Terms starting with the letter "e". Term

By organizational levels bio- and eco-m.

-oute.- deme.;-sine..

2.By groups of living organ..

-uh. animals;-uh. plants;

-e.mushrooms;-e. microorganisms.

3.According to the basic geospheres (e.gi drosph., lithosph., soils, atmosphere, global. E.);

4.By main habitats, or biotopes ( ecology of tundras and arctic deserts, forests, steppes, deserts, mountains, islands, landscape ecology);

5.In relation to man and his activities (social ecology).

5.1.Ecology of anthropogenic pollution of the natural environment.

Ecology of radiation pollution.

Ecology of chemical pollution.

Ecology of biological pollution.

5.2.Human ecology.

Ecology and medicine.

Ecology and culture.

Ecology and law.

5.2.4. Ecology and education.

Ecology and politics.

Ecology of megalopolises and cities.

Ecology and economics.

5.3.Ecology and natural resources.

Ecology and living resources, including food resources.

Ecology and mineral resources.

Ecology and energy resources.

It is safe to say that in recent decades, special importance has been attached to those environmental problems that are associated with man and his activities on the planet (social ecology). There are many of these problems, but three main ones can be identified. The first is the problem of “population explosion”, the second is environmental pollution and the third is the problem of depletion natural resources as a result of anthropogenic causes.

The concept of social ecology.

An important branch of ecology is social ecology. The subject of study in social ecology (socioecology) is the problems of relationships between human society and the environment.

In the second half of the 20th century, in connection with the development of a population explosion on the planet, urbanization and technologicalization of the planet, an urgent need arose for the development of a new branch of ecology - socioecology.

The beginning of social ecology can be considered the first reports to the Club of Rome in 1972 -1974, including the report “Imitation mathematical methods” (Prof. D. Forster, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA). His book “World Dynamics” was the first attempt to forecast multi-component global processes.

In this scientific work For the first time, environmental components were taken into account: the finite nature of mineral resources and the limited ability of the environment to absorb and neutralize waste from human activity. Taking environmental factors into account turned the forecast from optimistic to pessimistic. The report for the first time predicted the inevitability of a downward trend in the development of human society by the end of the 1st third of the 21st century. Forster's conclusions were confirmed by those of Prof. Meadows (“Limits to Growth”, 1972), Mesarovic and Pestel (“Humanity at the Turning Point”, 1974). For the first time in science, the problem of the possibility of the imminent end of civilization was posed. There was a need for science that could thoroughly analyze and solve this problem. Social ecology became this science.

Social ecology is a field of knowledge that is a further development of general ecology. The precursor to social ecology was the work of the Chicago school of sociologists in the 20s of the twentieth century, when the need arose to take into account the specific impact of the urbanized environment on the life and behavior of people. Currently, the main task of socioecology is to study the interaction of society with the global natural environment in all the diversity of its anthropogenic transformations in order to develop a theory of the compatibility of society with the natural environment of its existence.

The connections between social ecology and other sciences are shown in Table 1:

Table 1. Connections between social ecology and other sciences.

In the twentieth century, a technogenic stage began in the evolution of the biosphere, increasingly turning into an irreconcilable contradiction with its natural development as a system that has the ability to support the life of the organisms inhabiting it.

The entire history of the development of technical civilization represents man’s consistent overcoming of natural limitations with the help of increasingly advanced technical means, moving from the use of one substance to another, from the use of one type of energy to another, one type of information carrier to another. At the same time, a natural limitation is the capabilities of the biosphere.

The most important and global consequences of the development of technical civilization (that is, the development of the technosphere as part of the biosphere) were:

1) the process of urbanization;

2) the process of pollution and changes in the biosphere as a result of complex impacts on it (chemical and physical nature) of developing technical civilization, the process of degradation of landscapes and reservoirs;

3) the process of depletion of living and mineral natural resources;

4) the process of changing the composition and properties of the biosphere in a direction unfavorable for humans and all living nature;

5) the process of degradation of man as a species of Homo sapiens;

History of ecology.

Already in depth. Ancient Perv. Person, led e. obs. for nature, anal. them and isp. Res. in practice - when fishing, hunting or land. The first attempts to generalize these observations. made by Greek ant. Phil. Aristotle (384-322 BC), cat. described the lifestyle and behavior of St. 500 species. alive and published the book “Ist. animals." Student Arist. Greek .bot. Theophrastus of Eresia (371-280 BC) studied the relationship. Rast. world with OS. Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD) studied the page and life of org. and wrote the book “Eats. East.” On Wednesday. century in connection with Mr. Theologian Int. to e. weakened and only in the era of the Age and Great. Geogr. Open to her again Int.. Bot.-e. A. Caesalpin (1590-1603), D. Rey (1623-1705), J. Tournefort (1656-1708) cont. Study. life growth and their connections with Wed. inhabited, and English Phys. Robert Boyle (1627-1691) staged the first e. exp. - studied by Vl. low atm.pressure for divert. Alive.. At the third stage of development. e. - in the ХV111-Х1Х centuries, cat. Can. call it the era of development. bioec. and evol. life, for the first time was staged. Problem Vl. external conditions for the structure of living things in the works of the French. Uch. J. Buffon (1707-1788), cat. Add. Convert one type to another under ow. Change Condition.. Large Swedish scientist, zoologist-system. Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) studied the relationship. lively and gentle nature, like J. Buffon, he attached leading importance. Klim. factors. In the 1111th century in Russia the organization. travel a lot according to her unknown edges. In the works of S.P. Krasheninnikov, I.I. Lepekhin, P.S. Pallas and others. Rus. Natural and put. The results are given in important observations, it turns out. Vl. for long range uh.. Fr. biologist J.B. Lamarck (1744-1829) was an author. Perv. Evol. teachings. in cat. believed that the main factor is evol. Yavl. Vl.change external factors and structural and biological. Adapt. alive to them. Org..

Fr. zoologist J. Cuvier (1769-1832) c. For the first time, the “theory of catastrophes” was formed, in which the doctor tried, which in the res. Short-term disasters in the area Everyone on earth perished alive. and growth the world, after which he settled down. Sov. Dr. rast. and alive.

Prof. Moscow Univ. K.F. Roulier (1814-1858) expanded. Shir. Syst. e. research alive and propaganda. Required Deep Study. not only the structure of their body, but also biol. and arr. life. German Uch. J. Liebig (1803-1873). formulas so-called “law of min.”, the essence of the cat. - to dom. Vl. alive and growth any one limit. abiotic factor. environment. Student K.F. Rulier N.A. Severtsov (1827-1885) was the first in Russia to conduct a deep study of the economic status of living things. world dept. region - Raven. Lip. Bol. role in development e. played tr. Great English scientist – natural history Darwin (1809-1882) – the basic doctrine of evolution. Organ.world. Darwin's basic ideas. - this is a variab. individuals of the same species, partial inheritance. Purchase signs, struggle for noun. and eats. selection among individuals within a species. Basic scientific worker Ch. Darwin - book. “Proc. species”, cat. published in 1859 German. Biologist E. Haeckel (1834-1919) first used it in 1866. in scientific literature The term “e” did not catch on immediately and was the first. Designation only one of the sections. Biol., research. connection of the living world with tenderness. Nature, and received universal recognition. only at the end of the 19th century. Only towards the beginning. XX century e. shaped as a self the science. For 3 bot. Cong. in Brussels in 1910. rast. Official Sec. on e. org. (autechology) and e. message (synecology), this division of distribution. and on e. alive.. In 1913, the first large e. reports: Ch. Adams (on terrestrial living), V. Shelford (on communication of terrestrial living) and S.A. Zernov (on hydrob.). In 1913-1920 there were organ. first e.scient. total ,magazines founded, e. started teaching at university. By the 30s, after many years. Iss. and discus. Vykrist. Basic Theor. Representative in the region important section e. - biocenology: about the boundaries and structure of biocenoses, the degree of mouth. and possibly self-reg. E-system.

B. contribution to development. e. contributed kr. scientists - botanists: K.A. Timiryazev (1843-1920), V.V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903), F. Clements (1874-1945), as well as botanists and geographers V.N. Sukachev (1880-1967), G.F. Morozov (1867-1920), created. a new branch of science - geobotany, and many others. Os. place in history e. zan. name large Rus. Uch. XX century V.I.Vernadsky (1863-1945), cat. created the doctrine of the biosphere and noosphere.

After the report Ross. scientist L.S. Berg (1876-1950) entitled “The subject and tasks of geography” on biogeographic.com. Rus. Geogr. General in 1913 it was issued. Another branch of science is landscape science, which, in its own right, is capable of such neg. sciences, like botanical geogr. and zoogeography.

In 1927, an English book was published. Uch. C. Elton - “E. alive.”, in cat. first. with dept. organism on the population, as a self. Biologist. unit, cat. started another section e. – demok., or pop.e.. In the 30s and later. years of the twentieth century max. listen Developers began to pay attention to E. Theoret. fundamentals of biol. Product. (G. Odum and Y. Odum, R. Margalef, G. Vinberg, R. Lindeman and others), as well as biogeogr. (L.S. Berg, L.A. Zenkevich, L. Krause, N.N. Drozdov, A.I. Tolmachev and many others). Until 1935 in scientific. Lit. was published a lot of analytical work in the area of mutual relations. with ext. environment, as well as according to the theory of dynamic pop. (Volterra, Lotka, Prenam, Elton). After sec. World. war understanding of people. Afterbirth. Dem. explosion and war - widespread zagr. PS and lunch. The PR of our planet led to the development. new important Sec. E., the first of the cats. All Research influence of anthropo. and natural download PS harm. for her and for people. Thing, created Syst. monit. Load OS. and developer Syst. norms and limits of loading, and the second developer. Theor. Basic Diet. Spanish PR of the planet. On Stockg. Conf. according to problem The OS was adopted by Program in 1972. UN OS (UNEP), main. target cat. was “protected and improved. OS in int. Now. and bud. Generation.” UNEP headquarters located in in the capital of Kenya - Nairobi. In 1987, everyone. Com. UN OS and development. first raised the question of the need. search for a new model of civil development.. In June 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, comp. Conf. UN Environment and Development with account. Represented 179 countries of the world. Conf. showed that the world. Development must take a different path and stop so actively destroying the PS. In 1993, Minister. protection of OS and PR of the Russian Federation was prepared. and adopted by Rights. RF “National real action plan Res.Conf. UN OS and Development.” In 1993 in the Russian Federation prin. “Law of the Russian Federation on protection. OS", Rights. Approved “Pos. about state e. expert.”, accept. Proclamation “About creation. unified state system e. monitoring”, the project has begun. State Prog. “E. security RF". In the last years all over the world and in the Russian Federation input. Syst. universal E. image.. in all types of teaching. Head

Introduction to general ecology.

Until sep. In the twentieth century, the word “e” was known to few people except biological scientists, and e. was usually considered a section of biol.-zool. and nerd., dedicated. research relationship living organ. with each other and with inanimate nature as their habitat. In the future, E. gradual began to go beyond the classroom. Biol. and on element into itself. many other sciences. However, only in the second half. In the twentieth century, people began to understand the truth. role of e. for people Generally, for health, life and well-being. each person E. ideas are increasingly mastered. umami academic, political, state activities and just citizens of various types. countries. In res. so-called “demographics explosion” (DZ) in the twentieth century. Our planet has grown 4 times in a hundred years (from 1.5 to 6 billion people, despite wars, famines and epidemics). Adult population growth. accomp. rast. download natural environment (PS), depleted living and nonliving nature. res. (PR), and these problems are advanced. on the lane long-range plan development people total , along with political problems, savings. and social, and in reg. e. cat. became the most important problem people's lives.

In our country e. science, as well as gene. or kib., according to ideal. prib. long time Retired from her development in other countries, although it was in Russia that our major scientist, Acad. IN AND. Vernadsky were the developers. fundamentals of the doctrine of the biosphere and noosphere of the Earth, and Acad. S.I.Vavilov published for the first time. orig. research in the region gene.. In the first post-war years in Acad. biol. science of the USSR, new ones, for example. development science long time suppressed pseudoak. T.D. Lysenko, head. biol. in AN, but progress. scientists pres. power..

Only in the 60s in our country biol. cont. development the world is in line. Sciences. In the last ten due to thrust. E. crisis. in general there was a need. in width development e.o image, form. E. mental. with us., watered. and hands all levels, in preg. high quality specialist. - uh, cat. both in the world and in our country there is clearly a lack.

The term “e” was first used in packaging. German uch. E. Haeckel in 1866 (oicos - house, habitat).

Most often, uh, like science in the broadest sense. understand, give a trace. def:

“E is science, of. relationship living org., incl. people, inter. with oneself and with the environment. environment.”(OS).

In modern Mon. E. wider than usual. science is important. aspect of people's lives and composition. people general.. Ecology is closely related to many sciences and for example. people activities Biol. (zool. and bot.), pal., gen., geogr., geol., oceanol., climatol., physics., chemistry, mathematics, arch., juris., economics. and floor.. What cash register. biol. and gen., then e. studied organismic and superorganism. noun forms living mat.: genes (1) - cells (2) - tissues (3) - organs (4) - organisms (5) - populations (6) - communities (7) - biosphere (8) - from the fifth to the eighth level.

E. subsection. on the dept. section next prince.:

E.D.S. ROTATIONS- emf arising as a result of the movement of a conductor in a magnetic field in accordance with the law of electromagnetic induction. In accordance with the law of electromagnetic induction in any conductor moving at a certain speed V in a stationary magnetic field, emf is induced. Emf value. proportional to induction B of the magnetic field, active length l conductor and speed V its movements in a magnetic field. The active length of a conductor refers to that part of it that is located in a magnetic field. In the case when the direction of movement of the conductor is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field lines, the emf. can be determined from the expression E=BW.

E.D.S. ROTOR- the voltage that arises between the opposite pole brushes of the rotating rotor of an alternating current commutator machine.

EQUIVALENT CAPACITY- the total capacitance of several capacitors connected in various ways.

EXCITRON- mercury valve with auxiliary excitation anode.

EXCAVATOR CHARACTERISTICS(excavator characteristic) - a mechanical (electromechanical) characteristic of an electric drive, which has two sections that differ sharply in rigidity. In the first section, when the angular speed of the electric motor changes from the ideal idle speed to the speed value called the cut-off speed, the characteristic has greater rigidity, i.e. slight decrease in speed when changing the electromagnetic torque. In the second section, the characteristic has a sharply reduced rigidity when the speed changes from cutoff speed to zero. The electromagnetic torque of the motor at zero speed is called the stopping torque. The excavator characteristic is used in electric drives when it is necessary to protect the engine or mechanism from unacceptable overloads by limiting the electromagnetic torque of the engine in steady and dynamic modes.

ELECTRIC DIPOLE- a pair of opposite point charges located at a short distance from each other.

- an electrical machine designed to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy, mechanical energy into electrical energy, or electrical energy of one type into electrical energy of another type. Depending on their functional purpose, electric machines are divided into three groups - generators, motors, and converters.

ELECTRIC CAPACITY— see Capacity, .

ELECTRICAL INDUCTION is a vector quantity equal to the geometric sum of the electric field strength multiplied by the electric constant and polarization. When a conductor is placed in an electric field, free electrons are displaced towards its surface, as a result of which positive charges accumulate on one side of the conductor and negative charges on the other, and the region of positive charges shifts towards the negatively charged plate, and the region negative charges- towards a positively charged plate, which creates an electric field together with the above plate. If the conductor is made in the form of a hollow cylinder, then there is no electric field inside it. This principle is the basis for protective shielding of living organisms and measuring instruments from the effects of powerful electric fields.

ELECTRICAL LINE- a system of wires through which electrical energy is transmitted.

ELECTRIC MACHINE- an energy converter in which energy is transferred from one electrical circuit to another through an electromagnetic field.

ELECTRIC ROTATING MACHINE(English ELECTRICAL ROTATING MACHINE) - an electrical apparatus, the operation of which depends on electromagnetic induction, has elements that rotate relative to each other, and is designed to convert energy. ST IEC 50(411)-73.

ELECTRIC MACHINE(English ELECTRIC MACHINE) is an electrical converter that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy and vice versa. CT IEC 50(151)-78.

GENERAL PURPOSE ELECTRIC MACHINE- a rotating electric machine that satisfies the totality technical requirements, common to most applications. GOST 27471-87.

VARIABLE SPEED ELECTRIC MACHINE- a rotating electrical machine, the rotor speed of which varies significantly in the range of permissible loads. GOST 27471-87.

ELECTRIC MACHINE WITH CONSTANT SPEED- a rotating electrical machine, the rotor speed of which is constant or almost constant in the range of permissible loads. GOST 27471-87.

SPECIAL PURPOSE ELECTRIC MACHINE- a rotating electrical machine made to meet the special requirements specific to its specific application and having special performance characteristics and/or a special design. GOST 27471-87.

ELECTRIC POWER- a physical quantity equal to the ratio of work to the period of time during which this work is performed. Electrical power can be defined in terms of electrical work.
Symbol - R, unit of measurement is watt (W). Electrical power is equal to the product of voltage and current ( P=UI) or the ratio of electrical work to time ( Р=W/t).

ELECTRICAL POWER OF AUTOTRANSFORMER- power directly transmitted by an autotransformer from one network to another electrically due to the galvanic connection between the corresponding windings, it is equal to the product of the voltage of the common winding and the current of the series winding of the autotransformer and a coefficient taking into account the number of phases. GOST 16110-82.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A CONDUCTOR- a physical quantity characterizing the conductive properties of a conductor. Conductivity is designated σ , is measured in siemens and is numerically equal to the current strength in the conductor when the voltage at its ends is equal to unity, i.e. σ = I/U = 1//R, Where R- conductor resistance.

ELECTRICAL WORK- a physical quantity characterizing the process of converting electrical energy into other types of energy.
Designation - W; The unit of measurement is joule (J).
If we accept that in some electrical circuit the current I and voltage U do not depend on time, then the electrical work can be determined from the expression: W=UIt,
Where t- time. Work in 1 J = 1 W s = 1 VA s. In practice, the most widely used units of measurement are Wh and kWh: 1 Wh = 3.6·10² J; 1 kWh = 3.6 10 6 J.

ELECTRICAL CONNECTION DIAGRAM- an electrical diagram showing the electrical devices and devices used in a particular device with input and output terminals, and the connecting wires connected to them.
The electrical connection diagram is the main document on which the installation work on electrical installations. It should show the designations of the terminals of devices and apparatus, the type, cross-section and number of cores of connecting wires and cables. In design practice, an electrical connection diagram is also called an external connection diagram.

ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT- a set of devices and objects that form a path for electric current, electromagnetic processes in which can be described using the concepts of electromotive force, current and voltage. GOST 19880-74.

ELECTRICAL ENERGY (EE)- electric field energy converted into potential or kinetic energy.
In potential form, EE accumulates in the form of stationary electrical charges, for example, in an unloaded voltage source or in a charged capacitor. When charges move, EE transformation occurs. In an electric generator connected to the load, continuous consumption and replenishment of EE occurs; in electric motors, EE is converted into mechanical energy. The main advantages of EE over other types of energy are ease of transportation (transfer over long distances) and ease of regulation.

ELECTRICAL POWER LINES- lines representing the distribution pattern of electric and electrostatic fields.
The density of field lines characterizes the value of the influence exerted on an electrically charged particle placed in an electric and electrostatic field. These particles, under the influence of force, move along the field line to a position corresponding to the minimum potential energy of the particle. A repulsive force arises between similarly charged particles. In an electrostatic field, the beginning of the field line is located on a positively charged body, the end is on a negatively charged body. The electric field lines are closed on themselves.

ELECTRIC(English ELECTRIC) - containing electricity, producing electricity, driven by electricity. CT IEC 50(151)-78.

ELECTRIC SHAFT (WORK SHAFT)- interconnected electric drive that ensures synchronous rotation of two or more electric motors whose shafts do not have mechanical connection.
An electric shaft is used in cases where ensuring equality of engine speeds using a mechanical connection is difficult due to the significant spatial distance of the electric drives from each other (for example, in electric drives for sluice gates, the movement mechanism of portal cranes, paper-making machines, etc.) . For the same purpose, the working equalizing and remote shafts are used.

ELECTRIC GENERATOR(English ELECTRIC GENERATOR) - an electrical machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. ST IEC 50(151)-78.

ELECTRIC DYNAMOMETER(English ELECTRICAL DYNAMOMETER) - an electrical machine equipped with a device for indicating the magnitude of the torque, as well as a device for indicating the magnitude of the speed if it is used to determine the power consumption of the driving machine or the net power of the rotating machine. ST IEC 50(411)-73.

ELECTRIC CHARGE (EC)- a value equal to the product of the current strength and the time during which the current flowed: q=It, Where q- EZ transferred through the cross-section of the conductor in time t at current strength I. The unit of measurement of EZ is pendant (C).
An attractive force arises between EZs of the opposite sign, and a repulsive force arises between EZs of the same sign. An elementary, single EZ is equal to e=1.602·10 -19 C. Some EZ is quantitatively defined as the sum of elementary EZ and can be determined from the expression: Q=n(±e), … , k.
The main properties of EZ include the presence of force between EZ and their ability to move. The carriers of electrons are electrons and ions. Electrically charged bodies tend to equalize their EZ upon contact.

ELECTRIC CASCADE- a cascade electric drive in which the sliding power is returned to the network. GOST 16593-79.

ELECTRICAL CONTACT- a current-carrying element of switching devices designed to close and open an electrical circuit.
The contacts are designed taking into account the maximum possible current in the switched circuit and the actual operating conditions, i.e. they must provide reliable electrical contact under long-term exposure to rated current and short-term exposure to short-circuit current. In the latter case, the contacts must have sufficient mechanical and thermal strength to withstand electrodynamic forces and overheating arising from short-circuit currents.
The solution to this problem is carried out by choosing the trajectory of movement of the contacts and the materials from which they are made. There are fixed and moving electrical contacts. Moving contacts are used in various relays, contactors, connectors, as well as in slip rings and commutators of electrical machines.

ELECTRICAL ANGLE OF A ROTATING AC MACHINE- the product of the value of the geometric angle formed by two half-planes passing through the axis of rotation of a rotating alternating current machine by the number of pairs of poles. ELECTRIC ANGLE (cr. f.) GOST 27471-87.

ELECTRICAL ENGINE(English ELECTRIC MOTOR) is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. CT IEC 50(151)-78.

ELECTRIC MICRODRIVE- low power electric drive with electronic control system.
The microdrive usually includes the following blocks:
production mechanism;
a transmission mechanism that matches the torque value and rotational speed of the electric motor with the specified parameters of the production mechanism; electric motor;
a control unit with a regulator that sets the required law for changing the rotation speed and torque of the electric motor; emergency operation protection unit; a power switch through which the microdrive is connected to the power source.
In general, an electric microdrive is characterized by the presence of all the specified components and blocks. In its simplest form, it consists of a circuit breaker, an electric motor and a production mechanism.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTOR- substance, basic electrical property which is electrical conductivity.
In metals and their alloys, the flow of electric current is a consequence of the directional movement of charge carriers - free electrons. The latter do not have a strict connection with crystal lattice metal The different conductivity of different metals and alloys is due to different amounts they contain free electrons per unit volume, as well as their mobility.
In copper, the specific content of free electrons is 3.4 10 22 per 1 cm 3, in aluminum - 2.2 10 22 per 1 cm 3. These substances belong to the first class of electrical conductors; the second class includes electrolyte and plasma, in which the charge carriers are ions and cations.

ELECTRICITY- directed movement of electric charges.
The carriers of electric charges in conductors are electrons and ions, and in semiconductors they are “holes”.
Electric current has magnetic, thermal, chemical and light properties. When it flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is created around the latter, and as a result of the collision of charge carriers with atoms and molecules of the conductor, it is heated. The flow of current in solutions is accompanied by chemical reactions, resulting in the decomposition of the original solution into other compounds. When current flows in conductors with high temperature melting, they heat up and glow. This effect is used in incandescent lamps. In gas-discharge lamps, current promotes ionization and luminescence of the gas. The intensity of the electric current is assessed using the strength and current density.

ELECTRICAL VOLTAGE is a scalar quantity equal to the linear integral of the electric field strength. VOLTAGE (cr.f.). GOST 19880-74.

ELECTRIC FIELD- one of the two sides of the electromagnetic field, characterized by the effect on an electrically charged particle with a force proportional to the charge of the particle and independent of its speed. GOST 19880-74.

ELECTRICAL NETWORK SEPARATION— division of the electrical network into separate electrically unconnected installations using a separating transformer. NETWORK DIVISION (cr.f.). GOST 12.1.009-76.

ELECTRIC RELAY(English ELECTRICAL RELAY) - a device designed to produce abrupt changes in output circuits at given values of electrical influencing quantities.
Note. The term "electrical relay" should be used exclusively for the concept of an elementary relay performing only one conversion operation between its input and output circuits. GOST 16022-83.

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE- a scalar quantity equal to the ratio of direct voltage in a section of a passive electrical circuit to the direct current in it in the absence of EMF in the section.
Resistance characterizes the ability of a substance to prevent electric current from passing through it. Symbol - R, r, unit of measurement - Ohm: R=U/I, Where U- voltage, V; I- current, A.
Electrical resistance, for example, depends on the resistivity of the material from which the conductor is made, the cross-section S and length l conductor: .
Elements with electrical resistance - resistors - are widely used in electrical and electronic devices. Resistors are made adjustable and unregulated. The latter are used to regulate the excitation current of electrical machines (regulating rheostats), limiting the starting current (starting rheostats), and braking (braking rheostats).

ELECTRICITY(English ELECTRICITY) - 1. The manifestation of one of the forms of energy inherent in electric charges, both moving and in a static state.
2. Field of science and technology related to electrical phenomena. CT IEC 50(151)-78.

ELECTRIC HYDRO DRIVE(electrohydraulic drive) - an electric drive that includes a hydraulic transmission device (hydraulic transmission). A hydraulic transmission transmits mechanical energy (torque, force) from the shaft of an electric motor to the executive body of the working machine through the working fluid.

PULSATING CURRENT ELECTRIC MOTOR- rotating electric motor direct current, designed for power supply from a rectifier with a current ripple of more than 10%. GOST 27471-87.

ELECTRIC MOTOR- an electrical machine designed to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Depending on the type of supply voltage, direct and alternating current electric motors are distinguished; their operating principle is based on the force interaction of a magnetic field and a conductor with current.

ELECTRIC MOTORS WITH INCREASED EFFICIENCY (ENERGY SAVING MOTORS)(energy-efficient motors) - motors for general industrial use, whose total power losses are at least 20% less than the total power losses of engines with normal efficiency of the same power and rotation speed.

ELECTRIC MOTOR DEVICE OF ELECTRIC DRIVE- an electrical device designed to convert electrical energy into mechanical or mechanical into electrical energy.
Note. The electric motor device contains one or more electric motors.
ELECTRIC MOTOR DEVICE (cr.f.). GOST 16593-79.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE- a scalar quantity characterizing the ability of an external field and an induced electric field to cause an electric current.
Note. The electromotive force is equal to the linear integral of the strength of the external field and the induced electric field along the path under consideration between two points or along the closed contour under consideration: in the case of movement of contour elements, the strength of the induced electric field is determined in coordinate systems moving along with these elements. e.m.f. (cr.f.). GOST 19880-74.

ELECTRICAL INSULATING MATERIALS- materials with high electrical resistance. They are used to insulate conductors and components of electrical equipment, radio equipment, etc., as well as dielectrics in capacitors and other elements of electronic equipment. They are divided into gaseous. liquid and solid dielectrics. Examples of electrical insulating materials.

POWER TOOLS manual machines driven by an electric motor. The main types of power tools: drills, grinding tools, saws, scissors, impact wrenches, jigsaws, slotters, screwdrivers, hammer drills, jackhammers, planes, rammers, as well as auxiliary equipment - sharpening machines, sharpeners, etc.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION- the phenomenon of excitation of electromotive force in a circuit when the magnetic flux interlocking with it changes. GOST 19880-74.

ELECTROMAGNETIC POWER OF AUTOTRANSFORMER- power transmitted by an autotransformer from one network to another through electromagnetic induction, equal to the power of the common or series winding of the autotransformer. GOST 16110-82.

ELECTROMAGNETIC DISC CLUTCH- an electromechanical transmission device of an electric drive, driven by electrical signals and containing an electromagnet with a winding, the armature of which is connected through a disc spring to a disk located parallel to another disk mounted on the electric motor shaft. When voltage is applied to the winding, the first disk mounted on the mechanism shaft is pressed against the second disk and, under the influence of friction forces, the torque from the motor shaft is transmitted to the shaft of the production mechanism. Discs can operate in both air and oil environments; with a sufficiently large diameter they can transmit significant torque.
Electromagnetic disc clutches are small in size and do not require much maintenance. The excitation current is supplied to the electromagnet winding through slip rings, and the housing is used as one wire.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION- the phenomenon of excitation of EMF in a circuit when the magnetic flux associated with it changes. The phenomenon forms the basis for energy conversion in electrical machines and is reflected in the law of electromagnetic induction.

ELECTROMAGNETIC CLUTCH(English ELECTRIC COUPLING) - a machine that transmits torque from one shaft to another by electrical or magnetic means, or in which the torque is controlled by electrical or magnetic means. CT IEC 50(411)-73.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SLIP CLUTCH- an electromechanical converter that carries out a power connection between the driven and drive shafts of the transmission device through an electromagnetic field and consists of two rotating parts separated by an air gap, one of which is connected to the drive motor, the second to the production mechanism. The part of the coupling with the excitation winding is called an inductor, the other part is called an armature. In a slip ring coupling, the field winding is located on the rotor and is powered by direct current, and the armature is made in the form of a squirrel-cage winding of an asynchronous machine with a squirrel-cage rotor. To transmit torque from one part of the coupling to another, it is necessary to maintain different values of their rotation speeds, i.e., the driven part rotates with some slip relative to the driving part. The electromagnetic slip clutch ensures smooth start-up and acceleration of production mechanisms and is also used to regulate their rotation speed in a small range with a constant rotation speed of the drive motor or to stabilize the rotation speed of the production mechanism with a slight change in the rotation speed of the prime mover. The type of its mechanical characteristics is largely determined by the design of the armature.

ELECTROMAGNETIC POWDER COUPLING- an electromagnetic clutch, the torque in which is regulated by changing the excitation current and transmitted through friction forces, consists of driven and driven parts mounted on the shafts of the production mechanism and the electric motor, respectively. Both parts are made in the form of hollow cylinders, inside of which there is a powder of ferromagnetic material, sometimes with the addition of oil. The field winding is located on the driven, inner part of the coupling, and the supply voltage is supplied to it through slip rings. Designs with a fixed excitation winding are also used. Under the influence of the magnetic field of the winding, the ferromagnetic powder is compacted, as a result of which the friction coefficient between the driving and driven parts increases. Thanks to the considered principle of operation of the electromagnetic powder coupling, a soft connection is ensured between the electric motor and the production mechanism.

ELECTROMAGNETIC TIME CONSTANT(electromagnetic time constant) - a parameter of the differential equation or transfer function of a link in an automatic control system, characterizing its dynamic properties. For example, in an electrical circuit containing inductance and active resistance connected in series, the time constant is defined as the ratio of inductance to active resistance. The electromagnetic time constant has the dimension of time.
The electromagnetic time constant is the time during which, when the DC voltage at the input of the circuit under consideration changes abruptly, the current in it changes from the initial value to the steady-state value, if the rate of change of the current is considered constant and equal to the rate in starting moment time.

ELECTROMAGNETIC TIME CONSTANT OF DC TACHOGENERATOR— the time during which the current, after applying the output voltage to the load resistor of the tachogenerator, increases from zero to a value equal to 0.632 steady-state. GOST 27471-87

ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY OF ELECTRIC DRIVE(electromagnetic compatibility of electric drive) - the ability of an electric drive to function normally in an electromagnetic environment (see noise immunity of an electric drive) and not have an unacceptable influence on the operation of other devices.
Electromagnetic compatibility of an electric drive is ensured in various ways: shielding electrical equipment as a source of interference, protecting semiconductor converters and electronic systems control from the influence of external interference, the use of measures to ensure the quality of the supply voltage and voltage at the output of semiconductor converters and personal protection devices using broadband, active and other filters.

ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY- the energy of the electromagnetic field, consisting of the energies of the electric and magnetic fields. GOST 19880-74.

ELECTROMAGNETIC EXCITATION- a method of exciting an electric machine, the magnetic excitation field of which is created by excitation windings powered by electric current. A distinction is made between independent excitation and self-excitation.

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD- a type of matter determined at all points by two vector quantities that characterize its two sides, called respectively “electric field” and “magnetic field”, which exerts a force on charged particles, depending on their speed and the magnitude of their charge. GOST 39880-74.

ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAY(English ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAY) - an electromechanical relay, the operation of which is based on the effect of the magnetic field of a stationary winding on a movable ferromagnetic element. GOST 16022-83.

ELECTROMAGNETIC POWDER BRAKE- an integral part of an electromagnetic brake used to reduce the rotation speed of an electric motor.
The brake action is similar to that of an electromagnetic powder clutch. When its winding is connected to a power source, particles of ferromagnetic powder are distributed inside the brake drum in such a way that the friction torque between the moving and stationary parts of the brake increases.

BRAKE ELECTROMAGNET (BR)- the electrical part of the braking device used to brake electric motors.
The mechanical part of the braking device has many design options, and the electric vehicle used in the specified device can be powered from a direct and alternating current network. To brake powerful engines, a hydraulic booster is used, the piston of which is moved by the ET. The ET winding is often connected to the motor winding terminals. When powered from an alternating current network, the ET magnetic system is laminated. At the moment the ET is turned on, the current in the winding is of great importance, and with a decrease in the air gap between the yoke and the armature during the movement of the latter, the current decreases. When the ET armature jams, overheating and damage to the winding occurs.

TRACTION ELECTROMAGNET- an executive body of a low voltage power switch, designed to drive the switch mechanism, which contains a yoke with a winding and an armature moving relative to the yoke. The winding is powered by both alternating and direct current. When the winding is excited, the armature is attracted to the yoke and, with its movement, affects the contact system of the switch, which switches the corresponding electrical circuits. Voltage is applied to the winding for a limited time, after which the armature is held in a tightened position using a mechanical lock.

ELECTROMAGNETIC MOTOR(electromagnetic motor) - an electric motor in which electromechanical energy conversion is carried out by a device based on the interaction of an electromagnetic field and ferromagnetic bodies.

ELECTROMAGNETIC TORQUE(electromagnetic torque) - the total torque of forces acting on the rotating part of an electrical machine (rotor) from the stationary part (stator). It differs from the useful torque of the engine (the so-called torque on the shaft) by the amount of mechanical losses.

ELECTROMAGNETIC DRIVE(electromagnetic drive) - an electric drive in which an electromagnetic motor is used as an electric motor.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SCREEN(English ELECTROMAGNETIC SCREEN) - a conductive screen designed to reduce the penetration of a changing electromagnetic field into a certain area. ST IEC 50(151)-78.

ELECTRIC MACHINE CLUTCH- a rotating electrical machine designed to transfer mechanical energy from one shaft to another. CLUTCH (cr.f.). GOST 27471-87.

ELECTRIC MACHINE EXCITER- an electric machine generator designed to power the excitation winding of another electrical machine. GOST 27471-87.

ELECTRICAL GENERATOR- a rotating electric machine designed to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy according to GOST 27471-87.

ELECTRIC MACHINE DYNAMOMETER- a rotating electrical machine designed to determine torques by measuring mechanical forces stator reactions. GOST 27471-87.

ELECTRIC MACHINE CASCADE— a cascade electric drive, in which an electric machine converting unit is used for the sliding power converter. GOST 16593-79.

ELECTRICAL MACHINE COMPENSATOR- a synchronous machine designed to generate or consume reactive power. COMPENSATOR (cr.f.). GOST 27471-87.

ELECTRIC MACHINE EXCITER— an electric machine generator designed to power the excitation winding of an electric machine exciter. GOST 27471-87.

ELECTRICAL MACHINE CONVERTER- a rotating electrical machine designed to change the parameters of electrical energy.
Note. The change can be carried out by the type of current, voltage, frequency, number of phases, voltage phase. CONVERTER (cr.f.). GOST 27471-87.

DC VOLTAGE CONVERTER- a direct current commutator machine with two or more armature windings connected to different collectors, designed to change the value of the direct current voltage. GOST 27471-87.

ELECTRICAL MACHINE CONVERTER OF THE NUMBER OF PHASES- an alternating current rotating machine designed to convert the power of an alternating current system having a given number of phases into the power of an alternating current system with a different number of phases at a constant frequency. GOST 27471-87.

ELECTRIC MACHINE BRAKE- a rotating electric machine designed to create braking torque. BRAKE (cr.f.). GOST 27471-87

ELECTRICAL MACHINE AMPLIFIER- an electric machine generator with electromagnetic excitation, in which, over a wide range of loads, the output power is proportional to the power of the independent excitation winding circuit, designed to amplify electrical signals. GOST 27471-87.

ELECTROMECHANICS(electromechanics) - a section of electrical engineering associated with the use of electrical, magnetic and electromagnetic phenomena to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy and electrical energy into mechanical energy. The main tasks of electromechanics are the further development of the theory of electromechanical energy conversion and the creation on this basis of electromechanical converters and devices (electrical machines, electrical devices, etc.) for use in practical human activities.

ELECTROMECHANICAL TIME CONSTANT OF A ROTATING ELECTRIC MOTOR- the time during which the rotating electric motor, after applying the supply voltage, develops a rotation speed equal to 0.632 of the established value corresponding to the norm. GOST 27471-87.

ELECTROMECHANICAL TIME CONSTANT OF ELECTRIC DRIVE— the time during which the electric drive accelerates from a stationary state to an ideal idle speed under the influence of a constant torque equal to the short circuit moment of the electric motor. ELECTROMECHANICAL TIME CONSTANT (cr.f.) GOST 16593-79.

ELECTROMECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ELECTRIC DRIVE— dependence of the speed of the electric drive on the current of the electric motor device. ELECTROMECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS (cr.f.). SPEED CHARACTERISTICS (NDP). GOST 16593-79.

ELECTROMECHANICAL CASCADE- a cascade electric drive in which sliding power is converted into mechanical power and returned to the motor shaft. GOST 16593-79.

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEM(electromechanical systems) - a set of interacting elements that convert mechanical energy into electrical or electrical energy into mechanical. Electromechanical systems are divided into generator, electric motor and combined.
The electromechanical generator system (power source) converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The electric motor electromechanical system converts electrical energy into mechanical energy and is designed to drive the executive bodies of working machines. Combined electromechanical systems are used both to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy in power supply systems and to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy.

ELECTROMECHANICAL COMPATIBILITY IN ELECTRIC DRIVE(electromechanical compatibility) - the ability of an electric drive to function normally when powered from a source that does not provide the standardized quality of electricity, and not to have an unacceptable impact on the operation of the actuator of the electric drive.
Electromechanical compatibility in an electric drive is ensured in various ways, including the installation of filters that improve the quality of the voltage supplying the motor; the use of circuitry and design solutions that reduce the level and influence of pulsations of the electromagnetic torque of the motor.

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION(electromechanical energy conversion) - conversion of electrical energy into mechanical and mechanical into electrical. Any electromechanical energy conversion is based on one of the well-known physical phenomena:
1. A force is applied to a conductor carrying current in a magnetic field, and when the conductor moves in a magnetic field, an emf is induced in it.
2. A ferromagnetic material in a magnetic field is subject to a force that tends to move it to the zone where the field intensity is maximum.
3. A force acts on the plates of a charged capacitor and on the dielectric in an electric field.
4. A phenomenon called the piezoelectric effect.
5. A phenomenon called magnetostriction.

ELECTROMECHANICAL BRAKING(release electromagnet, ).

ELECTRON- stable elementary particle with a unit negative elementary electric charge.

ELECTRONIC AMPLIFIER- an amplifier whose amplification effect is based on the use of the properties of semiconductor, electronic and ionic devices.
Transistor amplifiers are used to amplify relatively low power signals. For example, a transistor amplifier can be included in the control circuit of a thyristor, the power of which is currently many times greater than the power of transistors. Transistor amplifiers use a DC network as a power source, while thyristor amplifiers use a DC and AC network.
Some devices use vacuum tube amplifiers, the input signal of which is applied to a grid, and electric current flows through the tube due to the thermal emission of electrons from the surface of a heated cathode.

ELECTRIC DRIVE- an electromechanical system consisting of an electric motor, converter transmission and control devices, designed to drive the auxiliary organs of the working machine and control this movement.
The electric drive contains the working element of the mechanism, an electric motor, a transmission device that communicates between them, as well as electrical devices and apparatus that perform the functions of control, monitoring and protection against emergency conditions. The transmission device provides a rigid or flexible (electromagnetic coupling) connection between the electric motor and the working element.

AC DRIVE(and with. power drive system) - an electric drive in which an alternating current motor (asynchronous, synchronous, etc.) is used as an electric motor driving the executive body of the working machine. AC electric drive is one of the main sources of mechanical energy for working machines in the energy sector, industry, transport, agricultural and industrial complex, public utilities, household appliances and other areas of human activity. With the development of electronics (power and information), the AC electric drive began to intensively displace DC electric drives in all areas.

POSITIONAL ELECTRIC DRIVE(positional power drive system) - an electric drive that provides automatic control of the position of the executive body of the working machine (IORM). Depending on the requirements of the technological process, a positional electric drive can perform:
— precise stop of the electric drive in given points IORM positions based on discrete signals from directional sensors;
— continuous automatic regulation of the position based on deviation from the set one in order to carry out dosed movements of the IORM, nppi in this case the values of dosed movements can be set by the operator, by software or by an automatic control system;
— continuous automatic control of the deviation of the IORM position from the specified one in order to track a controlled object that arbitrarily changes its position (electric tracking drive).
For a positional electric drive, as a rule, a parabolic position controller is used in order to obtain maximum performance when working out various movements.

DC ELECTRIC DRIVE(d.c. power drive system) - an electric drive in which a DC motor is used as an electric motor driving the executive body of the working machine. Based on the type of excitation, motors with independent, sequential and mixed excitation are distinguished. In DC electric drives, motors with independent excitation are most widespread. The DC electric drive has good control properties. Smooth speed control over a wide range is carried out by regulating the voltage on the motor armature. The speed can also be adjusted by changing the motor's field current.

ELECTRIC DRIVE WITH DOUBLE POWER MACHINE(double-supply machine) - an electric drive based on an asynchronous electric motor with a wound rotor, in which both the stator windings and the rotor windings are connected to power sources. In this case, the rotor windings are connected to the network through a frequency converter. The most commonly used frequency converter is a direct coupled frequency converter (see direct coupled frequency converter).
The inverter control is organized in such a way that the currents flowing through the rotor windings create a rotating magnetic field of the required amplitude, frequency and phase, which can rotate in the direction of rotation of the rotor or against it. Since the field created by the rotor windings must be stationary relative to the rotating magnetic field created by the stator windings, the rotor can rotate at speeds either below or above synchronous speed.

ELECTRIC DRIVE WITH SUBJECT COORDINATE CONTROL(electric drive with subordinated control) - an electric drive with a multi-circuit automatic control system with sequential correction, in which the number of circuits (see control circuit) is selected equal to the number of adjustable coordinates of the electric drive, and each internal circuit is subordinate to the previous external one. Each circuit is a closed system for regulating one coordinate, for example, current (torque), speed, position or technological coordinate (material tension, pressure, fluid flow, geometric dimensions of the product, etc.). A control action is supplied to the input of the regulator of each circuit, which is the difference between the reference action and the voltage feedback, proportional to the controlled coordinate. The reference influence is the output voltage of the regulator of the preceding circuit, thereby ensuring the subordination of the circuit in question to the preceding external circuit. The transfer function and parameters of the controller are selected so that when the reference action changes abruptly, the specified quality of the transient process is ensured (see transient processes in an electric drive). Most often, the regulator is configured to obtain an oscillatory transient process with acceptable overshoot and its completion in the minimum possible time. Widespread
received a setting for the so-called “modular or symmetric optimum”. The advantages of subordinate regulation have ensured its dominant position in controlled electric drives of direct and alternating current.

ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT— a set of electrical products and (or) electrical devices designed to perform a given job.
Note. Electrical equipment, depending on the installation object, may have an appropriate name, for example, electrical equipment of a machine GOST 16703-80.

ELECTRIC WELDING- welding, in which the parts to be welded are heated by electric current. There are electric arc welding and resistance electric welding. Compared to other types of welding, electric welding has found the greatest application in almost all industries for the manufacture of permanent joints from steels and other structural materials.

ELECTROSTATIC FIELD- the electric field of stationary charged bodies in the absence of electric currents in them.
The field manifests itself in the force effect of a certain direction and value on free electric charges and is characterized by induction or dielectric polarization. The field can be represented by lines of force, each of which is formed as a mentally drawn line starting on a positively charged body and ending on a negatively charged body.

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING- the science of using electrical energy for practical purposes, as well as the branch of technology that uses electrical energy in all sectors of the economy, in military affairs, and in everyday life. Electrical engineering studies and systematizes the laws that govern electrical phenomena.

ELECTRICAL DEVICE(English ELECTRICAL DEVICE) - a device designed for the production, conversion, distribution, transmission and use of electrical energy or to limit the possibility of its transmission. GOST 18311-80.

ELECTRICAL DEVICE FOR HOUSEHOLD PURPOSE- an electrical device intended for domestic purposes, the operation of which is carried out by untrained personnel. GOST 18311-80.

ELECTRICAL DEVICE OF INTERNAL INSTALLATION- an electrical device intended for use in premises or structures. GOST 18311-80.

ELECTRICAL DEVICE FOR NATIONAL ECONOMIC PURPOSE- an electrical device for various purposes, except for those intended for export and defense. GOST 18311-80.

ELECTRICAL DEVICE FOR OUTDOOR INSTALLATION- an electrical device intended for use outdoors or structures (on open space). GOST 18311-80.

GENERAL PURPOSE ELECTRICAL DEVICE- an electrical device made without taking into account requirements specific to a specific purpose or certain operating conditions.
GENERAL INDUSTRIAL ELECTRICAL PRODUCT; ELECTRICAL PRODUCT FOR GENERAL APPLICATION; ELECTRICAL PRODUCT OF NORMAL EXECUTION (NDP) GOST 18311-80.

ELECTRICAL DEVICE OF INCREASED RELIABILITY AGAINST EXPLOSION- an explosion-proof electrical device in which explosion protection is provided only in a recognized normal mode of operation.
Note. The recognized normal operating mode is given, where necessary, in the standards for the types of explosion protection of electrical products. EXPLOSION-PROOF ELECTRICAL PRODUCT;
INTRINSICALLY SAFE ELECTRICAL PRODUCT (NDP). GOST 18311-80.

SPECIAL-PURPOSE ELECTRICAL DEVICE- a special-purpose electrical device, adapted for use with only one specific object. GOST 18311-80.

SPECIAL PURPOSE ELECTRICAL DEVICE- an electrical device made taking into account requirements specific to a specific purpose or for certain operating conditions. SPECIAL ELECTRICAL PRODUCT; SPECIALIZED ELECTRICAL PRODUCT; SPECIAL-PURPOSE ELECTRICAL PRODUCT (NDP). GOST 18311-80.

ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION- a set of electrical equipment interconnected to each other that performs a specific function, for example, the production, transformation, transmission, distribution, accumulation or consumption of electricity.

DELAY ELEMENT- an element of an electrical circuit, the output signal of which appears some time after the arrival of the input signal.
The delay time depends on the design or delay circuit and corresponds to the time interval from the moment the input signal arrives until the output signal reaches half its amplitude value. Damping devices used in electrical measuring instruments can be considered as delay elements.

DRIVING ELEMENT(element of reduction) - an element of the mechanical part of the electric drive - working machine system, which includes an interconnected electric motor rotor, a transmission device and an executive body of the working machine, generally moving at different speeds, to which the remaining elements of this system are driven. Most often, the rotor of an electric motor is taken as the drive element.
The purpose of reduction is to replace a real mechanical system with a model in which all elements move at the same speed - the speed of the reduction element.
The reduced element will have a new reduced moment of inertia and reduced load moment.

POWER SYSTEM, energy system is an association of power plants connected through power lines to each other and to energy consumers. The energy system includes thermal, nuclear and hydroelectric power plants, power lines, electrical substations, thermal and electrical networks, thermal and electrical energy receivers.

ENERGY INDICATORS OF ELECTRIC DRIVE(electric drive index) - indicators characterizing the quality and perfection of the process of transferring and converting energy in the power channel of an electric drive. These include: efficiency factor, distortion factor, power factor.

SLIDING ENERGY(slip power) - part of the electromagnetic energy transmitted in an asynchronous motor from the stator to the rotor through the air gap, determined by the sliding power.
Sliding energy is converted, as a rule, into thermal energy. Only in cascade circuits is part of the sliding energy returned to the network (see electrical cascade) or converted into mechanical energy and supplied to the motor shaft (see electromechanical cascade).

ENERGY SAVING BY ELECTRIC DRIVE(energy saving in electric drive) - a set of measures in the field of design and operation of various technological installations containing an electric drive, aimed at minimizing energy costs for the technological process.
In the world practice of modern electric drives, several ways of energy saving are used:
selection of an electric motor in the electric drive of a specific installation, justified by the criterion of energy saving;
the use of energy-efficient electric motors, which, due to an increase in the mass of active materials and optimization of the design, have a rated efficiency increased by several percent, the use of devices that increase the power factor of asynchronous motors;
The most radical and effective way to save energy is the transition from an unregulated electric drive to a controlled one in technologies that involve dosed power supply to the working element.

GANTZ EFFECT— generation of high-frequency oscillations of electric current in a semiconductor under the influence of a constant electric field. GOST 22622-77.

JOULE EFFECT(eng. JOULE EFFECT) - a phenomenon in which a current produces heat in a material at a rate proportional to the resistance of the material and the square of the current density. ST IEC 50(841)-83.

HALL EFFECT- the appearance of a transverse electric field when an electric current flows through a semiconductor placed in a magnetic field. GOST 22622-77.

Literature.
1. Electrical machines: 1000 concepts for practitioners: Handbook: Spanneberg H. 1988.
2. Electrical machines: Dictionary-reference book. Comp. Lavrinenko V.A. 2006.
3. Dictionary-reference book on electrical engineering, industrial electronics and automation. Benzar V.K. 1985.
4. Electric drive. Terms and Definitions. Ed. Kozyreva S.K. 2015.

Judgments that make up a syllogism: subjects and predicates of its conclusion and premises. Subject of imprisonment called smaller T., his - large T., and T., parcels - medium T.

Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ch. editor: L. F. Ilyichev, P. N. Fedoseev, S. M. Kovalev, V. G. Panov. 1983 .

TERM

(Greek ὅρος, lat. terminus – border, limit, end) – 1) In the widest modern. the use of T. - words (and names, see Name), but with a touch of special (scientific) meaning; in other words, T. are words or combinations of words (complex, or descriptive, T., for example, “smallest multiple”), the meanings of which are determined in the context of the corresponding scientific. theory (discipline) or in general in k.-l. branches of knowledge. In this sense, the frequently occurring clarification of T. involves them, the elimination of homonyms and the obligatory fixation of the universe of reasoning (see Universe). 2) In Greek philosophy. ὅρος and lat. terminus was used to mean the definition of essence, i.e. as something that fixes the stable and enduring - the general, or the idea, as opposed to the fluid and continuously changing sensory being (cf. Aristotle, Met. I 6 987 b 6; Russian translation, M.-L., 1934). That is, in this sense, i.e. as general definitions, or concepts, were considered as the basis of rational (true) Knowledge. 3) In Aristotle’s logic, T. are elements. "The terms of premise - ee and predicate - are the boundaries of the premise, its beginning and end. These are the words ὅρος, and we must be careful not to identify this logical word with such psychological and metaphysical words as "", "representation", "concept" ..." (Lukasevich Ya., Aristotelian from the point of view of modern formal logic, translated from English, M., 1959, pp. 36–37). In the meaning of the simplest (basic) elements of logic and mathematics. expressions the word "T." widely used in modern times. lit-re. For example, in languages of applied logic and mathematics. calculus T. is an analogue of the subject or object of natural (spoken) languages, i.e. (word) denoting (often “describing”) s.l. universe. (In Russian literature, in this case, instead of the word “T.” they usually write, i.e. terme or English term are used without a feather.) See also Art. Syllogism, Term.

Lit.: Mill D.S., System of syllogistic and inductive logic, trans. from English, M., 1914, p. 15–32; Chelpanov G.I., Textbook of logic, [M.], 1946, ch. 2; Aristotle, Analysts first and second, M., 1952, p. 10.

M. Novoselov. Moscow.

Philosophical Encyclopedia. In 5 volumes - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Edited by F. V. Konstantinov. 1960-1970 .

TERM

TERM (Latin terminus - border, limit, end) - 1) in a narrow, logical sense, a term is an element of a simple categorical judgment, its subject (subject, subjectum) or its predicate (predicate, piaedicatum). These elements of the judgment (its beginning and end) are so named, apparently, because the subject and predicate of the judgment indicate the limits (tennini) of the affirmation or negation expressed by the judgment. Since the time of Port-Royal logic, each term is associated with its volume. As a result, the falsity of judgments is clearly expressed by the ratio of volumes between terms. Since the study of these relations forms the subject of syllogistics, it is often called the “logic of terms.” True, in those traditional courses that focus logic on psychological acts of thinking, the word “term” is usually replaced by the word “concept”. But, when offering modern interpretations of syllogistics, it is still desirable to follow the original custom introduced by Aristotle (see: Aristotle. Analysts. M.-L., 1952, p. 10), custom and retain the “term” for the subject and predicate of the judgment: “We must be careful and not identify this logical word with such psychological and metaphysical words as “idea”, “representation”, “concept” ...” (Lukasevich Ya. Aristotelian syllogistics from the point of view of modern formal logic. M., 1959, p. . 36-37).

The word “term” in modern literature is also used in the sense of a zero-level object (an individual or a functional expression); in particular, in the language of relational logic and in the formal languages of applied logical-mathematical calculus - as a name for the possible values of subject variables (in this case, the variables are included in the class of terms). In these cases, usually instead of the word “term” they write (in Russian) the word “term”, i.e. the French tenue and English term are used without translation; 2) in in a broad sense term is linguistic expression(a word or combination of words) naming a specific or abstract object (or group of objects) of any special branch of knowledge. Therefore, the main term in this sense is iconic. Objects denoted (denoted) by a term are called its objective meaning, and the concept of these objects is called the semantic meaning of the term. The semantic meanings of a term are usually established by definition and rarely coincide with their dictionary meaning, if any. According to established logic, a certain classification of terms is accepted. According to their subject meaning, they are divided into empty (with zero denotation; for example, “round square”), singular (applicable to only one object) and general (applicable to many objects), and according to their semantic meaning - into positive and negative (“beautiful ” - “ugly”, “kind” - “unkind”), collective (“crew” as a light carriage) and separative (“crew” as the crew of a ship) - in general, in real statements, one and the same term can appear as a collective, and in a separating role. Finally, according to the same semantic meaning, terms are divided into abstract and concrete, although it is very difficult to justify the dichotomy “abstract - concrete” not only in relation to the terms, but also to the abstract objects themselves. Lit.: ChelpachovG. I. Textbook of logic. M., 1946.

M. M. Novoselov

New philosophical encyclopedia: In 4 vols. M.: Thought. Edited by V. S. Stepin. 2001 .

Synonyms:

See what "TERM" is in other dictionaries:

- (lat. terminus). 1) an accepted conventional expression, a name characteristic of any science or craft. 2) deadline. 3) among the Romans: the god of boundaries, to whom the festival of terminalia was established. 4) border post, column. 5) in logic: the name of the concept,... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

- (Terminus). Roman deity of boundaries, originally the god of boundaries and boundary stones. A temple to him was built by King Numa, and the festival of Terminalia was celebrated in his honor. (Source: “A Brief Dictionary of Mythology and Antiquities.” M. Korsh. St. Petersburg, ... ... Encyclopedia of Mythology

TERM, term, husband. (Latin terminus limit, border). 1. B formal logic concept expressed in words (philosophical). Three terms of a syllogism. 2. A word that is the name of a strictly defined concept. Precise, imprecise term. Successful, unsuccessful... ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

Term- TERM is a word that has a special, strictly defined meaning. Used in science and technology. In connection with the general history of science and technology, the most magnificent development of which is associated with the 19th and 20th centuries, the terms, by origin, ... ... Dictionary of literary terms

See word... Dictionary of Russian synonyms and similar expressions. under. ed. N. Abramova, M.: Russian Dictionaries, 1999. term name, word; differentiation, numerator, antilogarithm, continuum, quotient, determinant, extremum, factorial,... ... Synonym dictionary

- (from Latin terminus boundary limit), a word or combination of words denoting a special concept used in science, technology, and art. In modern logic, the word term is often used as a general noun in the language of logical... ...

- (from the Latin terminus border, limit), a word or combination of words denoting a special concept used in science, technology, art... Modern encyclopedia

- (lat. terminus limit boundary), in Roman mythology, the guardian god of boundary signs, was revered among the peasants. His feast of terminalia was celebrated on February 23... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

- (lat. terminus limit, boundary) a word or phrase denoting empirical or abstract objects, the meaning of which is specified within scientific theory. Depending on the presence or absence of a denotation (referent) of T. in the defined... ... The latest philosophical dictionary

ECOLOGY(E) - the science of the organization and functioning of organismal systems at all levels. E examines the relationships of organisms with each other and with the inanimate components of the functionally unified nature of the Earth - its biosphere (see).

Modern electronics, its main tasks, concepts and methods arose in the course of studying both individual natural systems both regions and the nature of the Earth as a whole. It may seem that the concepts and terms of E are not applicable to space habitable objects of existing or expected sizes. However, the point is not in the size of the system (quantity), but in the way of its existence (quality).

In modern foreign literature, mainly American, the concept of “ecological system” is usually used for any isolated inhabited objects, regardless of the method of ensuring living conditions in them, even with supplies of oxygen, water and food. This use of the term is unjustified. The basic concepts of E become applicable to inhabited space objects when the life support of crews is based on methods and means based on the biological (primarily) cycle of substances, which forms the basis for the existence of earthly objects. ecological systems and the Earth's biosphere as a whole. One of the basic concepts of ecology are biocenosis (see) and ecosystem (see).

ECOSYSTEM(ES) - the totality of organisms and their habitat ES is dimensionless and corresponds to phenomena of the most varied scale - from the ocean to individual bodies of seasonal water, from a forest to an individual tree stump, where at least a short time stable relationships are established between the organisms inhabiting them and environment. ES is an important and often used concept in ecology (see). The basic concepts of ES are theoretical basis for the development of human life support systems (see), based on the biological cycle of substances.

ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY(E) - a method for recording bioelectrical phenomena associated with cardiac contraction (ECG). The method is widely used in preventive and clinical medicine and plays a leading role in the functional diagnosis of cardiovascular diseases. E allows you to study the automaticity, excitability and conductivity of the myocardium, as well as indirectly judge its contractile function. In space medicine, E is one of the main methods of medical monitoring and research. The first ECG in zero gravity was obtained during the flight of the dog Laika. Currently, E is widely used for pre- and post-flight research. During the flight, E is used for medical monitoring, medical research and predicting the health status of astronauts.

ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY DYNAMIC(ED) - a method of long-term, daily ECG recording using special miniature magnetic recorders worn by the subject. The method is used in a cardiology clinic to identify hidden coronary changes, study cardiac arrhythmias and monitor the effectiveness of treatment. In space medicine, ED was first used during the 2nd expedition to orbital station"Salyut-6" in 1978. When examining crew members before, during and after the flight using the ED method along with the traditional clinical approach important has an assessment of changes in the state of regulatory systems in different watches days - see mathematical (cybernetic) analysis of heart rate. This makes it possible to judge the adaptive capabilities of the circulatory system and the body as a whole by the synchronization of individual indicators with each other and the dynamics of their daily fluctuations.

ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER(ER) is a combination of oxidation and reduction processes occurring at the electrodes when an electric current is passed through an aqueous solution. For alkaline solution:

At the cathode

In general, the production of oxygen from water can be represented as follows:

The efficiency of the redox electrochemical process depends on the material of the electrodes, the method of supplying reagents to the reaction zone, temperature, electrolyte concentration, specific reaction rate (current density), etc.

The mass, volume and energy consumption of EV installations depend on the current density. Currently, electrochemical processes are carried out at current densities from 100 to 200 mA/cm2.

The temperature of the electrochemical process is determined mainly physical and chemical properties electrolyte and water, in particular, their boiling point, and is maintained in the range from 80 to 100 °C.

The electrolyte concentration is selected in accordance with its maximum electrical conductivity in the interelectrode space.

More than half a century of experience in using EVs makes it possible to obtain almost absolutely pure oxygen and hydrogen (purity above 99.9%).

The use of an EV system to provide oxygen to the crew of a spacecraft involves solving problems that have not previously been encountered in the practice of electrolysis.

For a stable EV for oxygen and hydrogen, the following basic conditions must be met: good contact of the electrolyte with the electrodes, the presence of an electrical circuit cathode - electrolyte - anode, separation of the resulting gases from the electrodes and electrolyte and separation of hydrogen and oxygen from each other, maintaining a given electrolyte concentration in the interelectrode space , uninterrupted and sufficient water supply to the electrolyzer.

When using an electrolyzer as a source of oxygen in the life support system (see), it is necessary to purify the gases from electrolyte aerosol, water vapor and hydrogen impurities (in oxygen), and also return the electrolyte aerosol and water vapor to the electrolyzer.

In ground-based electrolysis installations, the organization of electrochemical and physical-chemical processes is determined by the action of gravity. Ground-based electrolysis plants cannot be used in space flight.

Contact of the electrolyte with the electrodes is ensured by the wettability of the electrodes by the electrolyte. In physics, wettability is characterized by a contact angle of 9. The contact angle for equilibrium conditions is expressed by the equation:

cos θ = σ 1.3 -σ 1.2 / σ 2.3

where σ 1.3 - surface tension between a solid and a gas, N/m, σ 1.2 - surface tension between a solid and a liquid, N/m, σ 2.3 - surface tension between a liquid and a gas, N/m.

Surface tension depends on the nature of the substance and is characterized by the strength of intramolecular interaction. Thus, wettability by its nature does not depend on the force of gravity and will persist in conditions of weightlessness.

The electrical circuit cathode - electrolyte - anode, provided under terrestrial conditions by a certain position of the electrolyte in the vessel, and the natural separation of the resulting electrolytic gases under conditions of weightlessness, will obviously be disrupted.

If no other forces act on the liquid except the forces of molecular attraction in the surface layer, then the equilibrium position determines the spherical shape of the liquid.

Under conditions of weightlessness, there is no difference in the density of gas and electrolyte, therefore, there is no separation of gases from the electrolyte. The effect of the resulting interfacial tension force appears only at the initial moment and gradually decreases to zero due to the braking effect of the electrolyte layer. In a conventional electrolysis installation under zero-gravity conditions, electrolysis will be carried out for a short time, since as a result of the accumulation of bubbles of the resulting electrolytic gases, the pressure in the interelectrode space will increase and the gas-electrolyte mixture will flow through the gas outlet channels. Simultaneously with the increase in pressure there will be an increase electrical resistance interelectrode space.

When using a source of electrical energy with a constant voltage that varies within small limits, in accordance with Ohm's law, an increase in resistance will lead to a decrease in current. A decrease in current will entail a decrease in the amount of substance released during the electrolysis process. The resistance of the interelectrode element will tend to infinity, and the current strength will tend to zero, i.e., eventually the electrical action will stop.

In conditions of weightlessness, the force of gravity can be replaced by an artificial force field. Such a field is obtained by rotating the entire electrolysis installation or its individual parts, or by forcing the electrolyte through the interelectrode space, followed by the separation of gases from the electrolyte in special centrifugal separators or devices with selective elements. In the force field of the centrifugal separator, the liquid occupies a certain position with a sufficient free surface, which will provide an electrical circuit cathode - electrolyte - anode.

In a rotating electrolysis installation, the resulting gas bubble will move toward the phase interface under the influence of centrifugal force.

The most appropriate way to organize an electrochemical process under conditions of weightlessness should be considered a method based on the use of capillary-porous elements. Installations of this type are compact, relatively lightweight, and also simple and reliable in operation.

In such installations, the separation of electrolytic gases from the electrolyte is ensured by perforated, mesh or porous electrodes closely adjacent to the porous interelectrode element. Electrolytic gases are formed at the point of contact of the electrode with the porous element, at the interface between the gas phase and the electrolyte. The resulting gases pass through the pores in the electrodes along the path of least resistance. Mesh electrodes provide mainly directional removal of gases. Porous electrodes create conditions not only for the directed removal of gases, but also for the return of the electrolyte aerosol, mechanically carried away by the gases back into the interelectrode space. Electrolysis installations with mesh electrodes are considered as a modification of porous electrodes.

The use of porous materials is a very effective means of intensifying various chemical and electrochemical processes. The developed internal surface of porous electrodes allows intensive processes to be carried out, the specific speed of which is low. Diffuse restrictions can be compensated for by creating a directional forced flow. In systems with porous electrodes, the separation of electrode products is relatively simple, without special selective membranes and diaphragms. In the systems under consideration, it is necessary to transport liquid and gas through porous bodies by force or by using capillary potential for the liquid phase.

The properties of porous bodies largely depend on their structure. In turn, the structure of porous elements depends on the methods of their manufacture and the materials used. Capillary equilibrium between two phases, one of which wets and the other does not wet a solid surface, is determined by the presence of pores of a certain radius.

The electrolysis cell consists of porous electrodes and a porous interelectrode element. The electrodes and the porous element are pressed tightly against each other. The interelectrode element is homogeneous and has only small pores. Porous electrodes have large and small pores.

The supply of water to the reaction surfaces of the electrodes is extremely important for the stability of the electrochemical process with capillary-porous elements. Water supply for decomposition is possible along the periphery of the porous interelectrode element; through channels located in the interelectrode element, by capillary suction or by artificial circulation of the electrolyte through a capillary-porous element of a monodisperse structure on the back side of the hydrogen electrode; diffusion of water vapor through the hydrogen cavity of the cathode towards a higher electrolyte concentration.

The method of supplying water for decomposition must satisfy the following requirements: be reliable, provide a sufficient supply of water to the reaction surface; minimize concentration phenomena in the interelectrode space (due to the discharge of only one type of ions - (OH -); eliminate the formation of gas-air cushions (plugs) in liquid lines.

The main ones, apparently, will be methods with artificial circulation of the electrolyte and the supply of water or its vapor from the back side of the hydrogen electrode.

The EV installation does not have rotating components, devices for forced supply of water under pressure and provides the smallest distance between the electrodes, equal to the thickness of the diaphragm (porous interelectrode element).

The constancy of EV conditions is ensured by additional nodes and matching links as regulating and stabilizing elements in common system mass transfer through gas and liquid lines.

The use of ion exchange membranes should significantly reduce the limitations associated with the redistribution of electrolyte concentration in the interelectrode space.

EV installations are generally quite energy-intensive; to obtain oxygen in quantity 1 nl/h average power required 10-12 W.

EVs require current density 100-200 mA/cm2 and temperature 80-90 0 C.

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD(EMF) is a physical field of moving electric charges in which interaction occurs between them. Particular manifestations of EMF are electric and magnetic fields. Since changing electric and magnetic fields generate magnetic and electric fields, respectively, at neighboring points in space, these two interconnected fields propagate in the form of a single EMF. EMFs are characterized by oscillation frequency f (or period T = 1 / f), amplitude E ((or H) and phase φ, which determines the state of the oscillatory process at each moment in time. The oscillation frequency is expressed in hertz (Hz), kilohertz ( 1 kHz = 10 3 Hz), megahertz ( 1 MHz = 10 6 Hz) and gigahertz ( 1 GHz = 10 9 Hz). The phase is expressed in degrees or relative units, multiples of i. Oscillations of the electric (E) and magnetic (H) fields, which make up a single EMF, propagate in the form of electromagnetic waves, the main parameters of which are wavelength (λ), frequency (f) and propagation speed v. Wave formation occurs in the wave zone at a distance greater than H from the source. In this wave, E and H change in phase. At shorter distances - in the induction zone - E and H change out of phase and quickly decrease with distance from the source. In the induction zone, energy alternates between electric and magnetic fields. Here, E and H are assessed separately. In the wave zone, radiation is assessed in terms of power flux density - watts per square centimeter. In the electromagnetic spectrum, EMFs occupy the radio frequency range (frequency from 3*10 4 Hz to 3*10 12 Hz) and are divided into several types (Table 12).

In technology, industry, and medicine, EMFs of the high-frequency, ultra-high-frequency, and ultra-high-frequency ranges are most widely used. In space flight conditions, radio and television equipment becomes a source of EMF of various characteristics.

At the core biological action EMF on a living organism is the absorption of energy by tissues. Its value is determined by the properties of the irradiated tissue or its electrical parameters - dielectric constant (e) and conductivity (σ). Due to the high water content in them, body tissues should be considered as dielectrics with losses. The depth of penetration of EMF into tissues is greater, the lower the absorption. During total body irradiation, energy penetrates to a depth of 0.1-0.001 wavelengths. Depending on the intensity of exposure and exposure, wavelength and the initial functional state of the body, EMFs cause changes in the irradiated tissues with or without an increase in their temperature.

When exposed to microwave EMFs (microwaves)1 on experimental animals, two groups of effects were identified - thermal, accompanied by an increase in body temperature, and non-thermal - without a general temperature reaction of the body. Thermal effects are observed with sufficiently intense impacts (conditionally higher 10 mW/cm2). According to most American researchers, the thermal effect is the only mechanism of biological action of microwaves. Soviet researchers recognize the existence of a specific non-thermal effect. These effects are observed at flux densities less than 10 mW/cm2.

With very intense exposure to microwaves with an increase in body temperature by 4-5°C, laboratory animals develop characteristic reaction: sharp increase in breathing and heart rate, heart rhythm disturbances, increased blood pressure, generalized convulsions. When a critical level of body temperature is reached, the animal dies. With non-lethal thermal effects, changes in various body systems are observed. Characteristic changes in neurological and autonomic status develop in a certain sequence. Various changes in the bioelectrical activity of the brain are noted, not always clearly related to the nature and intensity of the impact. Against this background, the brain’s reactions to light, sound and vestibular stimulation change; A sharp depression of conditioned reflex activity is detected. It is very significant that violations of the highest nervous activity may occur in offspring due to irradiation of males or pregnant females. Changes in blood circulation and respiration are observed, aimed at increasing heat transfer - a sharp increase in breathing, heart rate, dilation of skin vessels and blood vessels internal organs. With less intense and longer exposures, blood pressure after a short-term increase decreases, the heart rate slows down, extrasystole and changes in the ECG occur. There is evidence of disturbances in neurohumoral regulation vegetative functions. When the abdominal area is irradiated, ulcers of the stomach, small and large intestines occur. In dogs, suppression of secretory function is noted. stomach and urination. The reaction to microwave exposure involves the endocrine glands - the cortex and medulla adrenal glands, thyroid gland, gonads, pituitary gland, as evidenced by changes in the content of hormones in biological media, some functional tests; morphological data. Changes in the gonads lead to dysfunction of reproduction.

The morphological composition of peripheral blood and bone marrow changes. The content of red blood cells decreases, leukopenia or neutrophilic leukocytosis, lymphocytopenia, and eosinopenia are noted. The effects of chronic microwave exposure are controversial. After prolonged exposure to microwaves, cases of leukemia increased.

The process of blood coagulation underwent multidirectional changes.

Certain changes are noted in metabolism. The intensity of oxidative processes and the associated energy metabolism decreases. Changes in carbohydrate metabolism are expressed in an increase in blood sugar levels, a shift in the sugar curve to the right, and a decrease in the level of phosphorus and lactic acid in the blood. Protein metabolism is disrupted - the content of alpha, beta and gamma globulins in the blood serum increases, as well as the exchange of nucleic acids, electrolytes, and vitamins.

There are indications of disturbances in tissue permeability, in particular the blood-brain barrier, which are associated with changes in brain function under microwave exposure. With intense, predominantly local irradiation of the eyes, the formation of cataracts is possible.

Exposure to microwaves of non-thermal intensity causes reactions in the same body systems as thermal effects. However, these reactions, as a rule, remain within the limits of physiological fluctuations and are detected mainly during chronic exposure.

Information about the effect of microwaves on the human body was obtained mainly from examining groups of people working under conditions of exposure to EMFs. It has been established that the nervous and cardiovascular systems are most sensitive to the effects. Changes in the endocrine system, metabolic processes, kidney function, gastrointestinal tract, blood system, and organ of vision are detected. A number of researchers have proposed classifications of ultra-high-frequency lesions according to the main clinical syndrome and the duration of contact with radiation sources. It is proposed to distinguish “radio wave disease” as an independent nosological unit. However, the changes observed when the human body is exposed to low-intensity microwaves are not specific; they are adaptive and fall within the framework of physiological fluctuations. In addition, the connection of some symptoms with exposure to EMF is inconclusive, since in a work environment a person is exposed to a complex of factors simultaneously.

Currently, regulations have been introduced to regulate levels of microwave exposure. Different fundamental approaches to the mechanism of action of microwave radiation determine differences in the maximum permissible levels of exposure adopted in various countries. In the USSR in 10 µW/cm2, in the USA it is accepted as a basic standard value 10 mW/cm2.

The effect of low-frequency EMFs on the body has been studied much less. It is known that exposure to EMF frequency 1-350 Hz affects the nervous system. In the experiment, mild and unstable disturbances of motor-food conditioned reflexes were observed, mainly in the form of disinhibition of differentiations, inhibition of the instrumental skill developed in animals and the conditioned reflex reaction of active avoidance in mice in the T-shaped maze.

Depending on the conditions of exposure, changes in bioelectrical processes in the brain are characterized by desynchronization of biocurrents of the cortex cerebral hemispheres, the appearance of slow high-amplitude oscillations, or an increase in the number of slow waves and spindles or an increase in the frequency and amplitude of biopotentials, sometimes the appearance of epileptiform discharges. Exposure to pulsed EMF causes drowsiness or sleep in cats and the appearance of spindles or synchronized slow activity on the ECoG. When exposed to low-frequency EMFs, a reaction of the cardiovascular system and breathing is observed - a decrease in breathing, a decrease in blood pressure, a decrease in heart rate, as well as a deviation of the electrical axis of the heart to the left, an increase in the systolic indicator, a widening of the ventricular complex and the Q-T interval, a decrease in the voltage of the P and R waves on the ECG.

An increase in direct and reflex parasympathetic influences on the heart and changes in the function of the endocrine glands are observed. Hematological changes are expressed in an increase in the number of red blood cells in the blood and the content of hemoglobin in them, a moderate increase in the number of reticulocytes, and predominantly neutrophilic leukocytosis. With chronic exposure, changes are observed in the blood coagulation system - suppression of thromboplastic and increased anticoagulation activity of the blood, increase in fibrinogen content in the blood. The metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and nitrogen changes. Depending on the frequency of EMF, the blood sugar level increases or decreases, and the glycolytic transformation of carbohydrates in some organs changes. The total content of serum protein, albumin and globulin decreases (without changes in the albumin-globulin ratio). With local influences, vascular-tissue permeability increases.

ELECTROSTIMULATION(ES) - irritation by electric current of body tissues for diagnostic, therapeutic and training purposes. By imitating the physiological effects of nerve impulses, ES has not only a control effect, but also a trophic effect.

The irritating signal is characterized by its type (sinusoidal, pulse), shape, pulse duration and frequency.

ES has a powerful effect on the nervous system, both local and widespread; ES is analgesic and causes local hyperemia, indicating a local improvement in blood circulation. ES affects arterial and venous blood flow.

ES is successfully used to strengthen the muscular system, in case of poor posture, flat feet, prosthetics, primary and secondary muscle atrophy, to create an “artificial muscle pump” in patients in the postoperative period, as a means of combating thrombus formation, to normalize cardiac function -vascular system, motor-secretory activity of the gastrointestinal tract, urogenital system, to increase sports performance, preventing disorders associated with hypokinesia, promotes nerve regeneration.

Equipment (“Tonus-2”, “Tonus-3”) and ES techniques for space flights have been developed; they were used alone or in combination with other prophylactic agents to maintain muscle tone, static and dynamic endurance, prevent skeletal muscle atrophy, general asthenia of the body, and weaken vestibulo-vegetative symptoms.

ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY(E) in space medicine - the study of bioelectrical activity of the brain (registration, data analysis and their functional interpretation) in relation to the tasks of assessing the state of the central nervous system cosmonauts in connection with professional activity. The picture of brain biocurrents recorded from the surface of the head - an electroencephalogram (EEG) - provides a number of direct characteristics of the activity of neural ensembles of the brain (mainly the cerebral cortex) in natural conditions.

This is constantly existing so-called spontaneous electrical activity and special electrical phenomena that arise phasically in the brain in response to an external stimulus or during an action (evoked potentials or, more precisely, “event-related potentials” - event - related potentials - ERP), as well as the dynamics of these indicators under changing external and internal conditions of brain activity. E plays an important role in the selection and examination of astronauts, monitoring and studying states of sleep and wakefulness during flight and ground tests, objective assessment of attitudes, interest, its direction (the state of motivational processes), identifying unforeseen pathological conditions of the brain and the whole organism.

There is no complete neurophysiological theory of E yet, but advances in the study of the brain over the past 25 years have significantly advanced the formation of such a theory and laid its foundation. The connection between EEG waves and cellular processes (oscillations) can be considered established membrane potential, impulse discharges): EEG waves are the result of the summation of relatively slow electrical processes in cortical neurons, caused by the arrival of impulse messages to these neurons and the emergence of postsynaptic potentials; The electric field resulting from the summation of the activity of many thousands and millions of neurons, which physically extends to the surface of the head and changes in which are recorded in the form of EEG, can have a reverse effect on neural processes, changing the degree of polarization of the dendritic membrane and thus controlling the excitability of neurons. EEG is the result of the summation of naturally occurring cellular processes, and, therefore, reflects the activity of a certain neural organization ( functional system), regulating the functioning of cortical neurons and associated primarily with the activity of the formations of the reticular formation of the brain stem and thalamus. The EEG reflects in detail the states of wakefulness and sleep (see) and their regulation, the activity of the motivational mechanisms of the brain, and some typological characteristics of these processes.

Brain biocurrents are recorded using electronic amplification equipment (AC amplifiers and, less commonly, DC amplifiers) and inertia-free or low-inertia recording devices (ink, cathode, loop oscilloscopes), arranged for simultaneous recording of several processes in the brain. special devices- electroencephalographs. The high gain (the amplitude of EEG oscillations is measured in microvolts) makes the recording system very sensitive to a variety of masking interference, primarily the electric field of ordinary mains current. In this regard, it is necessary to shield the object of study in a special chamber or the wires passing in the room, or equip the electroencephalograph with a special device to suppress network interference. Special requirements are also imposed on the quality of the output electrodes, their contact with the surface of the head, and the condition of the connecting conductors. In the conditions with which it deals space medicine When the duration of EEG recording increases sharply and signals have to be transmitted over long distances, these requirements become especially stringent. For space electronics, special electrodes were required to ensure long-term artifact-free registration, individual helmets - electrode holders, maximum proximity to the electrodes of preliminary amplifiers with telemetric transmission of amplified signals. All these technical problems have been practically solved.

Spontaneous electrical activity of the brain of a healthy person is represented by EEG rhythms that differ in frequency, topographic and functional characteristics. While awake (at rest with eyes closed or during activity in a standard environment) the alpha rhythm predominates 8-12 counts/s, maximally expressed in the parieto-occipital regions of the hemispheres (amplitude is usually 40-80 µV) and is suppressed when exposed to various stimuli, primarily visual (desynchronization reaction, activation), and when falling asleep. In the latter case, activation is manifested by the appearance of the alpha rhythm. A somewhat slowed arc-shaped alpha rhythm in the central parts of the hemispheres, especially suppressed by proprioceptive irritation, is sometimes called the Rolandic rhythm (mu rhythm). In some people, the alpha rhythm is poorly expressed and appears only during the period of falling asleep or is absent altogether (“flat” EEG). Beta rhythm 13-35 counts/s in a state of wakefulness, it is represented mainly in the central-frontal parts of the hemispheres by regular oscillations of small amplitude (up to 15 µV); Some people have a low-frequency beta rhythm 13-18 counts/s predominates and is similar to the alpha rhythm in topography, amplitude and response to stimuli. A pronounced beta rhythm is often observed in the superficial stages of sleep and constantly accompanies medium-depth sleep (“sleep spindles”). In the anterior central parts of the hemispheres in a state of wakefulness, fuzzy low-amplitude (less 30-40 µV) irregular slow waves 4-7 counts/s(theta rhythm) and 1-3 counts/s(delta rhythm). At certain stages of normal sleep and in certain forms of brain pathology, the amplitude of these waves increases sharply (synchronization); they can take on the character of regular rhythms and be observed in different parts of the hemispheres. One of the characteristic signs of brain pathology on the EEG is the so-called epileptoid manifestations (sharp waves, peak-wave and polypeak-wave complexes, paroxysmal, suddenly occurring, high-amplitude rhythms of different frequencies).

Typically, EEG rhythms are analyzed visually based on amplitude-frequency and topographic characteristics, as well as on the response to functional tests (presentation of single and rhythmic stimuli, performance of physical and mental tasks, pharmacological effects). Various mathematical methods of EEG analysis have been proposed, usually using automatic devices: frequency, correlation, phase analysis, determination of the statistical parameter of the asymmetry of the duration of phases of single EEG waves, the average frequency of extremes, amplitude distribution, etc. The information content of the EEG characteristics analyzed using these methods is different. However, they cannot replace visual assessment, but only complement it. It is possible that analysis of the EEG based on a combination of many signs and using computer technology will significantly increase the amount of information obtained from E.

Event-related potentials in the EEG are represented by intrinsically evoked potentials, the expectation wave (E-wave, contingent negative wave - cnv) and the so-called operant potential. Actually evoked potential is a polyphasic multicomponent oscillation that occurs when exposed to an external stimulus in the corresponding projection zone of the hemisphere, as well as in other parts of the brain, in particular, in the vertex region (vertex potential). The evoked potential has a complex origin, reflecting both the activation by an external stimulus of classical sensory systems, and subsequent processing of received information with the participation of so-called nonspecific brain formations ( reticular formation midbrain and diencephalon, some, mainly the median nuclei of the thalamus, limbic system, associative cortex). In the evoked potential, it is customary to distinguish the early one (with a latent period up to 50-100 ms) an exogenous component, consisting of a number of waves of different amplitudes and phases and reflecting the perception of the physical qualities of the stimulus, and an endogenous component, consisting of waves with a long latent period and associated with the processes of the subject’s assessment of the significance of the stimulus, its probabilistic structure, attention, expectation, decision-making An endogenous component can arise without an exogenous component under conditions of a regularly presented stimulus. Wave of anticipation- a negative shift in the persistent potential in the central region of the hemispheres, arising in response to a signal of preparation for action and disappearing at the moment the action begins. The amplitude of the expectation wave correlates with the interest (motivation) of the subject, his directed attention, and active anticipation of the signal that triggers the action. Operant potential- a set of relatively slow positive-negative oscillations recorded in the EEG of the motor zone of the corresponding hemisphere immediately before a voluntary movement (reflecting the processes of active launch of an action program - decision making), as well as at t time and after it (reaction to proprioceptive signaling about movement). Registration and analysis of evoked potentials due to their relatively small amplitude and the masking influence of spontaneous activity require summation on a computer relative to the moment of presentation of the stimulus or the execution of an action to isolate the signal from the noise.

Regular changes in spontaneous and evoked activity on the EEG in connection with the dynamics of the state of sleep and wakefulness made EEG, in combination with the registration of other physiological processes, an indispensable method for studying these conditions in space flight conditions, as well as in studying the influence of flight factors on sleep in ground conditions and the corresponding corrective procedures. It is very important to control the psychophysiological parameters that characterize the cosmonaut’s internal attitude to the situation or to individual circumstances under flight conditions. Analysis of evoked potentials, as well as some indicators of spontaneous EEG associated with attitudinal, motivational processes in the brain, allows such control. EEG allows you to identify unforeseen pathological states of the brain, primarily combined with disturbances of consciousness (hypoxic states, epileptic syndrome of various origins, etc.), inform the control center about what happened and turn on the emergency automatic control system (i.e. implement one of the types bioelectric control). Finally, the reflection on the EEG of the typological features of the brain makes it possible to use E when selecting astronauts, taking into account indicators of spontaneous and evoked electrical activity both during wakefulness (for example, it is not recommended to accept people with a “flat” EEG into aviation), and during sleep, as well as in different situations.

EMBRYOGENESIS(E) - the period of individual development from fertilization of the egg to the completion of the main processes of organogenesis.

Embryos of laboratory animals are used in various experiments; tests characterizing the reproductive ability of animals and the characteristics of E can be used to assess the influence of various extreme environmental factors on the body. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the critical periods of E - nodal points with a sharp increase in sensitivity to hypoxia, cooling, overheating, ionizing radiation, drugs, etc. The damaging effect is manifested by a slowdown or arrest of development, death of the embryo or the occurrence of various anomalies and deformities, sometimes detected after a considerable time after birth.

Weightlessness and hypergravity can be an interesting tool for studying a number of fundamental aspects of developmental biology, in particular, for resolving the question of whether gravity determines the development of organisms under terrestrial conditions. The mother-developing fetus system is a model for studying the effect of weightlessness on metabolism, primarily on calcium metabolism.

Embryological experiments with eggs of fish and tailless amphibians were carried out under conditions of weightlessness, when it was simulated on a clinostat and in hypergravity. The effect of exposure was greater in the early stages of development. There is a hypothesis that one of the main primary mechanisms of the effect of altered gravity on developmental processes is a disruption of the normal distribution of various fractions of substances in the egg.

Experiments with mammals are so far limited to studying the effects of hypergravity. In experiments on unadapted animals placed in a centrifuge (2 g) several hours after mating, pregnancy was terminated at the stages of development preceding implantation of the embryo into the uterine wall. In experiments with animals adapted to rotation in a centrifuge before fertilization, the development of the embryo under hypergravity conditions did not stop; there were developmental anomalies,

insignificant or absent.

EMOTIONS(from lat. emoveo- shocking, exciting). In psychology, a person’s experience of his relationship to the world around him and to himself, one of the forms of reflection of objective reality; in neurophysiology - an active state of systems of specialized brain structures, prompting the subject to change behavior in the direction of minimizing (weakening, preventing) or maximizing (strengthening, repeating) this state. The quality, degree and sign of emotion (E) are determined by need (P) and prediction of the likelihood (possibility) of its satisfaction based on innate and previously acquired experience.

A low probability of satisfying P makes E negative (fear, anger, grief), an increase in the probability of satisfying P compared to a previously existing forecast gives E a positive connotation (joy, inspiration, pleasure). Emotions that arise on the basis of a person’s higher social values are usually called feelings - intellectual, aesthetic, moral (sense of duty, love for the Motherland, etc.). Strong, rapidly arising E are called affects; long-lasting emotional states are called mood. Depending on the predominance of activating or depressing influences on the subject’s behavior in a given E, E is defined as sthenic or asthenic. Physiology of the late 19th - early 20th centuries associated E primarily with changes in the activity of internal organs, with the mobilization of the body's vegetative-energy resources. Since the 30s, scientists have become increasingly interested in the problem of the dependence of E on the activity of the subject, on the processes of reception, evaluation and processing by the brain of information necessary for organizing upcoming actions. I. P. Pavlov believed that E arise when the internal dynamic stereotype that has developed in the brain is compared with signals coming from the external environment. Similar ideas were later developed and experimentally substantiated in the works F. A. Hodge, D. O. Hebb, D. V. Lindsley, P. K. Anokhina, P. V. Simonova, P. Fressa, A. N. Leontyeva.

By irritating the brain with an electric current through previously implanted electrodes, first in animals, and then - with the development of neurosurgery - in humans, systems of brain structures responsible for the implementation of E were identified. These systems have their representations mainly in the neocortex, in the limbic formations ( hippocampus, amygdala) and in the hypothalamus.

Occurring with a low probability of satisfying P, negative E play the role of a mechanism that, to a certain extent, compensates for the lack of funds available to the subject. In addition to the mobilization of the body’s vegetative-energetic resources, they lead to a presumable response to a wide range of signals that may be significant (emotional dominants), change perception thresholds, activate memory, and encourage additional communication (emotional expression -

I facial expressions, voice, etc.). A different role is played by positive E, the emergence of which requires a combination of P with an increasing probability of its satisfaction. The desire to re-experience positive E“encourages living beings to actively disrupt the established “equilibrium with the environment”, to actively look for new, still unsatisfied Ps and new ways to satisfy them. If negative E primarily serve the self-preservation of living systems (individuals, offspring, groups), then positive E promote their self-development in the process of mastering new spheres of reality.

Positive and negative E of a person do not have independent social value. The latter is entirely determined by the social meaning of that P, that motive on the basis of which a given emotional state arises. Situations in which the satisfaction of important P for the subject is chronically difficult give rise to persistent emotionally negative tension - emotional stress, promoting the development of neuroses and psychosomatic diseases (coronary heart disease, hypertension, peptic ulcer stomach and duodenum).

Although a person’s emotional reactivity to a certain extent depends on his individual (typological) characteristics, proper upbringing is of decisive importance for the formation of the emotional sphere, especially in early childhood. childhood. A rich world of emotions, reflecting a variety of socially valuable motivations, characterizes a productive, harmoniously developed personality.

Space flight contains all the conditions conducive to the emergence of fairly strong positive and negative E. Firstly, this is due to the high degree of motivation of the astronaut. The diverse motives of responsibility for success, the thirst for knowledge, the desire to achieve set goals, and in some cases, concern for the safety of the crew and the successful completion of the flight serve as the basis for emotional stress. The E level can change dynamically in accordance with the transition of the maximum professional responsibility and leadership roles from one crew member to another.

Secondly, space flight inevitably contains elements of pragmatic uncertainty, novelty, the need for alternative solutions, i.e. components of that “information component” that determines the predictive probability of successful actions, the degree of risk and is therefore so important for the genesis of E (the first exit into space, landing on the moon). Reducing the degree of risk due to the receipt of additional pragmatic information leads to a decrease in the level of E. (repeated participation in the flight of the crew of the Soyuz-8 spacecraft) compared to similar situations (flights of the Soyuz-6, Soyuz-7 spacecraft).

The specific features of afferentation during space flight are determined by such factors as information starvation, physical inactivity, and weightlessness. The main source of emotional stress during sensory deprivation, associated mainly with the limitation of the number of significant signals, is loss of contact with reality, confusion of memory traces with present sensations, increased internal monologues, disorientation in space and time. The performance of tasks that require imagination and assessment of the situation deteriorates the most. The goals of overcoming sensory hunger are served by the astronaut’s active performance of the flight mission, the influx additional information, maintaining interest in flight, communication with colleagues, organization of creative leisure, etc.

Like sensory deprivation, physical inactivity becomes a significant factor during long-term space flights. Excessive restriction motor activity leads, in psychophysiological terms, to disturbances in mental activity and the breaking of dynamic stereotypes, thereby causing unwanted E. That is why much attention is paid to the issues of ensuring the minimum necessary living volumes and on-board physical training.

Weightlessness leads to complex disorders spatial analysis, the speed and clarity of motor reactions change more strongly than with moderate overloads. Initially, weightlessness causes a feeling of falling and fear, followed by a feeling of joy, or, along with the absence of acute fear and joy, the appearance of illusions of inverted flight, position on one side, etc., accompanied by symptoms of motion sickness (see Weightlessness).

E.'s influence on activity generally follows the rule Yerkes-Dodson. According to this rule, for each type of action there is an optimal level of emotional stress at which this activity proceeds most successfully. If a low level of activation worsens the quality of actions, perception and recognition of significant signals, and leads to distraction and drowsiness, then excessive activation disorganizes purposeful activity. Emotional stress, along with other flight factors, significantly affects the duration and internal structure sleep of astronauts, serves as a prerequisite for difficulty falling asleep.

The important dependence of the effectiveness of activity on the qualitative side of E has been little studied. We can only note that the greatest success is achieved by a person who experiences positive emotions caused by the very process of overcoming obstacles and associated with satisfying the need for creativity. The patterns of influence of an astronaut’s activities on his emotional state have not been sufficiently studied. The correct and justified choice of actions, which serves as a guarantee of optimal behavior in a difficult situation, is the main condition for eliminating unnecessary emotional stress.

Monitoring the emotional state and preventing emotional stress in cosmonauts serves the purposes of preventing the negative influences of energy and using the positive properties of the latter in the interests of successfully completing assigned tasks. For all their importance, professional selection and training cannot replace a dynamic assessment of the condition during the flight, which makes it possible to judge the current functional capabilities of crew members. To assess the emotional intensity of cosmonauts, the results of psychophysiological analysis of behavioral and professional reactions, data on the state of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems, and characteristics of the speech signal received through standard communication channels between the crew and the Earth are used.

Of the vegetative parameters, heart rate turned out to be the most informative and least susceptible to technical transmission interference. At the same time, this indicator requires contact sensors for registration and significantly depends on physical, gravitational, operator and other loads. The speech analysis method is free from these disadvantages. It has sufficient noise immunity, secretive registration, does not require contact sensors, which relieves the astronaut of physical and psychological discomfort, allows you to differentiate emotional and physical stress and determine the degree and sign of E.

Methods for preventing unwanted emotional stress are determined by its dependence on needs and the lack of pragmatic information, which serves as the basis for predicting the likelihood of achieving a goal. Rational training of astronauts requires, on the one hand, the cultivation of motives associated with the desire to win, with confidence in the successful completion of the task, with the desire to improve their professional skills, etc., and on the other, maximum saturation with pragmatic information through mastering a variety of skills necessary during the flight. Excessive information, preventing the emergence of negative emotions, contributes to its replacement with positive emotions: confidence, presence of mind, and the joy of overcoming difficulties encountered.

ENERGY COSTS(33) - the amount of energy in kilojoules spent by a person on different types activities.

The study of human energy per day during ground tests or during flight is of particular interest, since it allows us to determine the load on the life support systems (q.v.) of a space object, calculate the energy cost of an astronaut’s work cycle, and evaluate the food ration.

In ground tests in a mock-up of a space object, human EH is determined by the method of indirect calorimetry, generally accepted in occupational physiology, based on the analysis of exhaled air and subsequent calculation of the respiratory coefficient.

In space flight, direct study of the gas exchange of an astronaut is very difficult, which required the use of various calculation methods based on changes in heart rate, body temperature, breathing volume of astronauts, etc.

During the flight of the Soyuz-Salyut space complex, the EH of crew members was determined by a calculation method based on changes in pCO 2 in the habitable compartments of the ship.

As studies have shown, the cosmonauts’ EZ according to calculations amounted to 2600-3100 kJ/day, with average oxygen consumption 23-26 nl/h. EZ was higher when astronauts performed repair work, transferred apparatus and equipment, and during visiting expeditions. On such days, the cosmonauts’ EZ reached 3300-3500 kJ/day when consuming oxygen 28-32 nl/h, which indicated the high performance of the astronauts throughout all stages of the flight.