(On the question of methods of missionary influence on Lamaites).
Speech, intended to be pronounced at the solemn annual meeting of the Imperial Kazan Theological Academy on November 8, 1914 Inspector of the Academy and extraordinary professor Archimandrite Gury
Kalmyks, currently living in crowded masses in the provinces of Astrakhan, Stavropol and in the Don Army Region, migrated to our Rus' between 1628–1630 in the number of 50 thousand families under the leadership of Taisha Kho-Orlyuk. This was a people belonging to the western, so-called Oirat branch of the Mongol tribes, a people who at one time certainly participated in the historical destinies of the life of the monarchies of Genghis Khan, and in the 15th century, as part of other Oirat tribes, under the leadership of the Choros leader Esen , who stood at the head of the political life of all the Mongols and victoriously went to war against China. In the 17th century, the Oirats represented a powerful political union of their main tribes: the Choros, divided into Zungars and Dorbots, Torgouts and Khosheuts with the Khoyts. At the beginning of this century, the Torgout branch of the Oirat with small admixtures of other tribes, under the leadership of Taisha Kho-Orlyuk, left their native Dzungar nomads to the sources of Ishim and Tobol, from here between 1628–30. it migrated to the Caspian Sea and occupied the steppe spaces between the Urals and the Volga, and then further towards the Don. Faced with the Orthodox Russian people, these tribes, who received the name Kalmyks during their migration, naturally had to be exposed to Christianity and, from the very beginning of their stay within Russia, have taken one or another relation to it.
Since the Kalmyks, having moved to Russia, strove in every possible way to preserve their political identity and independence from the Russians, as a result of which they waged constant wars with them - since, further, in their religious hopes they were a people who had just embraced Lamaism with zeal and enthusiasm, which upon moving to Russia, it was approved by influential persons of the Lamai world and reinforced by translations of the religious books of Lamaism into the Kalmyk language - it is clear that the Kalmyks in the initial period of their stay within Russia could not feel any particular inclination to accept Christianity.
As for the Russians, they, forced by force of circumstances to see their enemy in the newly arrived people, should naturally have paid more attention to repelling the attacks of Kalmyk predatory gangs from their villages, and not to attracting Kalmyks to Orthodoxy. Along with the political conditions, the religious and moral state of the Astrakhan outskirts also did not constitute a soil suitable for influencing the Kalmyks by Christianity. The Astrakhan outskirts of that time very often experienced states of decline in morals during periods of rebellious unrest and did not always set examples of a life of piety in times of peace.
Taking all this into account, we see that, both due to the circumstances of the political and religious life of the people who came to Russia, and due to the circumstances of the outlying life of the Russian population, there were no conditions favorable for the successful spread of Christianity among the Kalmyks.
It is not surprising, therefore, that in the first 20–30 years of the Kalmyk people’s stay within Russia, we do not find more or less definite information about the Kalmyks’ adoption of Christianity. It is quite clear, further, that the initial adoption of Christianity by the Kalmyks was a matter of chance, possible only if the Kalmyks somehow found themselves in the Russian situation and were forced to live in a Russian pious family. This usually happened in cases of captivity, thanks to the constant clashes between Kalmyks and Russians, which were very frequent on the Astrakhan outskirts. This is exactly how historical documents represent the initial penetration of Christianity into the Kalmyk environment.
These documents indicate that captured Kalmyks sometimes themselves requested baptism. More often they were converted to Orthodoxy, having been bought by Russian pious people. The same documents claim that when Kalmyks lived in Russian families, in case of refusal of baptism by adults, the Russians did not miss the opportunity to use their elders to baptize the children left behind. When, therefore, baptized Kalmyks appeared in Russian families, the most convinced of them began to influence the unbaptized brethren who came into contact with them. There were cases when relatives, living with the baptized, decided to accept, and sometimes the baptized themselves, attracted by the truth of Christianity, went to preach the faith to their relatives and called them to Orthodoxy. This was the first natural path leading the Kalmyk people to Christianity.
Another way that attracted the Kalmyks to Orthodoxy was the internal strife of their political life. Politically, although the Kalmyks were ruled by the dominant taisha, all the relatives of this taisha, his uncles, brothers, sons, etc., had a semi-independent position and their own subordinate Kalmyks. For large proprietary, so-called. The Noyon class was a small owning class - the Zaisangsky, which also had small families of Kalmyks under its subordination. It is clear that under such an internal political system, discord and infighting occurred among the leaders of the Kalmyk people, in which sometimes even large owners, forgetting about their national aspirations for independence, were forced to seek protection from the Russian authorities in order to preserve their possessions; small owners and simple Kalmyks, for some reason not getting along with their relatives, simply fled to Russian villages and, in order to have protection here, asked for baptism. The indicated ways penetrated so significantly among the Kalmyks by the 80s and 90s of the 17th century that in 1673, 1677 and 1683 the Russian government already officially protected baptized Kalmyks through treaties with the then main leader of the Kalmyk people, Khan Ayuka, and he constantly had to take into account a number of protests aimed at weakening the Kalmyks’ desire for Christianity. The period of primary penetration of Christianity into the Kalmyk people ended at the beginning of the 18th century with the formation of a special village on the Tereshka River (above Saratov) from baptized Kalmyks. This village had a temple and a clergy office; it existed intermittently until 1717, when, due to political conditions, to please the Kalmyk Khan Ayuka, the Russian government prohibited the settlement of baptized Kalmyks along the Volga, and the village itself was completely destroyed and destroyed by unbaptized Kalmyk owners.
But with the destruction of the said settlement of baptized Kalmyks, the missionary influence of Orthodoxy on the Kalmyk people did not stop. In 1722, Peter I, going on a Persian campaign, visited Astrakhan. Having become personally acquainted with the Kalmyk people and probably also taking into account the opinion of the then governor of Volyn about the possibility of instilling Orthodoxy in the Kalmyks, Peter I began to take measures to spread Christianity among the Kalmyk people. One after another, in 1724, he issued two well-known decrees: “to persuade the Kalmyk owners and lawyers to teach and teach, and to translate the necessary books into their language,” “to find such teachers who could lead the Kalmyk people to piety.” In these decrees, in addition to their general expediency, special attention is paid to Peter V.’s desire to influence the Kalmyk lawyers, that is, the Lamai class of clergy. In this case, Peter I turned out to be a very far-sighted legislator, seeking to influence those who were the main support and guardian of the religious beliefs of the Kalmyk people. But these decrees were only the beginning of the developing missionary work. Soon, as a result of political strife, the Kalmyk owner Peter Taishin was baptized. For him, on the initiative of Peter, a march was organized and in 1725 a special mission of several schoolchildren from the Slavic-Greek-Latin academies, headed by Hieromonk Nikodim Lenkeevich, was sent to the Kalmyk steppes. This was the moment when the spread of Christianity among the Kalmyk people entered the second period of its development, when individual measures and random conversions were replaced by the systematic missionary influence of a group of people specially designated for this matter. Nikodim Lenkeevich's mission was endowed with instructions seeking to outline the scope of its activities. But the head of the mission, not content with the paragraphs of instructions given to him, expanded the missionary work, guided by the immediate requirements of missionary service. Lenkeevich laid the foundation for all the main branches of missionary activity in the Kalmyk steppe. He organized a more or less methodical preaching of the faith of Christ among the Kalmyks (preaching to the unbaptized and systematically announcing those wishing to be baptized), and began school and translation work. During the period of stay of the mission and its head in the Kalmyk steppe, the success of missionary activity was expressed in the following: before 1732, more than 400 people were baptized with preliminary announcement; members of the mission became familiar with the Kalmyk language and had the opportunity to engage in translation work. But this mission also had its drawbacks. Its clergy, consisting of 1 hieromonk, was too insignificant to counteract the magnificent cult of Lamaism and the huge number of national Kalmyk clergy; It was equally impossible for this mission to firmly establish the school business, as it required a settled life and was difficult to compatible with the constant migrations of the Kalmyk people from place to place.
In 1732, the center of missionary activity was moved from the Kalmyk steppe to Astrakhan. This gave the mission the opportunity to free itself from some of its shortcomings: it firmly organized the school business, opening a permanent school for Kalmyks in Astrakhan at the Ivanovo Monastery. But at the same time, by moving away from the steppe, the mission broke the direct living connection with the Kalmyk people, and then little by little it began to completely lose its significance for the Kalmyk steppe. In the first years after moving to Astrakhan, the mission baptized a significant number of Kalmyks - almost three times more than during their stay in the steppe, but then the composition of the mission began to disintegrate: Nikodim Lenkeevich retired, some of the schoolchildren dispersed, some could not be ordained to the priesthood . In 1734, the new head of the mission, Archimandrite Methodius, already complained about the complete collapse of missionary activity, the consequence of which, partly, but mainly as a result of state considerations, was the closure of the Kalmyk mission in the Astrakhan region and its transfer along with the resettlement of baptized Kalmyks V specially built for them the city Stavropol on Volga.
This ended the period of existence of the first special mission among the Kalmyk people.
The first special mission among the Kalmyks, which existed from 1725 to 1736, enlightened up to 3,000 Kalmyks with the light of the faith of Christ. Regarding the most useful aspects of the organization of this mission, it should be noted that it was associated with its stay among the Kalmyk people in the first half of its historical existence. Namely, the life of the mission in the conditions of the existence of the people themselves, in a living, direct connection with them,” the catechesis conditioned by this life, that is, a more or less lengthy education in the truths of the faith of those wishing to be baptized. The indicated organization of missionary activity in connection with the beginnings of school and translation work, applied by Lenkeevich’s mission, indicates a high organizational structure this mission, which promised it lasting success in the event of further expansion and approval of the noted norms of its activities. Moreover, Lenkeevich's mission took some mediocre part in preparing the ground for the creation of accusatory literature against Lamaism. She sent some priests to the Synod. books of the Lamaites: “Bodymur”, “Iertyuntsuin Toli”, etc., which the Synod intended to translate into Russian and write a denunciation on them.
With the transfer of the center of missions to Stavropol on the Volga, a new period began in the history of missionary activity among the Kalmyk people. A characteristic feature This period was that now all Kalmyks from the Astrakhan outskirts who wished to be baptized were sent by the Russian government to Stavropol on the Volga and were baptized there; only a few were baptized on the Astrakhan outskirts, but with a few exceptions, they were immediately sent to Stavropol after baptism.
If Lenkeevich's mission, living in the Astrakhan steppe, was a mission calling Kalmyks to baptism, then the Kalmyk mission in Stavropol on the Volga was forced to deal only with confirming in the faith those who were sent to it. In accordance with this, the Stavropol mission had to develop special methods of missionary influence. Since its main task was to confirm the baptized Kalmyks in the truths of the faith, the head of the mission, Archpriest Chubovsky, who knew the Kalmyk language well, tried, if possible, to travel around the baptized Kalmyks every year, fulfilling the necessary requirements for them and teaching them Christian piety. Further, the mission, in order to confirm the younger generation in the truths of the faith, tried to organize school work, and it also thought about translation works in order to communicate the truths of the Christian faith to the Kalmyks in their native language. Both were not easy for the mission. Somehow she organized the school work in accordance with the requirements of the pedagogy of that time, but the translation works of the mission were beyond the power.
Although the members of the Stavropol mission were not specifically involved in calling Kalmyks to baptism, however, this period of the spread of Christianity among the Kalmyk people, embracing more than a hundred years of life of baptized Kalmyks at Stavropol on the Volga, in terms of the number of baptisms, was the most outstanding period in the entire history of the spread of Christianity among of this people. There were times when the number of baptized Kalmyks near Stavropol on the Volga reached 8–10 thousand people. The question naturally arises: what explains such significant successes of Christianity among the Kalmyks, what were the motives for their attraction to baptism during this time? Justice requires saying that the significant baptisms of Kalmyks during this period cannot be viewed as the property of the Orthodox mission and the result of its activities. For in those places of the Astrakhan outskirts where the Kalmyks declared their desire to accept, at that time no preaching of Christianity and no calls for Kalmyks to baptism took place. Historical documents indicate that Kalmyks at this time were baptized in significant numbers because baptism was accepted by influential persons among them - Kalmyk owners, after whom the Kalmyks subordinate to them went to Stavropol and were baptized. Influential Kalmyks were usually attracted to baptism by the political conditions of their life: internal turmoil, disputes with each other, reluctance to be subordinate, deprivation of the weak by the stronger, etc. During this period, almost all the main tribes that make up the Kalmyk people put up sovereign representatives who addressed to the Russian authorities with an expression of desire to be baptized. Russian government very willingly accepted such statements. It allowed more influential owners to travel to Moscow at the expense of the treasury for baptism and rewarded them, as well as all other baptized owners and their nobles, subordinates with gifts and financial assistance. In Stavropol, baptized Kalmyk owners received various positions in the management of Kalmyks and ranks in their service with a decent salary. Of course, many were flattered by such attention from the Russian government, which was an extra chance to attract them to baptism and greatly helped, when hesitating, to resolve doubts in the direction of accepting Christianity. Thanks to all this, the period of the spread of Christianity among the Kalmyks, during the existence of the mission in Stavropol on the Volga, was an excellent indicator of the great importance of the influential classes of the Kalmyk people in this matter. History told us that the influx of Kalmyks into Stavropol on the Volga reached its apogee precisely at those moments when the internal political life in the Kalmyk steppe became especially complicated, and the largest number of influential owners left the steppe; on the other hand, the same history testifies that the influx of baptized Kalmyks into Stavropol began to cease after the departure of most of the Kalmyk people to China in 1771, i.e., when a small number of rulers remained in the Kalmyk steppes, and these persons , being deprived of political independence, found themselves completely subordinate to the Russians. In 1842, for government reasons, baptized Kalmyks from Stavropol on the Volga were resettled to the Orenburg region, where to this day, in the number of no more than 1000 souls, they lead a seedy life of a semi-sedentary, semi-nomadic life.
Thus, the attempt of the Russian government and part of the spiritual authorities to concentrate baptized Kalmyks in one place, in the form of an independent civil unit, was destroyed over time by the actions of the same government authorities and the Kalmyks, who once lived near Stavropol, were abandoned to their own devices with the transition to the Orenburg region fate and left without any spiritual supervision and guidance.
At a time when, starting from 1736-7, they tried to concentrate baptized Kalmyks and those expressing a desire to be baptized in Stavropol on the Volga by all means - some of them avoided resettlement, wanting to remain on the Astrakhan outskirts. For the most part, these baptized Kalmyks lived absent-mindedly, probably even avoiding revealing their affiliation with Christianity, so as not to be resettled to Stavropol on the Volga. But in some places they lived in small numbers and in crowded masses. As one of the oldest places of such residence, history has preserved for us a mention of the residence of baptized Kalmyks near the Churka River, relatively close to Astrakhan. Here baptized Kalmyks were engaged in fishing, and in the 40s of the 13th century they had their own priest from natural Kalmyks. Based on this, it can be concluded with some degree of probability that the Churkinsky baptized Kalmyks represented a number of souls sufficient to form an independent parish. Probably, their very settlement at the Churka River was initiated by virtue of the order of the Kazan newly baptized office, which was in charge of missionary work in the Volga region, to settle the newly baptized in separate places of residence and entrust them to a clergy of learned, skillful and sober people. Information about the life of baptized Kalmyks near the river. Churkas did not stop for almost the entire 18th century. In 1759, there were more than 300 baptized Kalmyks here. At this time they were under the jurisdiction of the priest. Peter Vasiliev, who knows spoken Kalmyk language. In Catherine's time, Peter Vasiliev received the official position of religious leader. But, as historical documents testify, he was not a missionary in the strict sense of the word. He baptized those Kalmyks whom the diocesan authorities instructed him to baptize or were sent by the Astrakhan civil authorities. Vasiliev was prohibited by a special decree from traveling to preach the faith to the Kalmyks and calling them to Christianity. The priest himself Vasiliev lived in Astrakhan in 1776, being a priest at the Ilyinsky Church. It should be noted that at this time the procedure for enslaving Kalmyks through baptism especially developed. Such enslavement was widely set by the example of the then governor Beketov, who enslaved hundreds of Kalmyks. Other influential persons of the Astrakhan region were not inferior to him in their desire for enslavement.
By the end of the 18th century, information about baptized Kalmyks near the river ceased. Churka, and the very information about the adoption of Christianity by the Kalmyks becomes extremely scarce.
On the Astrakhan outskirts, the matter of converting Kalmyks to Russia seems to be completely frozen, and baptized Kalmyks remain only in positions of enslavement to some influential persons of the Astrakhan region and their relatives. – It is clear that due to this state of affairs, the 19th Art. In the history of the spread of Christianity among the Kalmyk people, it began extremely sadly. There were no persons specially appointed for missionary activity, there were no missionary enterprises on the part of the local diocesan authorities, and there was even no interest from the spiritual and secular authorities in missionary work among the Kalmyks. There was only an attempt, by order from St. Petersburg, to translate the initial prayers into the Kalmyk language in 1803–1806, but this attempt, due to the absence of baptized Kalmyks, was of no practical use.
In 1824, one private person, the Provincial Secretary Kudryavtsev, drew attention to the spread of Christianity among the Kalmyk people. He went to the places of supposed residence of baptized Kalmyks. It turned out that at that time there was not a single Kalmyk near the Churka River. Many years ago they were carried away to the ulus of the owner of Tyumen. Kudryavtsev found a small part of the baptized Kalmyks near Krasnoyarsk, where Kalmyks were listed in the Cossack army, also on the estates of some Astrakhan landowners in the position of enslaved people - but all the Kalmyks found were completely immersed in paganism and knew nothing of the Christian faith.
Some interest in missionary work and missionary activity among the Kalmyk people began to awaken in the second quarter of the 19th century, in the 30s, in the city of Tsaritsino. Two persons appear there, Archpriest Lugarev and the cleric, and later the priest Diligensky, who took up the matter of converting the Kalmyks to. In a relatively short time from 1839–1843, they baptized more than 500 Kalmyk souls. Kudryavtsev, known to us, also took an active part in the works of the Tsaritsyn missionaries. In connection with these works, the highest spiritual authorities are interested in missionary work among the Kalmyk people. Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod Nechaev in 1832 entered with a petition to the Highest Name “to initiate the activities of the Astrakhan and Saratov Eminences to preach the Word of God to the Kalmyks through special missionaries so that, after considering this issue and collecting the necessary information, the conclusion of the Synod would be submitted to the highest discretion." At the same time, the Saratov diocesan authorities made an attempt to send Kudryavtsev for missionary purposes to the Astrakhan unbaptized Kalmyks. But the Astrakhan governor Pyatkin, for fear of disturbance in the Kalmyk steppes, found the open conversion of Kalmyks to Christianity inconvenient, and did not allow Kudryavtsev into the Kalmyk steppes.
When the aspirations of the Saratov diocesan authorities to begin missionary work in the Astrakhan steppe through sending special missionaries encountered obstacles from the Astrakhan governor, Bishop Jacob of Saratov began to work to establish a Kalmyk mission specifically for the needs of the Saratov diocese of 2 members, with its seat in the city of Tsaritsyn . But this extremely shortened mission project also encountered obstacles from the Astrakhan civil authorities. The Astrakhan governor, according to the conditions of that time, denied the very possibility of an open mission among the Kalmyks; He pursued the idea that, given their nomadic life, the Kalmyks are incapable of living in Christianity and that, therefore, they need preliminary preparation for the change through changes in civil life and education through literacy. The Synod agreed with the opinion of the Astrakhan governor and considered it necessary to postpone until a more favorable time the question of organizing an open mission to spread Christianity among the Kalmyk people. True, Rev. Lugarev was given the right to continue his missionary activities, but he was asked to observe extreme caution in his activities and was ordered to baptize Kalmyks after a thorough investigation and discovery of the sincerity of the intentions of those asking for baptism. As for the Astrakhan diocese, it was ordered not to specifically entrust missionary activities to anyone and it was recommended to leave the conversion of Kalmyks to their own will; At the same time, those wishing to be baptized were asked to take extreme precautions and in no case should missionary actions be given the appearance of premeditation on the part of the government.
Thus, thanks to the above instructions, the whole matter of initiating missionary work among the Kalmyks was reduced to almost a complete prohibition open circulation them in . The only positive results of the petitions raised were the instructions of the Synod to the Astrakhan and Saratov Bishops to take care of preparing the ground for future missionary work. It was proposed to pay attention to strengthening the teaching of the Kalmyk language in theological schools, to attracting Kalmyk children to these schools and to parish schools established at churches.
The baptism of Kalmyks in those days, obviously under the influence of lack of sympathy for missionary actions on the part of the secular authorities, encountered a lot of formal difficulties and required long preliminary communications with the Kalmyk authorities to find out whether there were any obstacles to the baptism. This made the baptism of foreigners, on the one hand, dependent on the Kalmyk owners, and on the other hand, if any formalities were not fulfilled, it caused protests from the civil authorities and all kinds of restrictions in the town. activities. These restrictions so complicated the process of converting the Kalmyks to Christianity that they prompted Bishop Jacob of Saratov to petition the Synod to make it easier for the Kalmyks to accept Christianity and to allow them to be baptized without prior contact with the secular authorities. The Synod paid attention to the petition of the Eminence and came to the idea of creating more or less simplified rules that could guide the baptism of Kalmyks - but the Synod itself, oddly enough, did not take the initiative to draw up the necessary rules and did not at least ask for by drafting them to persons who are most interested in these rules and who can draw them up based on the experience of missionary activity. The Synod referred the question of the rules to the conclusion of the Minister of State Property, who was then in charge of the Kalmyks. The minister turned to the Astrakhan governor Timiryazev for their draft, as a result of which the drawing up of rules on the baptism of Kalmyks fell to the lot of that authority that was least sympathetic to this baptism and the obstacles from which prompted the Most Reverend. James to petition for easier conditions of baptism. Of course, according to the general view of the Astrakhan secular authorities, one could not at all expect from the rules drawn up by the governor to provide a mission among the Kalmyks with a wide range of actions and ease the formalities of baptism; These rules were interpreted primarily about actions that could serve as preparation for future missionary work. When a similar draft of rules was sent to Rev. Astrakhan Smaragd, a person jealous of the conversion of Kalmyks to Christianity, then, of course, he could not be calmly accepted by the Astrakhan diocesan authorities. Rev. Smaragd, dissatisfied with the tendency of the project, which denied the Kalmyks the desire for Christianity and the possibility of a productive mission among this people, instructed several persons of the diocese to develop the issue of reviving missionary activity among the Astrakhan Kalmyks. But those elected by the Archbishop worked separately and did not propose any significant measures to revive missionary activity. Therefore, Rev. Smaragd, developing in his report to the Synod the idea that, despite various kinds of obstacles, the baptism of Kalmyks is moving forward, expressed by an increase of approximately 100 people per year, and that, therefore, the Kalmyks have a sincere desire for Christianity, asked for the organization in Astrakhan, a special committee of ecclesiastical and secular persons for a detailed consideration of the issue of spreading Christianity among the Kalmyk people and drawing up the best rules for this important matter. The purpose of Pr. Smaragd in this case was to achieve the abolition of the synodal ban on the open preaching of the Word of God to the Kalmyks. But the efforts of the Eminence ended in failure. The organization of the committee was not permitted and the ban on openly preaching the Word of God to the Kalmyks remained in force.
However, after some time, the Astrakhan diocesan authorities, thanks to fortuitous circumstances, managed to send a preacher to the Kalmyk steppes under the guise of a camp church priest. In 1844, the trustee of the Kalmyk people, Olenich, declared to the Astrakhan Bishop. Smaragda about the need to send a priest to the Kalmyk steppes to satisfy the spiritual needs of the Russian administration living there. This issue was resolved by organizing a camp church and assigning the well-known priest Diligensky to it to travel around the Kalmyk steppe. From 1851 to 1859, Diligensky was a priest at a camp church and traveled around the steppe. Although he was officially appointed to satisfy the spiritual needs of the Russian ulus administration, being a missionary by vocation, he was the first of the Kalmyk religious preachers to bring the Word of God into the depths of the Kalmyk steppe and in the wilderness of the Kalmyk nomads he found people disposed to Christianity. During the first two years of missionary activity, Diligensky baptized 133 Kalmyk souls and returned several who had fallen away from Christianity to their former times. Diligensky's missionary actions were a major step forward in the history of the spread of Christianity among the Kalmyk people, but unfortunately Diligensky's activities were short-lived. In 1859, Diligensky was removed from office; along with his departure, the conversion of Kalmyks to , associated with the activities of the camp church in the steppe, ceased. The Kalmyk steppe was still without missionaries, and there was no open preaching of the Word of God among it again. It took several more years for there to finally be a decisive turn in the issue of converting the Kalmyks to Christianity.
In 1866, the Minister of National Education, who is also the Ob.-Proc., became interested in the matter of converting the Kalmyks. of the Holy Synod, Count Tolstoy, who visited the Astrakhan region this year. In the Most Submissive Report to the Sovereign Gr. Tolstoy raised the idea of the need to begin missionary activities among the Kalmyk people and indicated a number of measures necessary for this at first; Among these measures was the organization of a special committee headed by Astrakh. His Eminence and the local governor for the purpose of a comprehensive discussion of the issue of developing measures to convert Kalmyks to Christianity. Since the proposal of gr. Tolstoy received the Highest approval, work soon began in Astrakhan to discuss the most successful measures for converting Kalmyks to Christianity. At this time, trustee Kalm. people Kostenkov, one of the active members of the Committee, writes a detailed note on the need for open preaching of the Word of God Kalm. people representing detailed development views and provisions of the gr. Tolstoy. Local mission leader and translator Fr. P. Smirnov, having surveyed the Kalmyk steppe on behalf of the Committee, compiles detailed plan how missionary activity should be organized in it and which missionaries should be sent where, in accordance with the living conditions of the area. But at the time when the notes and projects indicated by us were compiled and sufficiently discussed, those wishing for the benefit of Miss. business of persons - in January 1871, the opening of Miss. followed in Astrakhan. Committee of Rights Ms. Society, as a result of which this Committee had to implement what was intended and approved for implementation earlier.
With a change in attitude towards the issue of spreading Christianity among Kalmyks, with the permission of open preaching of the Word of God and open teaching of Miss. action, naturally, the very position of Miss had to change more or less sharply. affairs in the Kalmyk steppe.
Some time after its opening, the Committee begins to officially send missionaries to the Kalmas. to the people. The first such missionary was Hieromonk Gabriel. He first traveled around preaching the faith of the Kalmyks living near Astrakhan, up the Volga, and then moved deep into the Kalmyk steppe and here in 1876, in the center of the steppes, he founded the first miss. camp in the village of Ulan-Erge. Following this, another Miss was soon founded. camp in the southwestern part of the steppe, in the Noin-Shire (Bislyurta) tract, where more than 200 Kalmyks were baptized.
However, off to a good start, Miss. The business also did not develop successfully under the further leadership of Astrakh. Mission. Committee. About 40 years have passed since the first misses were founded. camps in the Astrakhan Kalmyk steppe; it seemed that we should now have thousands of baptized Kalmyks, a significant number of misses. camps, and entire villages inhabited by the newly baptized. We have only 4 misses in the Kalmyk steppe. camps (Ulan-Erge, Noin-Shire, Chilgir, Kegulta), of which almost none is currently showing proper active efforts to attract Kalmyks to Christianity, either because there are no Kalmyk nomads near the camp, or for other unsatisfactory reasons . – A handful of baptized Kalmyks live in these camps. If under Noin-Shire, perhaps, there are up to 400 Kalmyk souls listed as Christians, then under the other 3 camps - Ulan-Erginsky, Chilgirsky and Kegultinsky, baptized Kalmyks are considered only dozens, nowhere reaching the number of 100 families.
It is difficult to indicate the entire set of reasons for such an unenviable position of missionary work in the Kalmyk steppe.
History shows us the frequent change of missionaries in the camps, it also testifies to the relatively little intensity of their missionary activity, to the constant desire to leave the wilderness of the steppes to more populated and cultural places. Thus, the historical past of the mission, indicating one of the reasons for the weak penetration of Christianity among the Kalmyks, raises the question of how to create a frame of people with a missionary fire in their chests, with love for the people in their hearts, with a burning thirst to introduce the Kalmyk people to Christian life. But if we, relying on the indicated evidence of history, remember another historical fact known to us, about the existence of a mission in Stavropol on the Volga, when Kalmyks in masses accepted baptism, completely uncalled for by anyone, solely because baptism was accepted by influential persons among them, - then we, of course, will have to turn our attention not only to ensuring that we have missionaries who love their work, but also to ensuring that these missionaries use some special methods of missionary influence on the Kalmyk people - methods aimed at attracting to Christianity influential Kalmyk class.
In this case, based on the experience of history, we can have hopes for a significant attraction of Kalmyks to Christianity, otherwise we will have to be content with isolated conversions from people from the people, and not from the people themselves.
Thus, with regard to the external spread of Christianity among the Kalmyks, two questions are raised before us by the historical past and present situation of missionary work: the question of organizing the institution of zealous missionaries and the question of influencing the influential Kalmyk classes.
But it goes without saying that the successful organization of the external spread of Christianity among the Kalmyk people is only half the battle for a mission that wants lasting success in its actions. An equally important matter for the mission is to confirm the foreigners baptized by it in the faith. Let's see what the history of the spread of Christianity among the Kalmyks tells us about this branch of missionary service.
At the dawn of the penetration of Christianity among the Kalmyk people, baptized Kalmyks learned piety from the Russian families that sheltered and baptized them. In the future, according to the official orders of the Astrakhan bishops that have come down to us, Kalmyks wishing to be baptized had to learn the truths of the faith and prepare for baptism either in Astrakhan monasteries, or the care of the Christian life of the newly baptized was entirely entrusted to their successors. In the mission of Nikodim Lenkeevich, during its stay in the Kalmyk steppe, we observed a more or less lengthy announcement made by schoolchildren who were under Lenkeevich. But Lenkeevich’s deputy, Archimandrite. Methodius had already petitioned, in view of the disintegration of the mission, for permission to baptize Kalmyks without any announcement, based solely on faith in the Triune God.
It is clear that in this case the baptized Kalmyks remained completely without any knowledge of the creed they had adopted. However, this order, begun under Archimandrite. Methodius, by force of circumstances had to be practiced throughout the existence of the mission in Stavropol on the Volga, because there the baptized lived in masses and for the proper spiritual guidance and training of them the Stavropol mission did not have a sufficient number of legally capable clergy members. Almost all the work of spiritual leadership lay with St. Chubovsky, who taught the Kalmyks piety and was the only one who could perform the rite of confession in the Kalmyk language - this is the great sacrament of the spiritual renewal of people. Although three of the schoolchildren who were under Chubovsky knew Kalm. language and could help the head of the mission, but in the first place, they were secular people who officially occupied places of honor, and in the second place, these three persons were too insufficient to successfully undertake the enormous work that was required to teach the truths of the faith 6-8 thousand Kalmyks who were baptized, but not enlightened by the light of Christian knowledge. The official religious preacher Vasiliev, who had a parish in Astrakhan and, therefore, could only prepare them for baptism in his leisure hours, could teach the baptized Kalmyks little. Of course, the weak assimilation of the principles of Christian life by baptized Kalmyks explains the extremely unenviable position of Christianity among the Kalmyk people, which was discovered by the provincial secretary Kudryavtsev at the beginning of the 2nd quarter of the 19th century, when there were an insignificant number of baptized Kalmyks, moreover, completely immersed in paganism. One could have hoped that with the appearance of special missionaries in the Kalmyk steppe and the organization of missionary camps, the religious and moral state of baptized Kalmyks would rise to the proper heights, but reality showed us something completely different. The current religious and moral state of baptized Kalmyks, as evidenced by the Kazan Missionary Congress of 1910, is extremely low. Baptized Kalmyks are almost pagans in essence.
It is clear that this unenviable internal state of baptized Kalmyks, testifying to the incorrect organization of missionary work, clearly raises the question of raising their religious and moral level, or, at least, of taking appropriate measures to ensure that, if not the old, then at least the younger generation would receive a Christian education and Christian upbringing.
When we, moving from the old generation to the young, begin to talk about their education and upbringing, we thereby raise the question of one of the main and powerful means of establishing baptized foreigners in Christianity about school and missionary work. Any more or less rationally set mission must make special efforts to organize school affairs in the best and most expedient manner. As for the organization of school missionary work in recent times, the well-known system of N. I. Ilminsky is recognized as the most rational in this regard, using the native language of foreigners as a means for them to better master school education and enlightenment with the light of Christianity - a system that has already been used for for half a century justifying the fruitfulness of its basic principles. This system, using primary education foreigners with their native language, as a tool, requires specially adapted textbooks and school benefits for the teaching methods she practices.
The beginning of schooling among baptized Kalmyks, as we know, was laid by Lenkeevich’s mission, first in its infancy, during the mission’s stay in the steppe under the baptized Kalmyk owner Peter Taishin, and then in a more systematic manner, through the opening of a special school at the Ivanovo Astrakhan Monastery for teaching Kalmyks . Further fate the specified school is unknown; it probably lost its significance along with the cessation of the mission on the Astrakhan outskirts. With the transfer of the mission to Stavropol on the Volga, a new school was opened for the education of Kalmyks, the distinctive feature of which was that here, along with other subjects, they taught the Kalmyk language, or rather writing. The program of other education corresponded to the generally accepted programs of the then Russian lower schools. But even then, some figures who were concerned about the establishment of Christianity among baptized Kalmyks had thoughts about compiling a special special manual in the Kalmyk language, adapted both for reading by Kalmyks who were literate in their own way, and, of course, for guidance in schools. The content of such a manual was supposed to include a short history The Old and New Testaments, the history of the Church, dogma, it was generally planned to compile such a book “where the entire content of Christian doctrine would be shown.” The idea of such a guide, very valuable in its content, belonged to the Secretary of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs Bakunin, a person who had previously, in his official activities on the Astrakhan outskirts, taken a large part in the life of the Kalmyk people and practiced translating the initial prayers into the Kalmyk language. The Holy Synod approved the idea of such leadership. He instructed the Kyiv Archbishop Raphael and the Kiev-Pechersk Archimandrite Timothy that “skilled theologians make an extract from books for the Kalmyks - about the creation of the world and man, about the flood, Abraham, the exit from Egypt, about the prophets who announced the saving incarnation of God the Word, about the incarnation , suffering, resurrection and ascension, the delusion of the Antichrist and the end of the world with an explanation of the Apostolic sermon and in which year which nation converted to the Christian faith, about the confirmation of the faith by martyrdom, with an explanation of the Creed, the unity of the Holy Trinity, veneration, and not the idolization of St. . icons, apostolic traditions, rules of ecumenical councils” and so on. By 1744, this book was compiled. The Synod then looked for one baptized Kalmyk Pavel Boluchin (former Kalmyk Getsul) to translate the said book and for this purpose sent the person found to study at the Novogorod Seminary. But for some unknown reason, the translation of the book did not take place, and the baptized Kalmyks remained with Russian textbooks. In the 30s of the 19th century. Kalmyks began to be accepted for education in theological schools on the Astrakhan outskirts; two lower schools were specially opened for them in Tsaritsino, but these schools did not exist for long. Finally, with the organization of missionary camps in the Kalmyk steppe, permanent missionary schools began to open at the camps, and in 1892, a 2-class missionary school with a pedagogical class was opened at the Kalmyk bazaar, not far from Astrakhan, which has the special task of giving teaching staff for missionary schools of the steppe. Currently, in addition to the indicated school in the Kalmyk bazaar, there are five missionary schools in the Kalmyk steppe, of which two are two-class schools (in Noin-Shire and Ulan-Erge).
To be able to carry out Ilminsky’s system, missionary schools of the Kalmyk steppe must have teachers who know the Kalmyk language, on the one hand, and a range of textbooks in the Kalmyk language, on the other. But missionary schools in their historical past often did not have such teachers, and they do not always have them now; these schools also do not have the appropriate teaching aids, except perhaps for the primer published in 1903. Moreover, for the missionary schools of the steppe, a contingent of teachers with better training than the training of 2 cool school with a pedagogical class, especially since now two-class schools have appeared in the Kalmyk steppe itself.
Thus, the current situation in missionary school affairs in the Kalmyk steppe raises the question of finding means for the best training of teachers for these schools and finding means for the practical implementation of Ilminsky’s system in missionary schools.
The last question in its second half leads to the question of organizing translation activities into the Kalmyk language, since for the practical implementation of Ilminsky’s system, as we have already said, we need not only teachers who know the Kalmyk language, but also appropriate textbooks in a foreign language. Translation activities into the Kalmyk language for missionary purposes began very early. By 1724–25, three translations of the initial prayers, the Creed and the Decalogue were made into the Kalmyk language. The first translation was made by Bakunin with the participation of an official missionary, Hieromonk David Skaluba, who was then sent to the Kalmyks. The second translation was made by an unknown person in St. Petersburg, and the third by Lenkeevich’s students in the mission. The first two translations appeared due to the known order of Peter I in 1724, the third translation was made according to the instructions given to Nikodim Lenkeevich. Further translation work was to be undertaken by the Kalmyk mission in Stavropol on the Volga. Here it was intended to translate into the Kalmyk language, it was planned to deliver catechetical teachings in Kalmyk, for which purpose the baptized Kalmyk Ivan Kondakov, previously specially trained by the Holy Synod in St. Petersburg, was intended for missionary service to the Kalmyk people. We also know of a book compiled on Bakunin’s initiative for translation into the Kalmyk language. But the translation work in the Stavropol mission was moving weakly, although among the clergy there it was possible to find people even to form a special translation committee (Archpriests Chubovsky, Kondakov, Roman Kurbatov). Of the translations that appeared during this period, we can point to translations made on the initiative of the secular figure Kirillov, one of the first figures in the organization of baptized Kalmyks in Stavropol. Kirillov’s student (probably Roman Kurbatov, who later served in Chubovsky’s mission) translated the primer into the Kalmyk language, and then subsequently the catechism, but these translations were not widespread. In 1806, according to the decree of the Synod of 1803, “the initial foundations of the Christian faith” were translated into Kalmyk by teacher Maximov in Astrakhan and printed in Slavic letters - but this translation, as we know, also had no practical use, since it appeared at a time when Kalmyks who wanted to embrace the Christian faith could hardly be found anywhere. Next in time are the translations made by the Herrnhuter brothers of the Sarepta colony, who were missionaries among the Kalmyks in the first quarter of the 19th century. They translated the “Our Father” and the “Creed” into the Kalmyk language in their religious text, made translations of sacred hymns, etc. Then, in 1819, a translation of the Gospel of Matthew appeared in the Kalmyk language, also made by one of the representatives of this brotherhood, Academician Schmidt, who subsequently continued his work on translating other books of the New Testament. Schmidt's work was the first major work on the Kalmyk language, but this work turned out to be not entirely understandable to the Kalmyks and was somehow very soon forgotten.
When the priest known to us entered the missionary field. Diligensky, then he, having an excellent knowledge of the Kalmyk language, on his personal initiative took up translation work. He first compiled a primer in the Kalmyk language, then translated a short catechism into the Kalmyk language, and some church hymns - Easter and great holidays. Diligensky's translations were sent for review to Kazan, to the bachelor of the Theological Academy Bobrovnikov. But Bobrovnikov fundamentally spoke out against the very possibility of any translation activity into the Kalmyk language due to insufficient knowledge of the language at that time and rejected Diligensky’s translations. Despite this, translation work continued in Astrakhan. In 1849, a special commission was formed here from Diligensky, teacher of the Kalmyk language Romanov, and priest. Parmena Smirnova to review translations into the Kalmyk language: priest. history, short catechism and Russian-Kalmyk dictionary. Next, Diligensky, without stopping in his work, began translating the rite of the liturgy, some hymns from Matins, Vespers, Liturgy, as well as troparions and kontakia of the Lord's feasts and those common to the saints. Obviously, the goal of this translation commission was to create translations for the opening of the Divine Service in the Kalmyk language. Subsequently, thanks to the energetic work of Fr. P. Smirnov and some other persons, translated into Kalmyk language appeared almost everything that is necessary for performing Divine services in this language. O.P. Smirnov, obviously using the works of the translation commission, translated: the initial Christian prayers, the Creed and the Ten Commandments: the eleven Sunday morning gospels; brief sacred history; life and miracles of St. Nicholas; Orthodox catechism in question-and-answer form; gospels for Sundays, twelve feasts and highly solemn ones, which are supposed to be read at liturgies; third and sixth hours; from the divine liturgy - everything that is sung and read; Several other translations were also made.
Some of the translations of Fr. P. Smirnova are lithographed, others are in manuscripts and scattered in different places. Although, thanks to these works, the possibility of worshiping in the Kalmyk language was realized, however, not during the time of Fr. Neither after P. Smirnov did divine services take place in the Kalmyk language in the Kalmyk habitats. Since the translations of Fr. P. Smirnova, a lot of time has passed, now the translations themselves are outdated and need correction, since many of their places are incomprehensible to Kalmyks. But it is clear that if these translations had been put into use at one time, then, gradually corrected by life itself, they would have served to this day as a means of enlightening the Kalmyk people. After Fr. P. Smirnov's major translator was A. M. Pozdneev, who translated the entire book into Kalmyk at the request of the Bible Society. This translation is not at all alien to Mongolisms; in terms of the structure of speech, it is not particularly accessible for understanding by Kalmyks. Its distinctive feature is literalness and consistency of the text. After Pozdneev’s translation, one should point to the works of the translation commission at the Brotherhood of St. Gurias in Kazan, which published: Catechetical teaching to those preparing for holy baptism, Explanatory Prayer Book, Prayer Book.
These translations are printed in Russian graphics; by design they are translations into colloquial Kalmyk language. Finally, most recently, a translation of the Holy History of the New Testament entitled “The Life of Jesus Christ”, published by the translation commission at the Kazan Educational District in 1911, was published in Kalmyk transcription in colloquial Kalmyk language.
Having historically examined the issue of translation activities for the needs of the Orthodox mission among the Kalmyks, we see that the next issue of the translation functions of missionary service in the Kalmyk steppe is the revision of some previous translations and the compilation of new ones for the purpose of making it possible, if desired, to perform divine services in the Kalmyk language in types of enlightenment of Kalmyks with the light of Christianity through the vital force of Orthodox worship. On the other hand, the mission needs textbooks in the Kalmyk language for the practical implementation of Ilminsky’s system in the most successful and expedient missionary impact through the school. Of course, both needs of the mission can be satisfied with great success by a special translation commission organized from people familiar with the translation business.
Thus, missionary translation work in the Kalmyk steppe requires the organization of a special translation commission in order to make it possible to revive this work and give the Orthodox mission what it needs for the successful and expedient development of its missionary activities.
Having completed a brief historical review of the main functions of missionary activity: activities for the external dissemination of Christianity among the Kalmyks and for its internal assimilation, a review of school work and translation work, we see that missionary work in the Kalmyk steppe needs a radical reorganization, the introduction of new forces and new principles and in the revitalization of all aspects of missionary service.
Based on the sum of historical experience, the data that has been shown to us by more than two centuries of the spread of Christianity among the Volga Kalmyks, we now decide to propose a project for introducing new principles into the existing methods of missionary influence on the Kalmyks and indicate how, in our opinion, this should be done reorganization of the Orthodox mission among the Kalmyk people in order, if God wills, to revive the missionary work in the Kalmyk steppe and place it on more beneficial and solid soil.
The history of the external spread of Christianity among the Kalmyks has shown us that the Kalmyks most readily accepted when influential people among them were baptized. Hence, as we said, the natural conclusion to which the historical past leads us is the need for missionary influence on the influential class of the Kalmyk people. Until now, the Kalmyk mission had somehow not been given this task at all, except for the time of Peter I, by virtue of whose decree on attracting Kalmyk owners and lawyers to Christianity, the Astrakhan governor Volynsky for some time sought to call the influential Kalmyk class to Christianity. Meanwhile, all the more or less well-known missionary figures for the conversion to Christianity of the Buryats - the eastern branch of the Mongol tribe - always used the noted feature inherent in the Mongols and invariably tried to influence the influential class of the people in a missionary way. Such energetic missionaries as Innocent Nerunovich, Mikhail II, Nil Isaakovich, Parfeniy and Veniamin always made special efforts to convert the influential Buryat ancestor to Christianity, whose conversion was inevitably followed by mass baptisms of ordinary Buryats.
The Kalmyk mission must turn to the same method, justified by history and corresponding to the spirit of the Mongolian nations.
But to whom, given the current living conditions of the Kalmyks, should the Orthodox mission pay its primary attention?
The Noyon class of owners among the Kalmyk people has now completely disappeared. Of the living Kalmyk noyons, the most well-born Tundutov does not live in the steppe; the two brothers of Tyumen have too much influence on a small circle of the Kalmyk people. The Zaysang class following the Noyon class is also increasingly withering and dying out; Moreover, after the liberation of the Kalmyks in 1892 from serfdom to their ruling class, the Zaisang class ceased to have a particularly significant influence on the life of the people. Currently, the class of Lamai clergy remains a significant influence on the Kalmyk people. This class completely guides the spiritual life of the people. He is the only stronghold of Lamaism in the Kalmyk steppe and the most powerful opponent of Christianity.
The Lamai clergy class, as the most influential at present among the Kalmyk people, should become the object of the most energetic rational influence of the Orthodox mission.
If the Orthodox mission is able to arouse an attraction to Christianity in this class, undermine the correctness of Lamaism in their consciousness and convincingly show the truth of Orthodoxy, we can safely hope that by doing so it will mark the beginning of a strong inculcation of Christianity among the entire Kalmyk people, who will quickly move towards Orthodoxy along with their spiritual leaders.
But how can the Orthodox mission influence the Lamai clergy class?
The Lamaites have a well-known religious system of belief; they have a huge canon of confessional holy books, read in Tibetan and only a small part translated into Kalmyk. It is clear that the Orthodox mission must speak to the spiritual class of Lamaism in the language of its religious books and, on the basis of these books, show the vain falsity of the Lamaist doctrine. We will be told that hitherto the Lamai clergy class was deaf to the preaching of Christianity. Where is the basis for the hope that he will now be able to hear the voice of the gospel truth and, having overcome the blindness of his mind, accept with his heart the saving preaching of Christianity?
But we must not forget that hitherto the class of Lamai clergy in essence had not heard the preaching of Christianity, since they had not been properly approached with a call to Christ, had not been spoken to in the language that they understood in their religious books and their confessional education, and had not been revealed he was given the Lamai creed and the lies of his religious hopes. Strictly speaking, we could not even speak to the spiritual class of Lamaism in the way it desired, since we did not know the Tibetan language and could not read the sacred books of Lamaism in this language.
How can one not have hopes for the possibility of a beneficial Christian influence on the Lamai clergy class if the mission rises to the occasion and speaks to the Lamaites as one should speak to them given their centuries-old religious system, their confessional education and upbringing. It is clear that we can have a beneficial influence on the class of Lamai clergy by knowing the text of the confessional books of Lamaism and the ability to talk with this class about what has lived their soul since childhood and what feeds their religious hopes. It was strange until now to hope that the class of Lamai clergy would be attentive listeners to the preaching of Christianity, which was little understood by them. Indeed, under current conditions, both the Christian preacher and the Lamai clergyman when talking among themselves about faith, they are inevitably condemned to mutual misunderstanding of each other. Without being able, with a few exceptions, to explain oneself in clear language, catching snippets of speech from the translator - if they can still somehow talk about Christianity, due to the general availability of its preaching, then they can hardly agree on anything definite regarding Lamaism, since translators are usually stumped by the terminology of Lamai books , it is rare that they themselves can correctly understand the tenets of the Lamai teachings, much less correctly convey them to others. The available printed manuals on the study of Lamaism also cannot provide significant assistance to the missionary in this regard. The question arises, what kind of success can one expect in Christian preaching given this mutual misunderstanding? It will be a completely different matter if a Lamai clergyman hears an analysis of his religious teachings according to his native Tibetan books and, thanks to this analysis, with common sense understands the lie of his religious hopes. Then it will have a completely different attitude towards the preaching of Christianity; seeking support in life and understanding itself in world existence, it will yearn to find guidance in the Gospel gospel true meaning life and true ways of salvation - and if this search is sincere, then in response to it, with the help of God’s grace, the truth, the way and the life will be found. In a similar way the accomplished conversion of the Lamaite will be decisive and firm. It will entail the missionary activity of the convert and through this will bring greater fruit to the Church of God.
Will you introduce the method of missionary influence we have indicated into practical activities The Orthodox Kalmyk mission must inevitably revive missionary activity in the Kalmyk steppe and, with the help of God, strengthen this work on more solid and rational principles.
But it is not enough to indicate a fruitful method of missionary influence; it is necessary to provide the means for its implementation, means that are kind to the spirit of the enlightened people, akin to their inner nature, the inner skills of their being. Of course, in order to make it possible to practically implement the method of missionary influence on the Lamaites that we are designing, it is necessary to place at the head of the Orthodox Kalmyk mission a group of learned persons with a special missionary education who could speak with the Lamaite clergy in the language of their sacred books. But that's half the battle. It is necessary to create conditions for missionary activity, akin, as we said, to the spirit folk life, kind to the inner nature of her being.
Here, in order to better express our thoughts and give others the opportunity to understand it more clearly, we must make a retreat towards clarifying the spiritual principles by which the Kalmyk people live. Kalmyks, as you know, profess Lamaism. They came to us on the Volga as Lamaites, but they remain Lamaites to this day. Lamaism, from the moral and everyday side, represents a religion based on vows and renunciations. As a matter of fact, a confessor of Lamaism joins the ranks of real Lamaites only when he makes a number of specific promises, legitimized by the religion of vows. The Lamai clergy in its true sense represents real Lamaites, persons who have given, in accordance with the position occupied by each individual in the community, one or another number of vows and, through this, have joined the ranks of real confessors of Lamaism.
According to the vows taken, the Lamai spiritual class leads a celibate communal life, and its everyday way of life has some similarities with the life of our monasteries. Thanks to the abundance of the spiritual class and its life free from family ties, Lamaism created a magnificent cult of religious service, daily religious ceremonies and solemn holiday prayers at specially designated times. Due to the indicated nature of Lamaism and the provisions of the Lamai spiritual class, the national piety of the Kalmyk people received a monastic connotation. Each religious Kalmyk family strives to have among its members a prayer book for the clan and, if there are several male children, one of them is necessarily sent to the (khurul) spiritual community; Children are also often sent to khurul as a vow. Due to the fact that so many Kalmyk families have relatives in the khuruls, the Kalmyks have very strong ties with the Lamai spiritual community and a strong respect for the spiritual class; Entering adulthood, many of the Lamaites strive to be in the religious leadership of someone from the spiritual class and repeat the tarnistic prayer, especially beneficial according to the religious concepts of the Lamaites, as many times as possible on the rosary: “om mani pad me hum.” It is clear that with the presence of this kind of piety, the Kalmyks, like the common people, so, especially, the spiritual class, when seeing Russian missionary priests who do not stand out from the rest of ordinary people, when observing the relatively short divine service they perform once a week, cannot develop a serious conviction in the superiority of Orthodoxy over their national religious beliefs. It will always seem to them that in religious national beliefs there is more moral achievement, more self-denial and, therefore, their faith is better and more pleasing to God; for the internal recognition of Christianity is alien to the Lamaites, and the external first impression, with the centuries-old habit of the monastic type of piety, speaks for the advantage of national beliefs. It is therefore necessary for the Orthodox mission, both in relation to the simple Kalmyk people and in relation to the spiritual Lamai class, to destroy such prejudice and show the Lamaites in traits that are close and understandable to them, amiable to the inner nature of their being, their religious skills and tastes. It is not difficult for the Orthodox mission to do this. In the methods of missionary influence on the Kalmyks and on their spiritual class, we must introduce the method of influencing them through a well-equipped Orthodox missionary monastery.
This new method of missionary influence must certainly justify the purpose of its application.
In an Orthodox missionary monastery, every Lamait will see a monasticism that is dear to him, not bound by family ties, adorned with greater moral height and stricter external vows of the clergy; here the Lamait will see daily, accessible to everyone, and in a language understandable to the Kalmyk, although at first in some part, performed worship services. Here he will get acquainted with the festive Orthodox service and will observe the solemn and touching rituals of the Christian church. At the sight of all this, the discouraging thoughts about the superiority of his national beliefs should disappear in the heart of the Lamaite; he can accept with a joyful heart what has been the religious desires of his heart for several centuries and will freely and willingly send his children to the Orthodox missionary monastery for upbringing and education, just as he now gives them to the Lamai khurul. In the same way, for the Kalmyk spiritual class it will be easier to transition when accepting Orthodoxy into a monastic environment familiar from childhood and a more or less familiar way of life. If any entire Kalmyk khurul would like to convert to Orthodoxy, then he, naturally, can completely switch to the position Orthodox monastery, which, with the development of missionary work in the Kalmyk steppe, promises in the future to cover it with a network of monasteries - former Lamai khuruls, and, of course, following the khuruls, their current parishioners will be Christians. They may point out to us the dreamy nature of the proposed projects, but we are by no means idealizing or dreaming. We are from the point of view historical process the spread of Christianity among the Kalmyks and the position of national religious beliefs in the life of the people, we logically develop the idea of what the methods of missionary influence on the Lamait Kalmyks should be and what the introduction of these methods into the practice of missionary activity in the Kalmyk steppe can give to the future of the mission.
That missionary monastery that we are talking about as a new method of influencing the Lamaites, naturally, should stand at the head of the entire reorganized missionary work in the Kalmyk steppe. It should be the center of the Orthodox Kalmyk mission and the focus of its activities. It is located in the most populated part of the steppe and is both a center of spiritual enlightenment and a hotbed of cultural settlement. To carry out the latter task, he is provided with sufficient land and means for conducting cultural farming. In this regard, he should be a model for foreigners who want to live culturally and should have the opportunity to settle the baptized near him and guide them in gradually accustoming them to settling down and farming on plots of land specially designated for the newly baptized. The experience of all missions unanimously says that the newly baptized should be separated into independent units, fully provided with land and directly guided during the transition from a nomadic life to a sedentary one.
The missionary monastery is the residence of the head of the mission and a group of specially educated missionaries; it is the spiritual laboratory of the mission.
We spoke earlier about the various needs of missionary work. Organization of a missionary monastery in a wonderful way can meet all basic mission needs.
A missionary monastery must have within its walls a school that provides qualified teachers for the missionary and, if possible, for all other schools of the steppe. But in this school, the missionary monastery prepares not only teachers for the Kalmyk steppe, it also prepares missionary catechists, who, under the guidance and direction of the head of the mission, can be sent throughout the entire community of the Kalmyk steppe to preach the Gospel and for methodological training and confirmation of the baptized in the faith. After all, it is really impossible to missionary among an entire people, having 3-4 missionary priests, burdened with their parish affairs and teaching the law in schools. It is time for all Orthodox missions to learn the custom of the Japanese and Altai missions of sending inexpensive catechist missionaries to foreigners. This matter becomes quite possible to carry out at the school we are designing in a missionary monastery, which will provide appropriate preparation for the Gospel gospel. We are now complaining about the lack of missionaries who know the Kalmyk language. It seems that when the projected school is equipped in a missionary monastery, there will not only be no need for natural Kalmyk missionaries, but there will even be a surplus. With a certain amount of education, the majority of those young people who will study at school can be used for the mission. In this case, we will always receive not only a sufficient number of desired forces to meet the needs of missionary work, but also the opportunity to select persons better development and better abilities.
With the institute of catechists, the question of finding reliable missionary shepherds disappears, because thanks to this institute we have an excellent opportunity to recruit the most worthy people into the spiritual members of the missionary clergy. Missionary catechists and missionary shepherds from the catechists, as sons of the steppes and their people, will be the most suitable element for preaching Christianity to their lamaitic relatives. Knowing the way of life and beliefs of their native people, speaking to them in their native language, they will not be embarrassed by the steppe environment and conditions of nomadic life, they will not require large expenses for themselves and expensive maintenance, they, finally, will not constantly rush to the city, or to conditions of a life more cultural than that of the steppe, because they, who have never been anywhere further than their native steppe, will have nowhere to know about this more cultured life, except perhaps by hearsay, and therefore there will be no reasons that would make them imperiously pulled to escape from the steppe. Thanks to this, the issue of finding more or less permanent missionaries and teachers, tied to their place of residence and to their missionary work, is resolved and, therefore, there is an opportunity for more sustainable and productive conduct of missionary work.
Thus, the organization of a school in a missionary monastery for special training of teachers and catechists for missionaries will lead the Orthodox mission among the Kalmyk people out of the impasse in which it is currently located. This school, by preparing qualified teachers, resolves the issue of the possibility of the best organization of pedagogical work in accordance with Ilminsky’s system; it resolves the issue of organizing widespread preaching of the Word of God in the Kalmyk steppe with the help of missionary catechists; it finally makes it possible to place missionaries who have been tested in their service, tied to the steppe and a specific place of residence of missionaries, as shepherds.
The missionary monastery designed in the form we have indicated also successfully resolves the issue of organizing translation activities into the Kalmyk language.
What is required for a more or less successful rational direction of translation activity? Theologians with a scientific knowledge of the Kalmyk language are required. More or less developed natural Kalmyks are required, who give an account of the use of their native language. Finally, a school is required as a place for the final verification of the translations made, where in the most effective way, when reading the translations to students, it becomes clear how understandable the translation is, how practically suitable it is for use and introduction into school and liturgical life. It is in this very way that translations into foreign languages are designed to be created by the best expert in this matter, and there is still practice in the same way to conduct it in the translation commission at the Brotherhood of St. Gurias in Kazan. The history of translation activities in the Orthodox Kalmyk mission showed us that translation activities were not carried out here in full in the indicated form. If in the Kalmyk mission the first two conditions were sometimes met, that is, translations were made in a commission of theologically educated Russians and natural Kalmyks who knew the Kalmyk language, such as, for example, translation commissions from Parmen Smirnov, Diligensky, the Kalmyk teacher Romanov and other persons, – then the translations made were never checked for their comprehensibility by the school. Generally speaking, the history of translation activities into the Kalmyk language has not preserved any information about what means the translators used to check the comprehensibility of their translations for the ordinary Kalmyk people. Perhaps it is precisely the lack of rational verification through school, where the understandability of the translation is verified for school age, and it explains that the translations of P. Smirnov and others turned out to be not entirely accessible to popular understanding and did not receive practical application in the mission and dissemination among the Kalmyk people. A missionary monastery, as having theologically educated figures who know the Kalmyk language, and sufficiently trained natural Kalmyks, has the opportunity to more or less successfully and rationally organize translation activities. Being in the center of the Kalmyk steppes, among the living Kalmyk people, and having a school at his disposal, he gets the opportunity constant checking their translations, constant information about how this or that translated passage fits into the living understanding of the people, how accurate the meaning is attributed to it and how it should be corrected so that everything is understandable and free from distortion. In the missionary monastery, we finally get the happy opportunity of the so-called long-term verification of translations, checking them and correcting them with life itself. This can be done as follows. The translation, recognized as appropriate for its purpose, is privately released into local use in handwritten or lithographed form; three or four years of practical use of translation will perfectly show the most weak spots it and how they need to be corrected; in this case, the practice of life, so to speak, will itself correct and polish the translation and make it completely suitable for general use. A missionary monastery can with great convenience practice the indicated useful measure for correcting and improving translations - and if this measure is introduced into a permanent rule, then the translations made by the monastery and carried out through the indicated crucible of purification will certainly be work full of practical benefits for the revival of missionary activities in the Kalmyk steppe. The correct organization of translation activities will make it possible to soon complete the rational organization of school affairs by creating the teaching aids necessary according to the Ilminsky system; it will make it possible to introduce worship in the Kalmyk native language in the Kalmyk steppe.
All this, of course, will be a powerful means of attracting the Kalmyk people to Orthodoxy in the hands of a renewed mission, since hitherto the Kalmyks, neither in their national khuruls nor in our missionary churches, have heard prayers that are understandable to their minds and hearts and could not glorify God with sacred songs and sounds your native speech. The hearts of the people cannot help but open up to love for Christ and a thirst for the acceptance of Orthodoxy, hearing in their native language the wondrous richness of Christian worship, touching prayers, sacred chants and highly solemn rites of the Orthodox Church.
Thus, the missionary monastery, presenting the full possibility of a successful and rational organization of translation work, is able to satisfy the historical need of the Kalmyk mission for translation works, and with the organization of these activities inspires the mission with the joyful hope of attracting the hearts of the Kalmyk people to Christianity. What is especially important here is that the missionary monastery provides a solid chance for a rational organization of translation work, for translations that are fully accurate and completely understandable to the Kalmyks, and therefore practically useful.
Finally, the Orthodox missionary monastery makes it possible for the Kalmyk mission to carry out another function of missionary service - the creation of accusatory anti-Lamaic literature directly based on the holy books of Lamaism.
If this or that mission in its activities encounters a religious belief that has a certain complete system, a code of sacred books, a class of clergy studying these books, then it naturally must know the confessional books of the faith that is fighting against it and be able to use these books to expose false beliefs , since otherwise the mission will not be able to approach the spiritual class of the people and influence them beneficially. All this is especially necessary, as we saw earlier, in relation to the Lamai religious community.
There was a moment in the history of the Orthodox mission among the Kalmyks when the highest spiritual authority, which sent the mission to the Kalmyk steppes, realized the urgent need to write accusatory anti-Lamai works. This was in 1726. This year, the mission began to complain that the Kalmyk Lamaites were very unfriendly towards their baptized brethren, subjecting them to reproaches and oppression for deviating from national beliefs and accepting Christianity. Then the Holy Synod ordered to obtain the most famous sacred books of the Lamaites at that time: “Bodymur” - the major work of Zunkava, the founder of Lamaism, “Zun töröl Tuuji”, “Sexamenin”, so that, by translating them into Russian, “to show the most convincing arguments” in confirmation of the falsity of Lamai views and the truth of Christian ones. Subsequently, the head of the mission, Nikodim Lenkeevich, found some of the books required by the Synod and sent along with them some others, most common among the Kalmyks, such as “Iertuntsuin toli” - a mirror of the world - a work of a cosmological nature, which is famous in the Kalmyk steppe.
The Holy Synod gave “Bodymur,” the most important work on introducing Lamaism, for translation into Russian to the translator of the Kalmyk language at the College of Foreign Affairs, Alekseev, but due to the difficulty of this matter, he could not translate “Bodymur.” After some time, Nikodim Lenkeevich proposed to the Synod to take for the said translation a baptized Kalmyk Gelyun, who was very knowledgeable in the Lamai teachings and a Kalmyk schoolboy known to us, Ivan Kondakov, but for some reason this proposal also did not receive its implementation. Thus, the beneficial idea of the Holy Synod about translating the sacred books of Lamaism into Russian and writing denunciations on them remained unimplemented. In subsequent times, the Orthodox Kalmyk mission did not set such goals, and we have almost no published works denouncing Lamaism. Naturally, it would be highly desirable to create the required number of such works as quickly as possible.
The Lamaites, as is known, have a unique religious formation. In 1905–1906, in the Kalmyk steppe, a desire arose to somewhat regulate this education, to introduce it into the same general framework, and to create specific courses of study for each year. The entire young generation of the Lamai spiritual class is being educated according to the Lamai confessional system. Moreover, in the Kalmyk steppe there is a higher school, the so-called Choyri-tsanit, with a course in philosophizing Lamaism. If the Orthodox Kalmyk mission were able to translate the Tibetan manuals of the Lamai primary confessional education system into Russian and make critical comments on them, then it would itself and would give everyone else an easy opportunity to freely enter into the religious worldview of the Lamaites and critically understand it. If the mission would find it possible to translate the textbooks of the higher Lamai school Choiri-tsanit into Russian and critically examine them, then it would thereby acquaint the missionaries and everyone with the religious worldview of the most developed, if you like, learned Lamaites. It is clear that these works would have received great scientific significance and would have been an extremely useful guide in missionary work, completely stripping Lamaism of everything mysterious and mystical, with which it often intrigues its fans. But it is clear that this work is beyond the power of ordinary missionaries. It is the work of persons who have a special missionary education and is not a work of one or two years. The missionary monastery is the most suitable place for this work and, in general, for studies on the translation of religious works of Lamaism and their critical analysis. In the habitats of the Lamaites, in the centers of their religious life, it is easy to obtain required material for translations, to avoid gross errors and distortions of the original text, since here you can find as an assistant a living bearer of Lamai religious consciousness and an expert in Lamai sacred writing, which cannot always be counted on outside the steppe setting. It is more difficult, of course, to master the course of the highest Lamai school - Choyri-tsanit, but this is also easier to do where the teachers of this school and its students, taken from almost all the khuruls of the Kalmyk steppe, live nearby.
In view of all that has been said, it becomes more or less clear that the missionary monastery is indeed the most suitable place for compiling translations of the Lamai sacred books and their critical analysis.
With this we conclude our work, considering that the question taken for resolution has been exhausted in its main features.
Let us summarize in conclusion the provisions we have developed.
I. The Orthodox mission among the Kalmyk people, having a long historical past behind it, has now almost completely stopped in its forward movement.
a) The external spread of Christianity among the Kalmyk people is extremely weak.
b) The internal state of baptized Kalmyks leaves much to be desired.
c) School work does not have the appropriate conditions for its organization in accordance with the requirements of N. I. Ilminsky’s system applied to the education of baptized foreigners.
d) Translation work has no organization and does not exist within the mission itself.
e) The mission does not have the opportunity to get acquainted with the religious books of the Lamaites and denounce them.
II. This sad state of missionary work in the Kalmyk steppe can be changed by reorganizing missionary activity with the introduction into it, in accordance with the spirit of the Mongolian nation, and historical course missionary work - a method of missionary influence on the Lamai clergy class, as the most influential class of the Kalmyk people at the present time.
III. This missionary influence on the Lamai clergy class, as well as on the rest of the Kalmyk people, in accordance with the traditions and structure of national piety, is most conveniently carried out through the organization of a missionary monastery in the Kalmyk steppe with the head of the mission and a group of specially educated missionaries at the head.
IV. In addition to the preaching function, the missionary monastery organizes school work, translation work, and the work of familiarizing oneself with the sacred books of the Lamaites and compiling a critical analysis of them.
– It is quite clear that such a missionary monastery, given the range of activities indicated for it, will be important not only for missionary service among the Volga Kalmyks, but also for the entire Orthodox anti-Lamai mission, both among the Buryats in Siberia and among the vast steppes of Mongolia , to announce which with the light of the Gospel truth is an urgent task of the Russian Orthodox Church.
Finally, it is quite understandable that it is rational to carry out missionary work among the Lamaites, to lead the Mongolian people to the knowledge of the True God and introduce them into the fullness of life of the Church of God - the immediate responsibility of our Kazan Theological Academy and, in particular, its missionary department.
May the Good Comforter send down workers of faith and spirit into His thirsty field and create much fruit where the darkness of pagan darkness and languor of spirit now reigns!
A. Beznoshchenko
KALMYKS IN THE WHITE MOVEMENT
Almanac "White Guard", No. 8. Cossacks of Russia in the White movement..
M., “Posev”, 2005, pp. 43-44
From the moment the Kalmyks arrived in the lower reaches of the Volga, at the beginning of the 17th century, their fate was inextricably linked with Russia. The cohabitation of the two peoples for almost four centuries contributed to their mutual enrichment in various areas of human activity. Kalmyks actively participated in Russian military campaigns and over time became a reliable outpost of its southern borders. Kalmyk irregular troops were represented in the Astrakhan, Orenburg, Terek and Mozdok Cossack troops. And in the Don Army Region there was an entire Kalmyk region, consisting of 13 villages and farms. But there was no independent organization of Kalmyk-Cossacks. In 1914, after the outbreak of the First World War, the issue of the Kalmyk Cossacks was returned to. The orderly of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army, Danzan Tundutov, played a certain role in this. He was a noyon (prince) of the Maloderbetovsky ulus Astrakhan province
. In the fall of 1915, Tundutov from the headquarters of the Commander-in-Chief arrived in the Kalmyk steppe and began implementing the provision on the war tax “on foreigners” who were not serving military service, as well as collecting money and horses for military needs. This asceticism was appreciated, and the idea of transferring Astrakhan Kalmyks to the Cossack class was supported. The prince was supported by the baksha (abbot) of the Buddhist monastery in the Manych ulus, Bova Karmakov, who organized the signatures of supporters at ulus gatherings. From the active army, the case and the petition (petition) were transferred to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, which by that time was in charge of the Kalmyks. But February revolution
On July 28, 1917, a meeting (with the participation of the Don government) of representatives of the Council of the Union of Cossack Troops was held in Novocherkassk. There were also envoys from the Astrakhan Kalmyks. The meeting was chaired by Ataman A.M. Kaledin.
It was decided to include the Kalmyks of the Astrakhan and Stavropol provinces into the Cossack troops. At the end of September, the first batch of Astrakhan Kalmyks on the Great Military Circle was accepted into the Cossacks. These were the first events not only to convert Kalmyks into Cossacks, but also to unite the entire Kalmyk people. After October events
1917 Tundutov and his supporters held a Cossack Circle in Yashkul, at which Danzan was elected leader. December 23, 1917 The Circle approves him as ataman of the Kalmyk army. In 1919, basically all the uluses of the Kalmyk steppe were occupied by whites. A new military-administrative structure was established, which had a Cossack orientation, several uluses were transformed into departments (districts), and their aimaks into village boards headed by atamans. During the Civil War, residents of the Cossack villages of the Don experienced all the hardships and hardships of those harsh years. Civilians
They left their native villages and farms several times and fled from the advancing Reds. With the departure of the whites from the Lower Volga and the North Caucasus, the administration of the Bolshederbetovsky ulus and other administrative structures of the Kalmyk steppe ceased to exist.
The most difficult and saddest was the retreat of 1920, during which refugees reached the foothills of the Caucasus and the Black Sea coast. People died from hunger, cold, and disease. Rampant gangs robbed them, raped women, and took away their livestock. During this period, a Cossack Circle was held, at which it was decided that the civilian population should return home, and the Cossacks, as those liable for military service who served in the Cossack regiments, would fight to retreat to the Crimea. This is how families were divided: the father and eldest sons left the country, but children, old people and women remained...
In 1920 in the village. Chilgir (now a village in the Yashkul district of Kalmykia) a congress was held at which Kalmyk autonomy was proclaimed. This decision served as the basis for the territorial unification of all Kalmyks living in the vast territory of the Don, Volga region, Urals and Predterechye.
Most of the leaders of the White Cossack movement among the Kalmyk Cossacks ended up abroad, where they returned to the implementation of their ideas. Almost everyone supported the autonomy of the Kalmyks, but opinions were divided on the practical solution to this important issue. Some believed that unification should take place by moving to the newly created Kalmyk region, others wanted to include in autonomy the territory of the Salsky district and the parts of the Astrakhan Kalmyks grouped on it, while others saw a way out only under the auspices of the Cossacks. In practice, the first option was implemented. However, this is a completely different story.
Application
Colonel A.A. Alekseev
(1883-1948)
Before the Soviets came to power, there were 13 villages with settlements of Kalmyk Cossacks on the territory of the Don Army region. The Cossack of the village of Grabbevskaya Apel Alekseev had three sons: Abusha, Badma, Erne and one daughter. The birth of sons pleased the parents, since it meant continuation of the family, and, in addition, the fact that in the Cossack community land shares were allocated only to male members was important.
The father of the Alekseev brothers died early. The eldest brother in the family was Abush's elder brother, who, together with his brothers, ran the household together.
Abusha Apelevich Alekseev began his teaching career in his native village in 1904, combining the work of a teacher with running a mixed economy - livestock breeding and agriculture. As the best farmer of the village, Abusha was elected a member of the Salsky District Land Council. The peaceful work of the farmer and teacher A. Alekseev, as well as his fellow villagers, was interrupted by the First World War, which dramatically changed his life. Upon the first mobilization of A.A. Alekseev goes to war as a private in the 39th Don Cossack Regiment, which was formed in the 2nd Don District in the village of Nizhne-Mirskaya. For his participation in hostilities, the baptized Kalmyk Abusha Alekseev was awarded the medal “For Diligence.” In 1915, A. Alekseev was sent to a training course for officers of the Cossack troops at the Novocherkassk Cossack Junker School, after which he was enrolled in the 4th reserve regiment and was engaged in purchasing horses for the army in.
In 1917, Alekseev was a delegate to the 1st Military Cossack Congress in Novocherkassk, participated in the commissions for convening the Great Military Circle, and since June of this year he became a member of the Don Military Government. At the same time, the residents of his native village elected him in absentia as the village ataman, but he did not begin to fulfill his duties because of his work in the Don government. At the end of 1917, Alekseev, with the rank of cornet, was appointed assistant to the district ataman of the Rural District for civil affairs. In February 1918, the marching ataman, Major General P.Kh. Popov retreated under the onslaught of the Reds deep into the Salsky steppes along the Manych River. Alekseev in the village of Grabovskaya mobilizes among the adult population and brings 204 Cossacks to Popova for reinforcements. Alekseev’s detachment as part of Popov’s troops, passing through the stud farm of Y.A. Korolkova and the Kalmyk villages of Grabbevskaya, Burulskaya, Eketinskaya, crossed the Sal River and moved to the Don.
Member of the “Circle for the Rescue of the Don” A.A. Alekseev proposed forming a separate national Kalmyk regiment. The idea received the support of military chieftain P.N.
Krasnova. The formation of the 80th Dzungarian Regiment took place in the village of Konstantinovskaya.
Alekseev commanded the 4th hundred of the regiment and was in charge of supplying and uniforming the regiment.
After 1922, Alekseev and a group of Kalmyks settled in Serbia, where for a long time he was the head of the Kalmyk colony. Together with Baksha Jamnin Umaldinovich Alekseev was the organizer of the construction of a Buddhist temple in Belgrade. Through common efforts Kalmyk emigration with the support of the Serbian authorities and Russian emigrants, the khurul was built and consecrated in December 1929 with a large number of parishioners.
In 1921, A. Alekseev was amnestied by a decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the RSFSR, but the road home was still closed. Dr. E. Khara-Davan, in letters from the People's Commissariat of Nationalities of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, asks for permission to return A. Alekseev and A. Batyrev to Russia, but they did not receive permission.
During World War II, A.A. Alekseev with the group Don Cossacks from Serbia he moved to Austria, and from there to Germany. Alekseev died on January 5, 1948 and was buried in the Cossack sector of the Feldmoching cemetery in Bavaria.
Colonel A.A. Batyrev
Andrey Antonovich Batyrev (Batyrov) was born on the Don into a Cossack family. He was elected village ataman of the village of Grabbevskaya for several terms (1908-1914). With the beginning of the war, Batyrev went to the front after the first mobilization. During the war, he showed himself to be a brave and professional warrior, for which he was awarded two St. George's crosses, medals and received the rank of colonel. He was in German captivity, from where he escaped to Russia and joined the White movement. He fought as part of the Kornilov units. He emigrated to Serbia, where he lived in the town of Banat. Authoritative Kalmyk figures of the “red wave” petitioned the new government for the return of white emigrants to Russia, but did not receive permission.
The rest of A.A.’s life Batyrev spent time in a foreign land. His daughter, Ekaterina Batyreva, by Abushinov’s husband, was one of the few Kalmyk women who graduated from the gymnasium in the village of Velikoknyazheskaya (now Proletarsk, Rostov region). In 1934-1936. she worked as a teacher at a collective farm kindergarten-nursery in the village of Grabbevskaya, Kalmyk region, then moved to the village. Shustu of the Kalmyk Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. She died in 1947 during the deportation of Kalmyks to the village of Samarovo, Khanty-Mansiysk National District. Batyrev's grandson - B.E. Abushinov lives on the state farm “40 years of the Komsomol” in the Priyutnensky district of Kalmykia. Such is the meager information about the ataman of the village of Grabbevskaya, Colonel A.A. Batyrev, a participant in the First World War and the Civil War.
new constitutional law “On the procedure for admission to the Russian Federation and the formation within it of a new subject of the Russian Federation” dated December 17, 2001 // Collection of legislation of the Russian Federation. 2001. No. 52. Art. 4,916.
24. Federal Law “On the Names of Geographical Objects” dated December 18, 1997 No. 152-FZ // Collection of Legislation of the Russian Federation. 1997. No. 51. Art. 5,718.
25. Federal Law “On Amendments to the Federal Law “On the Names of Geographical Objects”” dated October 27, 2008 No. 191-FZ // Collection of Legislation of the Russian Federation. 2008. No. 44. Art. 4,997.
26. Kulakova O. S. Commentary on Federal law“On the names of geographical objects” dated December 18, 1997 No. 152-FZ. Access from the reference and legal system “Consultant Plus”.
BBK 63.3 (2Ros=Kalm)
ETHNIC GROUP OF MOZDOK “BAPTIZED KALMYKS”*
3. V. Kanukova, L. B. Gatsalova, E. B. Khubulova
The article analyzes the historical experience of the life structure of the ethnic group of Mozdok baptized Kalmyks, the history of its formation and development in the late 18th - early 20th centuries. A description is given of the process of their integration into the new social, economic, political, legal and cultural space while maintaining ethnic identity and adherence to traditions.
Key words: Kalmyks of the Mozdok regiment, Terek Kalmyks, Kuma Kalmyks.
The article is devoted to the anaysis of the historical experience of living of an ethnic group of the Mozhdok Kalmyks and the history of the formation and development in the end of the XVIIIth - early XXth century. The author gives a description of the process of their new social, economic, political, legal and cultural space with maintenance of ethnic identity and devotion to the traditions.
Keywords: Kalmyks of the Mozdok regiment, Tersky Kalmyks, Kumsky Kalmyks.
In the Caucasian policy of the Russian Empire, in order to optimize integration processes The method of resettlement of other ethnic and religious groups among the indigenous population was actively used. As a result, the North Caucasus emerged as a multi-ethnic region where representatives of different cultures and civilizations actively interacted.
One of the first ethnic groups settled in the region was the ethnic group of baptized Mozdok (also called Terek) Kalmyks, from which the so-called Kalmyks eventually emerged. farm Kalmyks. The history of the life structure of this group makes it possible to determine the features of the process of development of the national outskirts and complements the ideas about Russian politics in the North Caucasus and options for the adaptation process of ethnic minorities in a foreign cultural environment.
Once on the territory of Russia, the Kalmyks became involved in the most complex process of economic, cultural and socio-political adaptation. IN mid-17th century c., having passed through the steppes of Central Kazakhstan, they approached the lower reaches of the Yaik and Volga and settled in the steppe zone, corresponding to their traditional system of life.
The Russian administration was interested in placing Kalmyk nomads, who would create a protective cordon against attacks from the south.
Therefore, Kalmyks were allocated state-owned sparsely populated lands in the southeast and in the steppes of the Lower Volga.
The strengthening of statehood, the strengthening of various forms of dependence of Kalmyks-common people led to the aggravation of social contradictions, which gave rise to such a form of resistance of subordinate people as flight from their owners. Kalmyks, like representatives of other peoples of the region, left their owners without permission, migrated to the Urals, to the Don, to the lower reaches of the Volga, to the Terek. They were adjacent to Cossack settlements, and the guarantor of their safety and protection from persecution by the Noyons was the adoption of Christianity.
In the middle of the 18th century. part of the Kalmyks of the Yandykov ulus of the Akh-Tsatanov family as a result internal contradictions and in order to free her zaisang from power, she migrated from her fellow tribesmen and began to develop the northwestern coast of the Caspian Sea, between the Terek and Kuma rivers. They managed to adapt to the new habitat, joined the Russian fisheries and took up fishing that was unconventional for nomads. In 1764, the Kalmyks of this group, consisting of 200 families, expressed a desire to accept the Christian faith, underwent baptism, after which they received the name baptized Kalmyks.
* The study was conducted within the framework of the Program of the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences “Fundamental Problems spatial development Russian Federation: interdisciplinary synthesis".
Governor Ivan Varfolomeevich Yakobiy to resettle the baptized Kalmyks to the newly laid line along the Terek River and be assigned to the Mozdok Cossack Regiment. This action was considered by G. A. Potemkin as an important step in the process of integration of Kalmyks into the Russian socio-cultural and legal space. As can be seen from the order, G. A. Potemkin hoped that “the Kalmyks would be Russians in the villages, they could learn the essence of the law and forget nomadic life.”
The order of G. A. Potemkin was not carried out. Kalmyks were assigned to the Mozdok Cossack regiment, but were not included in the Cossack class. The uncertainty of status, which did not allow the Kalmyks to enjoy the benefits and advantages of the Cossacks, persisted for a long time. The Terek Cossacks clearly did not speed up the process of rapprochement with both the nomads and the highlanders, which was complicated by the raids of both on the Cossack villages.
Thus, the group of baptized Kalmyks was cut off from the main ethnic massif, but was not adjacent to the Russian settlements. In addition, the Orthodox clergy limited their care for the new flock to the rite of baptism, leaving it “without care and edification in the truths of the Christian faith.” It is not surprising that most of the Kalmyks remained nomads and Buddhists by religion.
The uncertainty of the Kalmyks' position and some ambivalence in Russia's policy are obviously explained by its disinterest in the Kalmyks' transition to sedentary life, which would weaken the defense of the southern borders. The liberation of the steppe zone could provoke other nomads to raid.
In addition, the colonization movement of Russian and Ukrainian peasants to the North Caucasus and the lower reaches of the Volga limited plans to allocate land to the Kalmyks.
Period 1777-1833 can be called “dark” in the history of baptized Kalmyks, since little information about their life has been preserved in the archives. In 1833, the Kalmyks addressed a petition to the first ataman of the former Caucasian Linear Cossack Army, Major General Pyotr Sergeevich Verzilin, which pointed out the lack of land for nomads and grazing, and the need to rent land at high prices. 1833 went down in the history of the region as a particularly difficult, “hungry” year. Obviously, this is why the Kalmyks were forced to remind themselves. The petition indicated their number - 400 tents (families), 950 people in total. Other information is also provided - 1,950 people, as well as 2,091 people.
P. S. Verzilin was sympathetic to the situation of the Kalmyks and turned to the commander of the troops at that time, Lieutenant General Ivan Aleksandrovich Velyaminov, with a request to allocate them land between the Madzhar and Gaiduk salt outposts, in the area between the Kuma and Gaiduk rivers. General I. A. Velyaminov made a request to the Commission about the allocation of lands to the Cossack regiments settled on the Caucasian line about the possibility of satisfying the request of the Kalmyks.
It turned out that the lands that the baptized Kalmyks asked for were located within the Astrakhan province, among other lands granted to the Kalmyk people by the tsarist government. Neither the Commission nor the Caucasian Treasury Chamber could dispose of these plots. It also turned out that according to the general demarcation project along the Caucasian line, the Kalmyks were allocated government-owned empty land in the Pyatigorsk district, between the Tomuzlova and Karamyk rivers, where it was planned to found new government-owned villages. In addition, according to the instructions given in the Commission's manual, it was recommended not to allocate land to baptized Kalmyks under Cossack regiments.
General P. S. Verzilin, presenting these circumstances to the corps commander’s discretion on March 1, 1834, expressed the opinion that in order to successfully adapt the Kalmyks to a new way of life, they should have been settled dispersedly in different villages of the Mozdok regiment, which would have prevented their “habitual pranks,” that is, raids on villages. I. A. Velyaminov agreed with the last proposal.
The Emperor supported this idea, but warned that the action would in no way infringe on the interests of either the Cossacks or Kalmyks, and also requested a detailed plan for carrying out this event, indicating specific locations and the number of migrants. In response, I. A. Velyaminov drew up a detailed report in which he described the details of the proposed resettlement of a group of Kalmyks. Having found out that the Mozdok Cossack regiment did not have enough land, he proposed to settle the Kalmyks under the Caucasian, Kuban and Stavropol regiments, which had more fertile and numerous lands. The general also planned to build inexpensive houses made of raw bricks for the Kalmyks, one for each family, entrusting this function to regimental commanders. To reward the Cossacks for their assistance in construction, it was proposed to allocate 200 rubles for each resettled family. According to the calculations of General I. A. Velyaminov, the resettlement of the Kalmyks could be completed by the winter of 1838.
I. A. Velyaminov’s plans were approved, however, despite this, the Kalmyks remained in
uncertain situation. Obviously, this was due to the increased migration flow from the internal provinces of Russia and Ukraine. The chief of staff of the Caucasian Line troops, Major General Pavel Ivanovich Petrov, said that it is not possible to determine places for the Kalmyks to settle until the process of their resettlement to the Caucasian regiments is completed.
Joseph Bentkovsky wrote that the reason was far-fetched; by this time, the overwhelming majority of the settlers had already settled in places specially designated for them. However, the colonization movement actually infringed on the economic interests of the Kalmyk nomads.
By this time, the strength of the Mozdok regiment was only 6,867 people, of which 1,029 were baptized Kalmyks. It was decided to add another 35 families of Kalmyks (183 people) to the Mozdok regiment, of which 10 families each in the villages of Naurskaya, Ishcherskaya and Galyugaevskaya, and 5 families in Stoderevskaya. In addition, it was prescribed to settle Kalmyks in the Volzhsky, Khopersky, Gorsky, Stavropol, Kuban and Caucasian regiments.
In October 1837, the emperor visited the Caucasus, after which personnel changes followed. Instead of General I. A. Velyaminov, Lieutenant General Pavel Khristoforovich Grabbe was appointed. The new leadership developed the following agreement on the resettlement of Kalmyks:
“1) In the first case, divide the Kalmyks into regiments and villages, as stated above; provide, however, the freedom to regimental commanders to make changes at their immediate discretion in their placement in the villages, as the need indicates.
2) In the spring of 1839, Kalmyks assigned to regiments according to this division could be accepted by regimental commanders according to lists, through sent officers, at a meeting place in the Mozdok regiment and, under the cover of deliberate commands, delivered to regiments, where they would be divided into villages.
3) Upon arrival to the regiments and division into villages, leave the Kalmyks to live a normal life in tents and accustom them to settled life gradually, without at all forcing them, in order to avert escapes and mortality, because for Kalmyks, not familiar with settled life, home is at first will be more severe than imprisonment. But those who would now like to accept permanent settlement are allowed, by giving them an allowance from the villages for the construction of houses, with a payment from the treasury of 200 rubles. for every.
4) In the first year after the resettlement of Kalmyks, do not employ Kalmyks in any service, but only allow, if any of them wished, appointment for
herding village herds and cattle on a voluntary basis with them; in the second year, it will be possible to use them, if possible, to carry out some village duties, and after three years, those who have become better acquainted with the Russian language and are sufficiently qualified to be enrolled as serving Cossacks.
5) At the very beginning of the resettlement, regimental commanders are obliged to use Kalmyk as much as possible with the Cossacks, so that they become accustomed to the Russian language, which they do not know, and thus bring them closer to settled life and to the concepts of the Christian faith.”
It would seem that a certain, carefully thought-out vector in the policy of the Russian government has been developed, aimed at gradual adaptation to new conditions and not without concern for its citizens. Everything was taken into account except the opinion of the Kalmyks and Cossacks themselves.
In September 1838, the Kalmyks sent a delegation of 14 people to Stavropol, who asked to leave them in inhabited places, citing the fact that the transition from nomadic to sedentary life, climate change and the use of fresh water threatened people’s health and would lead to the death of livestock. The Kalmyks recalled that from the time they were assigned to the Mozdok regiment, they annually contributed to the regimental sum, instead of all duties, money from their livestock: 15 kopecks from cattle, 25 kopecks from a horse, 5 kopecks from a ram, 5 kopecks from a camel. - 35 kopecks each In addition, they maintained a 50-man guard at the Madjar salt outpost.
The nature of the correspondence suggests that the high authorities were not aware of the contribution of the Kalmyks to the economic development of the regiment and received this information with satisfaction.
The military leadership, in turn, did not want to give up their lands. Regimental commanders confirmed that the collection of money had indeed been carried out since 1822 by order of the former regiment commander, Colonel P. Kh. Petrov, on the basis that the Kalmyks, although they were assigned to the regiment, did not serve on an equal basis with the Cossacks. At the same time, the Cossack commanders tried to neutralize the role of the Kalmyks and argued that only in cases of extreme necessity they were involved in escorting and harvesting hay.
Taking into account the above circumstances, the emperor decided to leave the Kalmyks (952 people) expected to be resettled in the villages of the Caucasian linear Cossack army with the Mozdok Cossack regiment on the condition that they continue to stand guard at the Madzhar and Gaidukovskaya salt outposts and contribute annually instead of duties to the regimental sum for grazing livestock and helping the Cossacks.
Prince Mikhail Semenovich Vorontsov proposed to include baptized Kalmyks in the Stavropol province, with the exception of a special group that separated from the rest - “farm Kalmyks.” He proposed to leave this group with the Mozdok regiment, believing that in the future they could join the Cossack service, send their children to be raised in the regimental school, and join Christian parish life.
There were other considerations as well. Count Pavel Dmitrievich Kiselev spoke out against the expulsion of Kalmyks from the Mozdok regiment and considered it impossible to accept them under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of State Property. General Nikolai Andreevich Read, temporarily acting as governor, intended to settle them in the Gorkobalkovsky areas in the Stavropol province.
As a result, the final decision was made to introduce baptized Kalmyks wandering between the Kuma and Gaiduk rivers into the Stavropol province, and to assign the group of “farm baptized Kalmyks” to the Mozdok regiment, i.e., the proposal of Prince M. S. Vorontsov was accepted.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries. farm Kalmyks continued to roam near the villages and farmsteads of the Mozdok regiment, often settling in the village of Naurskaya. According to the materials of the first General Census of the Russian Empire in 1897, there were 3,595 Kalmyks in the Terek region.
Baptized Kalmyks did not join Christian parish life and remained adherents of traditional religious beliefs; at the end of the 19th century. contained khuruls - Buddhist monasteries. The missionary activity of Orthodox priests in conditions of a semi-nomadic lifestyle was not successful.
According to neighboring peoples, the farm Kalmyks were considered “hardworking, honest people and, in their morality, far superior to the Astrakhan Kalmyks; in extremely rare cases they are caught in theft and even more rarely in robbery.”
In addition, their adaptation to the new economic environment and engagement in non-traditional activities are noted. economic activity- fishing, annual salt extraction at the Madzhar and Gaiduk salt lakes, as well as the trade in sheep at the fair in the village of Naurskaya. There have been noticeable changes in material culture of this group: along with the tents, dugouts appeared - above-ground adobe houses; carts, factory fabrics for making clothes, new types of dishes, etc. began to be used.
The problem of the administrative-territorial arrangement of the Mozdok Kalmyks was discussed with to varying degrees intensity right up to the October Revolution, but no specific measures were taken.
During this time, the Mozdok Kalmyks developed their own system of living arrangements, fully adapted to the socio-economic state of the host society. Despite the status uncertainty, they had their own niche in the life of the Mozdok regiment: armed guard for the protection of salt lakes, convoying mail and passenger transport, preparing hay for the horses of artillery units, contributions to the regimental sums from the total number of livestock, which were used to repair the park, maintenance of the regimental infirmary and other needs.
In the course of successful adaptation and establishment of interaction with a foreign ethnic environment, the group of rural Kalmyks retained their ethnocultural identity and self-awareness, which allowed them to enter the structure of the Terek region as an independent community.
Currently, Kalmyks are also included in ethnic composition republics of the North Caucasus. IN Chechen Republic 148 Kalmyks live in Dagestan - 105, in Ingushetia - 98, in Ossetia - 88; they also live in Adygea, Kabardino-Balkaria and Karachay-Cherkessia.
Within the framework of the Program of the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences “Fundamental problems of spatial development of the Russian Federation: interdisciplinary synthesis”, the project “Modernization, demographic and migration processes in the North Caucasus: historical experience and current state” is being carried out, during which among Kalmyks living in North Ossetia and Kabardino-Balkaria, a survey was conducted. Most of the respondents confirmed our assumptions that they are descendants of Mozdok baptized Kalmyks and connect their past with the village of Naurskaya.
Comparative analysis statistical data for 1989 and 2002. in both republics shows stability in the numerical composition of Kalmyks; among them there is no tendency to outflow, unlike some other diaspora and ethnic groups of the North Caucasus.
Thus, the historical experience of the life structure of the ethnic group of Mozdok baptized Kalmyks demonstrates an interesting option for their integration into a new social, economic, political, legal and cultural space while maintaining ethnic identity and adherence to traditions.
LIST OF SOURCES AND REFERENCES
1. Bentkovsky I. Materials for the history of the colonization of the North Caucasus. Mozdok so-called baptized Kalmyks // Stavropol Provincial Gazette, 1880. No. 35. P. 1-2; No. 38. P. 1-2; No. 42. pp. 1-2.
2. Essays on the history of the Kalmyk ASSR. Pre-October period. M.: Nauka, 1967. 477 p.
3. Gubanov G. Essay on the life of Kalmyks on the Terek // Sat. materials for describing the areas and tribes of the Caucasus. Vol. 29. Tiflis, 1901. pp. 123-154.
4. Surovitsky. Baptized Kalmyks in the Terek region // Proceedings of the Stavropol Scientific Archival Commission. Vol. I. Stavropol, 1911. P. 1-5.
5. The first general census of the Russian Empire in 1897. Terek region. Tiflis, 1905. T. 68.
6. Shovunov K. P. Kalmyks in the composition Russian Cossacks(second half of the 18th-19th centuries): abstract of thesis. ... Dr. Ist. Sci. Rostov-on-Don: RSU, 1994. 43 p.
7. Population by nationality and Russian language proficiency by constituent entities of the Russian Federation // All-Russian Population Census of 2002. Ts^b: http://www.perepis2002.ru/ sheeh.YtShyo=6 (date of access: 09/01/2009).
9. National composition population of the North Ossetian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (according to the 1989 All-Union Population Census). Vladikavkaz, 1991.
BBK 63.3 (2Ros.Yaku)
YAKUTIA AT THE BEGINNING OF THE XX CENTURY IN THE CONTEXT OF THE NATIONAL DEMOCRATIC MOVEMENT OF THE SAKH PEOPLE
V. I. Fedorov
The article covers the events that took place in Yakutia at the beginning of the 20th century, during the formation of the national democratic movement of the Sakha people. This movement gave dynamism to the development of socio-economic and socio-political processes that contributed to the awakening of the national self-awareness of the people.
Key words: Yakutia, Sakha, national democratic movement.
The article deals with events in Yakutia in the beginning of the XXth century during the formation of the national democratic movement of the Sakha people. This movement has given the dynamism to the development of the socioeconomic and sociopolitical processes promoted the awakening of national consciousness of the people.
Keywords: Yakutia, Sakha, the national-democratic movement, the XXth century.
Many non-Russian peoples, being in co- At the beginning of the 20th century. in the development of education in Yaku-
Status of the Russian Empire, did not have their own ties, especially secular, there is a noticeable dis-
national-state formations. Their history flowed into a single stream of the all-Russian historical space. However, occupying a large territory of compact residence, these peoples have preserved their traditional way of life, culture, language, historical and ethno-national characteristics and values. All this fully applies to the Sakha people and other peoples who inhabited the Yakut region.
Events of the beginning of the 20th century, significant historical period in the destinies of the peoples of Yakutia, gave dynamism to the development of socio-economic
and, especially, socio-political processes, contributed to the awakening of the social and national self-awareness of peoples.
It was during this period that the initial stage of the formation of the first generation of the national intelligentsia, which became the generator of national ideas and the engine of socio-political progress, was completed.
The Yakut region was the place where political exiles lived, who played a big role in awakening the national consciousness of the peoples of the North. At one of the nasleg gatherings, the Yakuts decided to appeal to the “Tsar-Father” with a request to increase the number of exiled state criminals, because they provide invaluable assistance in educating the people.
Namism. The network of primary schools of the Ministry of Education in the region increased 4.6 times compared to 1900 (to 74). All this created good ground for increasing the self-awareness of the Sakha people; its best representatives joined the ranks of fighters for a better life for their people.
The tsarist government pursued a colonial policy towards the peoples of the Lena region. They were conventionally called foreigners. They were suppliers of furs and mammoth ivory; livestock products - meat, oil, leather; fishing - salted fish. Foreigners were limited to a certain distance in their movement through the territory of the region, and paid a tax characteristic only of them - yasak, which went to His Majesty's office and was spent only according to the appropriate command. Children were taught in schools and office work in institutions was conducted in Russian. Foreigners were not allowed to work in government institutions, the region did not have the right to elect its representative to the State Duma, and was also deprived of the right to zemstvo self-government.
The First Russian Revolution of 1905-1907 gave a significant impetus to the development of the national democratic movement of the Sakha people. The consolidating and organizing force of the movement
In the lower parts of the Volga region and the Caspian steppes from the end of the 17th century. The baptism of Kalmyks who professed the Lamai faith began.
In 1700, a large village was formed on the river from newly baptized Kalmyks. Tereshka. Khan Ayuka was strongly at enmity against Russia for the baptism and reception of his subjects and demanded them back to him, ruined their very village on Tereshka. The Russian government therefore began to send baptized Kalmyks to live in Kyiv and to the Cossacks in Chuguev. After the death of Ayuki (+ 1722) and after the baptism of his grandson Taishin in St. Petersburg, the Holy Synod decided to send a special mission to the Kalmyks in 1725 under the command of hieromon. Nikodim Lenkevich. This mission baptized up to 1,700 people in 10 years. In the 1730s, to relieve baptized Kalmyks from relocation, the government, according to Nikodim, gave them land along the Volga above Samara to live in, where the city of Stavropol was founded for them. Taishin’s widow Anna and her entire horde also settled here. Nicodemus died in 1739. Through the works of his successor, Archpriest Andrei Chubovsky under the Emperor. Up to 6,000 people were converted to Elizabeth, including many Kalmyks from their main nomadic camps in the Astrakhan steppes and the widow of the local khan Dunduk, Ombo, with her children. In the 1740s, a Russian-Kalmyk school was established in Stavropol and translations of the New Testament and prayers into the Kalmyk language appeared. Under Catherine II, the cause of the Christian mission weakened among the Kalmyks as well. Due to the oppression of Russian officials, many of them left for Kuma and the Urals, where they again converted to the old faith. In 1771, 30,000 wagons left for the borders of China at once. After this, in order to prevent new departures, the government began to treat them extremely carefully and, in order not to irritate them, even restricted the preaching of Christian missionaries. When imp. Alexander I translated the catechism and the Gospel of Matthew into the Kalmyk language, but very unsuccessfully and incomprehensibly. At one time, the Herrnhuter brothers from Sarepta took up missionary work for the Kalmyks, but had no luck; Moreover, their missionary exploits were stopped by the government in 1823 - the Kalmyks they converted were ordered to join the Orthodox Church. When imp. Nikolai raised the question of establishing a special Kalmyk mission several times, but out of the same fears of irritating the Kalmyks, he was rejected each time. The most important means for their conversion and enlightenment all the time remained: some teaching of the Kalmyk language in the Saratov and Astrakhan seminaries of future pastors for villages close to the Kalmyk nomads, some Kalmyk translations of seminary teachers of this language, divine services performed for Kalmyks from 1848 to 1859 in the camp church, where all this time V., a good connoisseur of the Kalmyk language, was a priest. Diligentsky, finally, was the last school opened in Tsaritsyn for Kalmyk children. Despite, however, the inadequacy of these funds and the strong opposition to Christianity on the part of the Kalmyk authorities and strong Gelyuns*, there were quite a few private conversions - up to 100 people a year. Later, the activities of the mission among the Kalmyks were concentrated in the dioceses of Astrakhan, Caucasus and partly Don.
Speaking about the conversion of foreigners of European Russia to Christianity, one cannot fail to mention the baptism of Samoyeds in the Arkhangelsk diocese, which began in 1821 under Bishop Neophyte through the labors of priest Theodore Istomin. After the first successes of his preaching, the Holy Synod ordered the establishment of a special mission for the Samoyeds, consisting of two clergy with two camp churches under the command of Archimandrite. Veniamin Smirnova. The activities of this mission began in 1825 from Mezen. Her preaching was offered in the natural Samoyed language, into which the missionaries translated various prayers, the catechism and the New Testament, and was a great success. By 1830, all baptized Samoyeds numbered more than 33,000 souls. For them, three churches with clergy on government salaries and three schools were built across the tundra of the north. After this, the mission was abolished and the further establishment of Christianity in the region was left to the parish clergy.
STRENGTHENING THE SOUTHERN BORDERS
Southern borders of Russia during Kalmyk Khanate in the Caucasian direction passed along the Kalaus River. After the events associated with Ubushi Khan’s withdrawal of part of his subjects back to Dzungaria (1771), the southern borders of the country were noticeably exposed, which caused alarm to the tsarist government. According to the terms of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty (1774), which consolidated the results Russian-Turkish War 1768-1774, Crimea was declared independent from Turkey, and Greater and Lesser Kabarda became subject to Russia.
In this regard, the southern border expanded, which meant strengthening it with new fortresses and Cossack villages. The section along the Terek River turned out to be especially poorly supplied. On one of them, 18 miles long from the village of Kargalinskaya to the Kizlyar fortress (founded in 1736), Terek Cossacks numbering 500 people served in three villages. In Kizlyar itself there are 190 Cossacks. Next - a section of 83 versts from Kargalinskaya to the village of Chervlennaya - was guarded by 373 Greben Cossacks living in 5 villages. And finally, the border line of 100 miles to Mozdok itself was under the supervision of 767 Cossacks of the Mozdok regiment.
Thus, a very tense section of the southern border, more than 200 kilometers long, was guarded by less than two thousand Cossack border guards. Naturally, this situation could not suit the tsarist government, and in 1777 the Cossacks of the Volga army and from the Khopyor fortress were redeployed to the Terek. Among them, baptized Kalmyks entered the territory of the Naur village.
EXODUS RESULTING FROM RIOT
In the 70s of the 18th century, disputes broke out between the owners of clans in the Kalmyk feudal environment, in particular in the Yandykovsky ulus. Based on claims regarding the inheritance of the ulus of the deceased noyon Yandyk. During their course, stronger owners and zaisangs attacked the weaker ones and took their livestock. In addition, the poor Kalmyks were literally crushed by unaffordable taxes, which led to social revolt.
In 1773, the Akha-Tsaatan clan of the Yandykovsky ulus rebelled. In search of ways to liberate themselves from the yoke of the owner Tsorig, the Kalmyk Tsaatans asked the Astrakhan bishop to accept them into the Orthodox faith. At first there were 40 such families, then others joined them, and the number increased fivefold. In the spring of 1774, the act of baptism took place. Kalmyks who became Christians were freed from the dependence of their feudal lords and were transferred to the category of Cossacks of the Volga army.
Thus, the majority of the Kalmyk Cossacks resettled to the southern border along the Kizlyar-Mozdok line in 1777 came from the Yandykovsky ulus, and their main core consisted of. A little later, they were joined by Kalmyks of the Getselenkinsky, Sharamangan and Tsoros clans.
IN THE GOVERNMENT SERVICE
At first, all the Kalmyks roaming the Terek were placed under the control of the head of the Mozdok regiment, Colonel I. D. Savelyev, who later became a major general. In 1777 by royal decree it was ordered that the Cossacks and their children “should not be used for any kind of work.” In reality, everything was different. Having taken the Kalmyks under his wing, the “cunning Mitriy” decided to turn them into his serfs. This is where their ironic name came from - “mitrichin kristen” (“peasants of Mitrich”). Not only did the Cossacks resettled from the Volga, including Kalmyk Cossacks, “ suffered great losses,” they also suffered “ruin and robbery from mountain predators who captured their entire families, wives and children and property and destroyed their first homes in flames.”.
Non-serving Cossacks were also forced to serve on the Line, “ ...who only have strength, without receiving any support from the treasury", i.e. free. The Cossacks began to send zemstvo duties, postal services, and escorts. They took carts for various needs (bringing and transporting amanats and deputies from mountain peoples, for state serf work); with their own money, the Cossacks were forced to ransom those who were captured by “mountain predators.”
In addition, new, unusual natural and climatic conditions on the lands of the “landowner” Savelyev caused massive morbidity and high mortality among the arriving contingent. Naturally, this state of affairs could not help but worry the tsarist government. After many years of correspondence with local authorities, the government recognized the need to provide protection and relief to the Cossacks, and henceforth without special decrees “ do not impose or impose burdens" It was decided to transfer part of the Kalmyks to the landowner Vsevolzhsky, whose lands were located south of Kizlyar, along the coast of the Caspian Sea.
The new owner turned out to be no better than the previous one. As documents from those years testify, the Kalmyks “ did not find peace with the landowner and moved to the north of Kuma" The Kalmyks who went to the upper reaches of the Kuma River in 1780, among 200 families, were enrolled in the Mozdok Cossack Regiment. They again treated them “un-Christianly”: they did not receive any payment for their work from the treasury, and everyone had to serve at their own expense. Kalmyk Cossacks who served in the Mozdok regiment were recruited mainly to guard the Mozharsky and Gaiduksky salt lakes.
Considering that at that time salt was a strategic raw material, and the honesty and decency of the Kalmyks did not raise any complaints, service in this area was extremely dangerous and responsible. Every month, 25 Kalmyk Cossacks were sent to the caretaker of Lake Mozhar, who distributed them among posts. In addition, every spring 40 people were sent to harvest hay for the regiment's horses. Other serving Kalmyks, along with Cossacks of other nationalities, were recruited to deliver government packages.
TO end of the XVIII century, the number of Kalmyk Cossacks serving in the Terek Cossack Army increased due to the influx of new Kalmyk families. All of them were divided into three uluses: the “upper” ulus - closer to Mozdok, the “lower” - in the area of the Kizlyar fortress (both were called “farm”, since they roamed the lands of the villages). The third consisted of Kuma Kalmyks and was called “Kumsky”. Representatives of this ulus roamed between the Kuma and Gaiduk rivers all the way to the Caspian Sea. In all three uluses there were 895 tents with total number 4392 souls of both sexes. Moreover, the share of “khutor” ones was 514 tents, and the share of “Kum” ones was 375.
DOESN'T MATTER
And in conclusion, I think it’s important to touch on one thing interesting question, concerning the idea of the Terek-Kuma Kalmyks as baptized. There is still debate on this topic. According to the researcher of the Kalmyk Cossacks, historian K.P. Shovunov, all Kalmyk Cossacks of the Terechye region underwent a baptism ritual. For the reason that it was the only channel that gave legal right leaving the ulus and joining the Cossacks, i.e., entering the civil service. Naturally, when enrolling them as Cossacks, it was more convenient for the government and the local Cossack administration to deal with “co-religionists.” And, finally, through Orthodoxy, the solution to the main strategic task of tsarism was facilitated - the transformation of nomadic Kalmyks into a settled population.
According to the author of these lines, such a situation could have existed during the initial period of the Kalmyks’ resettlement to the Terechye region. And then the picture changed. It is quite possible that by the end of the 19th century, the requirements for the conditions for joining the Cossacks became less stringent. For example, among the Don Kalmyks-Buzavs, after unsuccessful attempts to “spread the gospel teachings among people not illuminated by the light,” the position of “Army Lama” was finally officially introduced. Apparently, the tsarist government finally realized that it was possible to serve and defend the Fatherland without being a Christian. In any case, the Russian historian Nikolai Burdukov, who studied this issue from documents church organizations Astrakhan and Caucasus provinces, regarding the Terek Kalmyks noted: “ ...although these Kalmyks are called baptized, at present Kalmyks fully profess Buddhism and, according to information from 1892, have two khuruls (large and small) and with them 30 gelungs, 14 getssuls and 16 mandzhiks. In terms of subordination, they were completely independent and independent of the Supreme Lama, and their eldest was baksha from their own clergy».
The Chief Trustee of the Kalmyk people, K.I. Kostenkov, wrote about this in his work “On the Spread of Christianity among the Kalmyks”: “ ...the baptized Kalmyks of the Mozdok regiment of the Terek Cossack army, who received holy baptism in large numbers around 1764 and were enrolled in the Terek Cossack army, soon turned back to paganism, and at present there is hardly a single Christian among them. We were convinced of this personally when in 1860 we drove through their nomadic camps, near the Kuma River, and met Gelyungs in almost every wagon.”.
In any case, the question of to what extent the Terek-Kuma Kalmyks were zealous Christians or diligent Buddhists is currently not of such pressing importance. The main thing is that their descendants living among us feel, first of all, Kalmyks.
Our Terek-Kuma tribesmen shared all the hardships of the fate of their people. At the end of the 20s they were called to their historical homeland, but due to the impending famine, many of them returned to Kuma and Terek. During the years of deportation, people were also deported to Siberia on ethnic grounds. Upon completion, they returned to their historical homeland. In the Gorodovikovsky district there is still the village of “Kumskoy”, where in the 60s you could still see old Kalmyks famously dancing the Lezginka. Among the famous descendants of the Terek and Kuma Cossacks, it should be noted the former chairman of the government of the republic Batyr Mikhailov, famous lawyer Veniamin Sergeev, a remarkable surgeon and healthcare organizer Vladimir Naminov, honored teacher Yulia Dzhakhnaeva, chairman of the EGS Vyacheslav Namruev, well-known business executive in the Gorodovikovsky district Alexander Baulkin and veteran builder Sergei Malakaev.