, without changing the position of the tablet, sight and draw directions to characteristic local objects.

This is how a series of lines and symbols of landmarks appear. But where on the line are they? Their location is determined in two ways: the first is by measuring the distance by eye or by steps; the second is the intersection method: sighting at the same landmark from another point (at the intersection of the lines the object being photographed will be located). The step size is calculated on a pre-measured 100-meter segment using the arithmetic average of several measurements.

Much easier and more convenient serif method. Having visualized and drawn the direction to the object from the starting point on the tablet, you need to move along the walking line, measuring the distance in steps. Having marked the stop with a dot, again take the direction to the same landmark and draw a line. At the intersections there will be an object marked with a conventional topographic sign. At the second standing point (TC 2), the work is done in the same order: the position of objects is determined by notching, directions to landmarks are sighted and drawn. Having finished working in TS 2, they follow the road to TS 3, and so on until the end of the area being filmed.

When landmarks are plotted on the plan, it is supplemented with details of the area. Topographical signs depict shrubs, vegetable gardens, orchards, swamps, ditches, rivers, etc. They cover the space between landmarks. In our case, the site was removed from the road. It can be replaced by a path, and if there isn’t one, then you can go without roads - from one landmark to another.

If you have a map of this area, you can copy the desired narrow section along which the hiking route runs, and then, already on the hike, mark this path and additional landmarks adjacent to it on the map. This narrow strip of card is called route tape. It indicates the countries of the world and inscribes where all the roads departing from the route go, what is the distance to the nearest populated area, and marks the route in kilometers. Based on observations and information received from local residents, the map is supplemented and refined; parking areas, newly appeared roads, villages, quarries, forest plantations, etc. are applied to it. For convenience, route tapes are glued to pieces of cardboard covered with linen strips; then the card can be folded.

In field work, it is often necessary to measure the height of hills and determine the steepness of slopes. There are several ways to measure them.

1. Measurement using two rods and a spirit level. Rail length - 2 m; centimeter divisions are applied to it. Poles or pegs indicate the direction in which the measurement is being taken. The first rail is placed at the foot of the hill, the second is placed horizontally between the rail and the slope. The verticality and horizontality of the slats are verified with a spirit level. The first staff measures the height to which the horizontal staff has risen, and the second measures the distance from the top of the first staff to the hillside. Having recorded this data, you need to move the vertical staff to the point where the horizontal staff touched the hillside. The second staff is again installed horizontally... This is how measurements are taken along the slope of the hill, step by step, to its top. Adding up all the measurements of the vertical staff, we get the height of the hill. Knowing the readings on the horizontal staff, it is not difficult to depict the transverse profile of the slope, plotting the vertical and horizontal distances to scale, as shown in the figure.

2. Measurement using the “horizontal sighting” method. At the foot of a hill or cliff, a field book is raised to eye level at arm's length, holding it strictly horizontally. They sight at some noticeable point (stone, flower, tuft of grass). They climb the slope to this point and sight again. Your height is known. The height of the bank slope, hill, or ravine is determined by the number of counts. For greater accuracy, it is recommended to use a simple level, which is held by the ring with your hand, as shown in the figure.

3. Measuring a vertical or almost vertical cliff with a rope marked in meters (measuring tape).

4. Measuring the steepness of a slope with a homemade eclimeter - a device for measuring slope angles on the ground. It can be made from cardboard measuring 15x20 cm, onto which, using a protractor, draw a semicircle, marking it into degrees; hang a weight on a thread in the center of the semicircle. How to use it can be seen from the pictures. The degrees are counted by pressing the plumb line with your finger.

5. Determining the steepness of the slope by the deviation of the plumb line from the protractor, as shown in the figure.

The height of individual objects (for entry in the route book), for example a tree, can be measured in several ways.

1. Using a precisely measured pole and with a known height making the measurement, and also when the distance from it to the tree is known; The height of the tree is determined by calculating the proportion of similar triangles AED and ACB.

2. Using a protractor, the observer takes a position in which the plumb line of the protractor shows an angle of 45°. A right triangle ABC is constructed, in which angle BAC is 45°, and therefore angle ABC is also 45°; Therefore, the legs of the triangle AC and BC are equal. By measuring the distance from the observer to the tree, the values ​​of AC and BC are determined. This means that the height of the tree is equal to the distance from it to the observer plus the height of the observer.

After shooting the area “in the field,” the drawing is drawn up completely at home, usually with ink, rivers and lakes are painted over with watercolors, and inscriptions are carefully made.

In all spheres of activity of material production and relations between man and society. This popularity is formed by widespread demand for the registration of land plots, the organization of any new construction, the study of natural resources, their development, operation and other changes in their actual situation and legal relationships.
Topographic surveys can be considered simultaneously a technological tool, a production process and a method for obtaining an accurate representation of the terrain surface at the required scale. Such an image is called a topographic plan and contains all the information obtained as a result of survey work, in spatial reference to the current coordinate system. The basis for conducting topographic surveys are points of the state geodetic reference and survey networks.

Main stages of topographic survey

Topographic surveys may include various technological processes depending on the measuring geodetic equipment used for this. But the structure of actions and the sequence of operations that can be seen during filming allow us to identify common main stages.
The first of these is considered the preparatory stage. It includes all work performed before the actual measurement process begins. As a rule, organizational work takes place there. During this period the following occurs:
. receiving technical specifications;
. study of the area;
. designing a scheme and choosing survey methods;
. organization and collection of archival topographic plans, diagrams of underground networks and utilities;
. establishment of estimated cost;
. performing metrological checks of devices;
. preparation of a trip to the area of ​​geodetic measurements.
The second stage of topographic surveys is considered to be field work with reference to points of the reference network, control measurements, preliminary calculations and assessment of accuracy in the field. This, perhaps, the main stage should include all plan and altitude, linear and angular geodetic measurements of the contours of all permanent buildings, temporary structures, terrain and other physical parameters provided for by the measurement technology.
The third stage, called office work, includes final computational processing and design of topographic surveys in graphic or electronic form in compliance with the requirements for drawing symbols on the selected scale. By this stage of work, it is still possible to determine the compilation of explications for utility networks, underground communications belonging to water utility companies, energy supply companies, telecommunications companies, gas and heat supply companies. Coordination with them on the topographic plan of all linear structures that are on their balance sheet.
The fourth and final stage of work can be considered the stage of completing the work, drawing up a technical report in several copies, each of which is submitted to the relevant departments of urban planning and architecture, geodetic control and the customer.

The essence of surveying processes in topographic work, of course, is to obtain data (coordinates) of the spatial position of all surveyed points relative to the geodetic basis, which forms the entire coordinate system of the country. And on the basis of these works, drawing topographic plans. In this case, two directions for measuring survey elements should be noted:
. shooting a situation, which is the determination of the coordinates of all points of contour objects;
. Relief surveying, which consists of multiple acquisitions of information (coordinates of points) about the shape and content of the terrain.
Shooting a situation has as its task finding the optimal number of characteristic points for measurements and, naturally, constructing the entire contour of the image.
The main subjects of filming the situation are:
. all urban and rural settlements;
. individual buildings in them;
. all types of ground structures;
. reservoirs and water bodies;
. land plots of all types and purposes;
. all kinds of boundaries of urban areas, contours and allotments for roads, railways, airports and other closed loops for industrial, agricultural, cultural and sports purposes.
To photograph a situation, the criteria for assessing the contours of all elements of its image on topographic plans are the materials from which they are constructed. They are divided into two types of circuits:
. solid contours built from durable materials (reinforced concrete, brick);
. non-solid, created from fragile materials, and natural contours.
When determining the contours of buildings of the correct configuration, measurements are taken of the required number of corner points, and linear measurements with a tape measure are taken to reach the closed contour. When photographing buildings of irregular geometric shape, all angles are measured.
When surveying the relief, measurements of altitude coordinates are performed together with contour surveys in an undeveloped area. In densely built-up areas, horizontal and vertical surveys are usually carried out separately from each other. With the use of modern technologies in topographic surveys, these processes are combined.
The relief on topographic plans is displayed as isolines with identical elevations (horizontals). As a rule, to best display the terrain, the optimal number of survey points is selected. For continuous surveys of different scales, the distances between survey points have different values ​​and are recommended in the relevant regulatory documents.
For filming and drawing the relief, the following characteristic points are used:
. tops of hills and mounds;
. rail track heads;
. points along road axes;
. places of junctions and slopes near bridges;
. along the contours of embankments and excavations;
. at the bases of structures and buildings;
. at underground utility wells;
. many other points characteristic of describing the terrain.

Types of topographic surveys

Depending on the geodetic equipment used, the following topographic surveys were used in different periods, and some of them are still used today:
. tacheometric method, using modern electronic tacheometers;
. horizontal (theodolite) and vertical (leveling) in built-up areas;
. phototheodolite;
. leveling the surface in squares of various sizes (200×200, 100×100) depending on the terrain and scale of shooting.
. filming city passages and internal neighborhoods in populated areas with dense buildings. They previously used high-precision tape measurements using the method of linear notching from characteristic corner points of buildings with reference to the survey justification. Other instrumental measurement methods can also be used, such as the perpendicular method, the polar method, alignments and combined. The most modern method of laser scanning can be considered the most effective in urban areas. Especially when creating digital terrain models.
. using a global navigation satellite system and GPS receivers in RTK real-time kinematics mode;
. The mensular method can currently only be of historical interest.
Each of these types has its own specific measurement process, various geodetic equipment, additional tools and accessories. But they all serve the main task of performing precise geodetic measurements to construct topographic plans of the earth's surface and objects located on it. They are regulated by relevant instructions that establish requirements, certain methodological principles and technological schemes for their implementation.

Topographic surveys

5.1 Topographic survey technology. Types of filming.

All elements of the local situation, existing buildings, etc. are subject to filming and depiction on plans. The points that determine the position of the contours on the plan are conventionally divided into clear and fuzzy. Solid structures include clearly defined contours of structures built from durable materials. Unsolid boundaries include the boundaries of meadows, forests, etc. Topographic plans include points of high-altitude and planned geodetic networks, as well as points from which the situation and relief were surveyed. Topographic surveys are carried out only from points with known or easily determined coordinates ( shooting rationale). The survey rationale develops from the points of the support networks. In small areas, the survey justification can be created as an independent network. When constructing a justification, the position of the points in plan and height is determined. The most common type of planning justification is polygonometric (theodolite) traverses. Survey justification points are fixed on the ground, usually e money signs - stakes, pillars, etc.; If long-term fixation is necessary, permanent signs are installed. To draw up topographic plans, analytical, linear, tacheometric, aerial phototopographic, and phototheodolite survey methods are used. The use of one method or another is determined, first of all, by the scale and shooting conditions.

5.2 Horizontal and altitude surveys. Horizontal shooting of the situation is carried out at scales of 1:2000, 1:1000 and 1:500. The results of the survey are displayed on an outline - a schematic drawing made on an arbitrary scale, in compliance with accepted conventions. Filming is done in a variety of ways. The perpendicular method is used to photograph driveways. The length of the perpendicular lowered from a point onto the line of the survey traverse and the distance from the top of the traverse to the base of the perpendicular are subject to measurement. With the linear intersection method, distances are measured from fixed points to the point being determined. The direct angular intersection method is often used when shooting inaccessible points. To determine the position of a point, the angles between the travel lines and the directions to the point (at least three) are measured. The polar method is used when shooting points remote from the course (inner block buildings, unclear contours). In this case, the angle between the direction to the point and the traversing line and the distance from the traversing point to the determined point are measured. I use the shooting method when shooting intra-block situations. The alignments are defined, as a rule, by a continuation of the building line, a line connecting two solid contours, etc. From the target line, surveys are carried out using the method of perpendiculars or linear intersections.

The reverse angle resection method (after a period of oblivion with the advent of electronic tacheometers, which has become one of the most promising at present) requires the measurement of at least three angles (with vertices at a determined point) between directions to known points (Fig. 24). Determining the position of point M from the coordinates of known points l, p, s and measured angles α and β (Pothenot problem) can be performed graphically or analytically. With the graphical method, the position of the points is determined as the intersection of the circle lpz (point z is the intersection of lines drawn at angles β and α to the line lp at points l and p, respectively) and the straight line sz (Fig. 25). In the analytical method, various formulas are used, for example, Kneissl formulas: 1) a = ctgγ 1, b = ctg γ 2; 2) x" B = x B – x A, y" B = y B – y A, x" C = x C – x A, y" B = y C – y A; 3) k 1 = ay" B – x" B, k 2 = ax" B + y" B, k 3 = by" C – x" C, k 4 = bx" B + y" C; 4) c = (k 2 – k 4)/(k 1 – k 3) = ctg (AP); 5) y" = Δy = (k 2 – ck 1)/(c 2 +1) = (k 4 – ck 3)/(c 2 +1), x" = Δx = cΔy; 6) y = y A + Δy, x = x A + Δx (fig.).

Rice. 24. Reverse corner notching.

Rice. 25. Graphical solution to the Potenot problem.

As a rule, leveling is performed using the geometric leveling method after removing and applying the situation to the tablet. Leveling begins from the points of the high-altitude survey justification; At characteristic points (located at least 50 m apart), the heights of survey points (pickets) are determined.

5.3 Tacheometric survey. Among ground-based surveys, tacheometric surveys are most widely used. Photography of local objects is carried out, as a rule, using the polar coordinate method. All elements of the situation of an urban area, expressed on a given scale, are subject to photography. These elements include points of the reference geodetic network, boundaries of blocks, all buildings and structures (both residential and non-residential) with an indication of the number of floors, purpose, wall material, with all ledges and protrusions, especially with architectural protrusions, if their value is more than 0, 5 mm in plan; gardens, vegetable gardens, monuments, tram and rail tracks, tram and trolleybus masts, lighting lamps, electrical wires, underground network outlets, manholes for water supply, sewerage, heating networks, gas, drainage, telephone networks, communication routes (railway, highway, unpaved roads), power and communication lines, water networks, etc.

The relief of the territory is carefully filmed and then depicted as contour lines on the plan. In urban areas, temporary and portable structures, as well as fences at construction sites, are not subject to filming. The most difficult are the surveys of built-up areas, therefore the survey of the built-up part is divided into surveys of facades and driveways and intra-block surveys.

5.4 Features of surveying built-up areas. The passages are taken using the analytical method from the lines and points of the survey justification moves. To photograph facades, the perpendicular, serif and polar methods are used. Route plans are drawn up on a scale of 1:2000 or 1:500. In addition to photographing all points of the situation, measurements are taken along the facades and the dimensions of all buildings, structures and the distance between buildings are measured. Sketching when photographing the facade and recording all the results is carried out in outline notebooks. Intra-block photography is usually carried out after filming driveways. When photographing an intra-block situation, special attention is paid to photographing supporting buildings, i.e. such buildings that will be accepted as the starting point for the design of red lines. A list of supporting buildings is issued by planning organizations. On a scale of 1:2000, two corners of all main buildings are filmed, and on a scale of 1:500, all corners of the main and permanent buildings are taken directly from the survey justification moves. In addition to filming points of the intra-block situation, it is necessary to carefully measure all buildings with architectural protrusions, ledges, porches, terraces, pits, etc. Measurements are also taken along all fences and boundaries between break points.

With so much construction going on in urban areas, the plans drawn up quickly become outdated. It is typical for urban areas that as a result of construction, both the situation and the topography change when performing work on the vertical planning of territories. Continuously carried out design and construction work requires plans that reflect the situation and relief at the time of design, therefore previously drawn up plans of urban areas are subjected to a field survey, during which current changes are photographed and plans are updated.

It is more expedient to photograph current changes and update plans at scales of 1:5000 and 1:2000 using aerial photography methods. By comparing repeated aerial photographs with previously taken ones, changes in the situation and relief that occurred during the period between surveys are revealed. These changes are applied to photographic plans. Plans at a scale of 1:500 are examined and compared with the situation and relief directly on the ground. Minor current changes are recorded during the field survey from the situation points preserved on the ground, and in case of large changes in the situation and topography discovered during the survey, special surveys of current changes are made. When photographing small current changes, the alignment method can be used with greater efficiency, in which continuations of alignments of buildings and structures, as well as a line connecting two characteristic points of the situation existing on the ground and on the plan, are used as survey lines. Newly appeared stone structures, as well as changes covering large areas, are removed instrumentally from points and lines of polygonometric moves and survey justification. All current changes in the situation and terrain are displayed on urban survey tablets. The date of examination and recording of current changes is indicated on the back of the tablets.

5.5 Leveling the surface. High-altitude photography of flat terrain with a small number of contours is performed by leveling the surface. Leveling can be carried out along squares, along parallels, along characteristic relief lines, but in any case, the heights of the pickets are determined geometrically. When leveling by squares on the ground, using a theodolite and a measuring device, a grid of squares is broken and secured with pegs (with sides of 40 m for a scale of 1:2000 and 20 for larger scales). When leveling small squares (sides less than 100 m) with one installation of the device, it is possible to level the vertices of several squares: the device is placed in the middle, and the staff is placed sequentially on all vertices; the measurement results are signed on a diagram of squares. When leveling along parallel lines, one or more parallel main passages are laid, on both sides of which cross-sections are laid out. Along the passages and cross-sections, points are fixed at regular intervals; Together with the picketing breakdown, a photograph of the situation is taken. Main passages can be laid along characteristic lines: thalwegs, watersheds, etc.

Chapter VI

Geodetic work during engineering surveys. Transfer of planning and development projects to the area

6.1 General information about construction stages. During construction, it is necessary to analyze and take into account a number of natural, economic and technical factors. This is achieved by sequentially solving problems and dividing construction into three stages - survey, design, construction of objects. Survey is a complex of problem-solving, economic and technical studies of the area of ​​proposed construction. Technical surveys – a comprehensive study of the natural conditions of the construction area. Design is the development of a set of graphic, technical and economic documents that substantiate the possibility and feasibility of construction in a given area, construction methods and cost indicators. The design of objects is carried out in one stage - for standard buildings and structures and technically simple objects, in two stages - for large and complex objects. It is advisable to carry out the construction of buildings and structures in strict accordance with the project; it is the process of recreating a design solution on the ground by performing various construction works.

6.2 Engineering and geodetic surveys. Their planning and organization. Engineering and geodetic survey program. Engineering surveys are carried out in three periods: preparatory, field and office. During the preparatory period, available information on the survey object is studied and activities for survey work are planned. During the field period, in parallel with field work, some desk work is also carried out. During the office period, all materials are processed.

Depending on the purpose and type of structure, the design stage, engineering and geodetic surveys include:

– study of the physical, geographical and economic conditions of the site;

– collection and analysis of available materials;

– construction and development of geodetic support networks;

– creation of a high-altitude survey network;

– topographic survey on scales 1:10000 – 1:500;

– tracing of linear structures;

– geodetic support for other types of engineering surveys;

– executive shooting.

Geodetic surveys are carried out in accordance with the technical specifications, which include: the name of the object and its characteristics, instructions on the design stages, data on the location of the work site, information on the purpose, types and volumes of work, data on survey areas, relief section heights, instructions about the order of work. A project is drawn up when performing a complex of complex works that require preliminary development of methods for their implementation. A geodetic survey program is drawn up to carry out a simple set of works according to standard schemes. A project (program) for geodetic surveys is drawn up for a full range of works and is a document defining the composition, methods and timing of work, estimates and costs.

The project (program) consists of a text part and applications. The text part contains: general information, designed support and survey networks, topographic surveys, surveys of underground communications, linkage of workings, etc., including volumes, timing and cost of work. The appendices contain: a copy of the technical specifications, a diagram of the designed networks, a cartogram of the location of sections with a layout of plan sheets, etc. The procedure, methodology and accuracy of work are determined by regulatory documents and instructions ( see, for example, SNiP 11-02-96 and SNiP 11-04-97 and “Instructions for topographic surveys at scales 1:5000, 1:2000, 1:1000 and 1:500” GKINP-02-033-82 ).

When conducting surveys for area structures, the intended site and part of the adjacent territory are filmed on a scale of 1:2000 with a relief section of 1 m. A situational plan is drawn up on a scale of 1:10,000 - 1:25,000. The outlines of the sites of an industrial enterprise, a residential village, water intake and treatment facilities, roads, rivers, forests, etc. are drawn on the plan. Special attention must be paid to topographic surveys of built-up areas. In existing cities, it is mandatory to use the city's geodetic fund; If the necessary materials are not available, filming is carried out. The material obtained from the geodetic fund (geobase) indicates changes in the boundaries of roadways, sidewalks, etc., discovered during surveys of the territory. Correction of the geological basis is carried out not only in plan, but also in altitude. In addition to adjusting the geological basis, geodetic surveys include drawing up a longitudinal profile along the axis or trays of the roadway. The survey work includes collecting data to calculate the drainage network. For residential non-residential buildings in the construction zone, statements are drawn up that indicate the address, purpose, material, number of floors, occupied area, owner, etc.

6.3 Engineering and geodetic surveys for the construction of linear structures.Desk and field tracing. Breaking out circular curves. Vertical curves. Geodetic surveys for linear structures have their own characteristics.

The main elements are plan (projection onto a horizontal plane) and profile (vertical section). In plan, the route consists of straight sections connected by circular arcs. In a longitudinal profile, the route consists of lines of different slopes connected by vertical curves. The complex of survey work to select a route is called tracing. Designing a route using maps, etc. is called office tracing, transferring the route to the area is called field tracing.

For desk tracing, a digital terrain model or maps at a scale of 1:25000 or 1:50000 are used. The route is laid between fixed points, guided by the design slope. Based on the design slope, the laying is calculated, according to which the sections of “free” (the existing slope is less than the maximum permissible) and “tense” (more than permissible) passages are determined. In free-running sections, the route is usually marked along the shortest route; in “stressed” areas they plan zero work line– an option for locating the route with zero excavation volume and maintaining the design slope. The line of zero work on the map is obtained by sequentially marking the horizontal lines with a compass with a solution equal to the laying. From the resulting several options, the optimal one is selected. Based on the choice of route, a picket line is set up - points along the route are marked every 100 m.

Design begins from places with given heights (sections of bridge crossings, passes, intersections with existing highways, etc.), while adhering to the following rules: design slopes should not exceed a given tolerance; designed elements with a uniform slope should be as long as possible; profile fractures should not coincide with the planned curves (desirable, but not necessary); in sections of planned curves, subject to a minimum of excavation work, it is advisable to assign a maximum slope reduced by the value Δ i= 700/R, where R is the radius of the planned curve; the algebraic difference in slopes in neighboring areas should not be greater than the specified design slope; at the intersections of the route with thalwegs, pipes with a diameter of 0.5 - 1 m or more should be designed (and shown on the profile), etc.

On the ground, the route is determined by its main points: the beginning, the end, the vertices of the turning angles, the middle of the curve, the points of intersection with the axes of structures. The method of securing them to the ground (poles, pipes, stakes) depends on the required shelf life. The transfer of the route from the map to the terrain is carried out either according to the coordinates of its main points, or according to the data linking the route to terrain objects. The coordinates of points and reference elements are determined, as a rule, from the map. After transferring the main points to the terrain, polygonometric passages are laid, which include all these points. During this work, lines are weighed and measured, the picket is laid out, and plus points and cross-sections are marked. In addition to pickets, the main points of the curve should be marked at the curves of the route: the beginning, end and middle of the curve. To lay out the picketage within the curve, preliminary calculations are made. Based on the measured value of the angle of rotation φ and the accepted radius R, the elements of the curve are calculated: tangent T, curve length K, bisector B and domer (the difference in the lengths of the broken line and the curve between the beginning and end of the curve) D. The formulas for the calculation are easy to derive from Fig. 26.

Rice. 26. Elements of a circular curve

T = R tg φ /2; D = 2T – K; B = R + B – R = R/cos (φ /2) – R = R (sec (φ /2) – 1); К = πR(φ/180º).

Pre-installed pickets end up on the tangents of the curve and need to be transferred to the curve. This transfer is performed either by the rectangular coordinate method or by the polar coordinate method. To compile longitudinal and transverse profiles along the route chainage and cross-sections, technical leveling is carried out.

On railway routes, vertical curves are arranged to smoothly connect sections, on highway routes - to improve visibility. Vertical curves are designed only at those breaks in the design profile where the bisector is greater than 5 cm. Elements of the vertical curves T, K, B are selected from special tables according to arguments, the radius of the vertical curve and the difference in slopes of adjacent sections Δ i. In the absence of tables, you can use the approximate formulas K = R Δ i, T = R Δ i/2, B = T 2 /2R. On railway routes, the radii are taken equal to 5000 or 10000 m, on roads - depending on the category of the road and the nature of the slopes - from 7000 to 2500 m on convex curves and from 8000 to 1500 m on concave curves.

Transfer of planning and development projects to the area

6.4 Geodetic justification at construction sites. Planning justification. To lay out the axes and carry out work on geodetic support for construction, it is necessary to have a number of points with known plan and altitude coordinates. A system of such points is called justification of engineering and geodetic work(centering basis). Based on the alignment basis, they carry out topographic surveys during surveys, draw up as-built documentation, carry out alignment work during the construction of buildings, and carry out observations of deformations. Such widespread use of geodetic reference networks determines the difference in schemes and construction methods. Planned and high-altitude networks are a system of geometric figures, the vertices of which are fixed to the terrain. Engineering geodetic networks have the following features: they are often created in a conventional coordinate system; the shape of the network is determined by the shape of the territory; As a rule, networks are small in size; the lengths of the sides are not large; conditions for observations are unfavorable. The choice of construction method depends on many reasons - the type of object, the shape and size of the site, the required accuracy, etc. For example, the most common type of foundation for mass residential development projects is polygonometric passages as the most maneuverable type of construction. This justification makes it easy to break down the axes of buildings.

6.5 Construction grids, methods of creation, accuracy . When constructing large industrial complexes, where many structures are connected by technological lines, the requirements for the accuracy of the landing of buildings are higher. As a rule, in such cases, construction grids are used as a layout network - systems of rectangles, the vertices of which are determined with high accuracy. The sides of the grid are usually parallel to the axes of the buildings. This arrangement of axes sets a system of rectangular coordinates on the ground, which makes it easier to link the axes of structures. Unlike other support networks, the exact configuration and location of points in the construction grid are designed in advance. A grid is constructed in the form of squares; depending on the purpose of the construction grid, the side of the squares is determined from 100 to 400 m; in workshop conditions, for installation of equipment, sides with a length of 10 - 20 m are designed. With the axial method of laying out, with technical accuracy, two mutually perpendicular directions are laid out, intersecting approximately in the middle. The angle between the offset directions is measured several times in order to reduce the constructed angle. After correcting the position of the axis along the axes, segments equal to the lengths of the sides of the grid are laid out in alignment along the theodolite. Having completed the breakdown at the end points, right angles are built at them and construction continues. The grid constructed in this way is not very accurate, so in large areas or for work requiring high accuracy, the reduction method is used. When constructing a grid on the general plan, the positions of the grid points are marked, a coordinate system is determined, and the theoretical X and Y coordinates of the grid points are calculated. A rectangle is built from it with a technical theodolite and steel tape and the preliminary position of the points is outlined, which are secured with permanent signs in the form of a metal plate. A polygonometric path is laid along the perimeter and the actual coordinates of the points are calculated. To carry out the reduction, the actual and theoretical position of the point, as well as directions to adjacent network points, are plotted on graph paper using actual and theoretical coordinates on a scale of 1:1. Having aligned the point with actual coordinates with the point constructed on the ground and directed the depicted directions to the corresponding points, mark the location of the point with theoretical coordinates with a core on the installed sign. After reducing the points on the sides of the main rectangle, they begin to construct internal points with alignments and measurements along the alignments. This method is unacceptable when reconstructing or expanding an enterprise. In this case, the construction grid is developed as a continuation of the existing one; if the grid signs have not been preserved, then it should be restored from the axes of workshops and installations. Requirements for the accuracy of mesh construction depend on its purpose. As experience shows, errors in the relative positions of adjacent points should be on average 1:10000 (2 cm at a distance of 200 m). Right angles of the grid must be constructed with a mean square error of 20"".

As a high-altitude basis for creating topographic plans, carrying out work, etc. They use a system of signs, the absolute heights of which are determined by laying out leveling passages of classes II, III and IV. High-altitude support networks are based on at least two state leveling benchmarks of a higher class (when observing deformations and some other work, the network is free and relies on one benchmark only for reference - a hanging passage).

6.6 Project for geodetic works (PPGR). To ensure the accuracy and timeliness of geodetic work at the construction site, a special project is drawn up. The project for the production of geodetic works (PPGR), which is an integral part of the general construction project, considers: the construction of the initial geodetic basis; organization and execution of surveying works, executive surveys; the use of appropriate instruments to ensure the required measurement accuracy and other issues depending on the specific object and the conditions of its construction. The content of the PPGR is coordinated with the construction organization project and the work organization project. Materials from engineering and geodetic surveys, design and construction master plans, working drawings, and technical solutions for organizing construction are used as source materials. The PPGR usually consists of an explanatory note and graphic documents. The explanatory note provides: initial data and main provisions of the project; justification of the accuracy of geodetic work; methodology and accuracy of constructing a geodetic basis; methods of geodetic work during the construction of underground and above-ground parts of the structure; production technology for executive filming; methods for monitoring deformations. Due to the variety of construction solutions and design features, pre-calculation and justification of the accuracy of creating internal and external alignment networks are the most important tasks in the development of PPGR. The developed methodology for geodetic work is illustrated with drawings and drawings: diagrams of planned and high-altitude networks; visibility zone diagrams; schemes for marking work, etc. Structurally, the PPGS corresponds to the sequence of construction works and processes.

Chapter VII

Geodetic alignment works

7.1 Construction in nature of design angles, segments, lines of a given slope. When constructing the design angle β on the ground, vertex A and side AB are specified. The construction of an angle with technical accuracy begins with installing a theodolite over vertex A, sighting point B and taking the corresponding reading b along a horizontal circle. Precalculate the reading c = b + β (if the angle is plotted clockwise). Having unfastened the alidade, set the reference c and fix the point C 1 in the center of the mesh of threads. Point C 2 is constructed in a similar way at a different position of the vertical circle. The segment C 1 C 2 is divided in half by point C and the angle BAC is taken as the design angle.

CARTOON 7

To construct a segment of a given length on the ground, as a rule, the reduction method is used. To do this, a distance d 1 equal to the design distance is set aside in a given direction, and the resulting point is temporarily fixed. The excess between the ends of the segment and the temperature of the measuring device are measured (if a measuring device of finite length is used - a tape measure or tape). Corrections to the length of the line are calculated for comparison, for temperature, for the slope of the line and the total correction is calculated, which is introduced with the opposite sign into the line (see “Linear measurements”).

Design marks, as a rule, are transferred to nature by geometric leveling. To do this, the level is installed in the middle between the benchmark and the place where the mark is transferred; take a reading a on the black side of the staff and calculate the horizon of the device GP = H rp + a and the design reading b = GP – H pr. The staff is installed at the cast-off and raised or lowered until the reading along the horizontal thread of the grid coincides with the calculated reading b; At this moment, a line is drawn on the cast-off along the heel of the slats. Marks are constructed similarly on the red side of the staff and, if two marks do not coincide, the middle of them is taken as the final mark.

Constructing a line of a given slope involves constructing at least two points. If point A with mark H A is fixed, then mark B is calculated using the formula H B = H A + i d, where d is the distance between points. If the elevation of point A is not known, then install a staff at this point and take reading a from it and precalculate reading b = a + i d, which is used to place point B in nature.

7.2 Construction of points in nature. Points of red lines, buildings, etc. - the so-called design points - are placed on the terrain using the following methods: polar, rectangular coordinates, corner intersection, linear intersection, alignment intersection. The choice of method depends on the geodetic basis.

At polar method From point A of the geodetic base, the design angle is constructed with a theodolite and the design distance is plotted along the resulting direction. The accuracy of constructing a point is affected by errors in constructing an angle, constructing a line, centering the theodolite, reducing the sighting target, initial data and fixing the point.

Using rectangular coordinates design points are transferred to nature from the points of the geodetic basis in the form of a construction grid. To do this, a perpendicular is lowered from the point onto the grid line and the length of the perpendicular d 2 and the distance from the base point to the base of the perpendicular d 1 are determined. In reality, the distance d 1 is laid out along the grid line and a right angle is built at the resulting point with a theodolite; along the resulting direction, the distance d 2 is laid off and point C is fixed. The accuracy of the construction is affected by errors: constructing segments, constructing a right angle, centering and reduction, initial data and fixing the point. To increase the accuracy of construction, it is necessary that the value of d 1 be greater than d 2.

When laying out bridge crossings and hydraulic structures, it is common to use angular notching method. The position of the design point in this case is determined by constructing the design angles β 1 and β 2 at triangulation points A and B. The required point is the intersection point of the directions AC and BC.

Linear notching method It is advisable to use when the base points are sufficiently dense and at distances not exceeding the length of the measuring device. When using this method, it is most convenient to use two tape measures, moving them until the marks corresponding to the design lengths align. If the position of a point is determined by the intersection of two alignments, defined simultaneously by two theodolites installed at points of the geodetic basis, then this cutting method. When distances between target points are about 20-30 meters, it is practiced to obtain targets using mounting wires.

7.3 Structure axes. When designing, structural elements are tied to lines called centering axes. The alignment axes together represent the geometric diagram of a building or structure. They are a geodetic basis by which elements of building structures and technological equipment are oriented when installing them in their design position. Axes are divided into longitudinal and transverse. Longitudinal ones are designated in capital letters of the Russian alphabet (except Z, I, O, X, Y, ь, Ъ), transverse ones - in Arabic numerals. Axes are divided into main (defining the geometry of the building) and intermediate (axes of individual elements, parts of the building); For buildings with complex plans, the main axes (axes of symmetry) are sometimes identified. The construction of buildings begins with transferring the design of the structure into reality, i.e. with the removal and securing of the alignment axes. Such work is called geodetic layout building. The breakdown is carried out in two stages. First, the main axes are taken out, and then the detailed breakdown– remove and secure the intermediate axes.

7.4 Breakdown of the main and main axes of the building. Accuracy requirement. Geodetic alignment of the main axes is carried out in accordance with the approved design and technical documentation. The process of transferring the main axes into nature is preceded by geodetic preparation of alignment data. This preparation is carried out graphically, graphically and analytically. With the graphical method, when there are no special requirements for the accuracy of the planned position, linear and angular alignment elements are determined graphically, i.e. directly from the plan. With the graphic-analytical method, the coordinates of some points are graphically determined, and the values ​​of linear and angular alignment elements are calculated. With the analytical method, graphical definitions are not made according to the plan; the coordinates of at least two points of the building or structure must already be known; further calculations are performed in exactly the same way as with the graphic-analytical method. The accuracy of transferring the dimensions of a structure must be no less than the accuracy of the plan on which it is designed. As a rule, it is determined from the relation Δ pr = 0.2 N, where N is the base of the scale. The accuracy of the transfer of dimensions can be increased if this is determined by the project.

7.5 Geodetic preparation of data for transferring the construction project to the area. The most commonly used is graphic-analytical preparation of alignment elements. Let the coordinates of the two intersection points of the main axes A 1 and A 5 and the coordinates of the points of the polygonometric traverse be known. Then to determine the centering angle it is necessary to know the directional angle α i directions from the point of travel to the point of intersection of the axes (the directional angle of the travel line α I-J is known); then centering angle β = α I- J – α i(or β = α i– α I-J, depending on their relative position). Angle α i and distance d i can be found from the solution of the inverse geodetic problem:

tan α i= ΔY/ΔX; d i= ΔY/sin α i= ΔX/cos α i.

7.6 Securing axes. To secure the axles, they are placed on a cast-off, which is a board fixed horizontally on poles at a height of 400 - 600 mm. Continuous cast-off is installed strictly parallel to the main axes at a distance that ensures its safety for the entire construction period. Continuous cast-off is used extremely rarely due to its bulkiness and the inconvenience it creates (especially for earth-moving equipment). Mostly cast-off cast-offs are used. It is installed at the points where the axes are fixed at an arbitrary distance from the building being erected. In addition to being worn out, the axes (usually the main ones) can be secured with permanent or temporary signs. The choice of sign design depends on the construction conditions. Permanent signs are most often ground signs. They are made of metal pipes or rails lowered into a well (0.5 m below the freezing zone) and concreted in it. A plate is welded in the upper part, on which the position of the axis is marked with a core. Wooden stakes, metal pins, etc. are used as temporary signs. Colored paints are also widely used on permanent and temporary buildings and structures, which represent colored marks. On the continuation of the axle alignments, at least two signs are fixed on each side. The high-altitude alignment base is also secured with permanent and temporary signs, which are subject to the same requirements as for the signs for securing the axes.