They are called nuclei. They act as connecting links between the structures of the nervous system, carry out the primary processing of impulses, and are responsible for the functions of the visceral organs.

The human body carries out two types of functions - and vegetative. Somatic involves the perception of external stimuli and response to them using skeletal muscles. These reactions can be controlled by the human consciousness, and the central nervous system is responsible for their implementation.

Vegetative functions - digestion, metabolism, hematopoiesis, blood circulation, breathing, sweating and others - are controlled by the body, which does not depend on human consciousness. In addition to regulating the work of visceral organs, the autonomic system provides trophism to the muscles and central nervous system.

The ganglia responsible for somatic functions represent the spinal nodes and cranial nerve nodes. Autonomic, depending on the location of the centers in the central nervous system, are divided into: parasympathetic and sympathetic.

The former are located in the walls of the organ, and the sympathetic ones are located remotely in a structure called the border trunk.

Structure of the ganglion

Depending on the morphological features, the size of the ganglia ranges from several micrometers to several centimeters. Essentially, it is a collection of nerve and glial cells covered with a connective membrane.

The connective tissue element is penetrated by lymphatic and blood vessels. Each neurocyte (or group of neurocytes) is surrounded by a capsular membrane, lined internally with endothelium and externally with connective tissue fibers. Inside the capsule there is a nerve cell and glial structures that ensure the functioning of the neuron.

A single axon, covered with a myelin sheath, departs from the neuron, which branches into two parts. One of them is part of the peripheral nerve and forms a receptor, and the second is sent to the central nervous system.

Autonomic centers are located in the brainstem and spinal cord. Parasympathetic centers are localized in the cranial and sacral regions, and sympathetic centers in the thoracolumbar region.

Ganglia of the autonomic nervous system

The sympathetic system includes two types of nodes: vertebral and prevertebral.

Vertebral are located on both sides of the spinal column, forming border trunks. They are connected to the spinal cord by nerve fibers that give rise to white and gray connecting branches. The nerve fibers emerging from the node are directed to the visceral organs.

Prevertebral located at a greater distance from the spine, while they are also located at a distance from the organs for which they are responsible. Examples of prevertebral nodes are the cervical, mesenteric clusters of neurons, and the solar plexus.

Parasympathetic the department is formed by ganglia located on organs or in close proximity to them.

Intraorgan nerve plexuses located on the organ or in its wall. Large intraorgan plexuses are located in the heart muscle, in the muscular layer of the intestinal wall, and in the parenchyma of glandular organs.

Ganglia of the autonomic and central nervous systems have the following properties:

• conducting the signal in one direction;
• the fibers entering the node overlap each other’s zones of influence;
• spatial summation (the sum of impulses can generate a potential in a neurocyte);
• occlusion (stimulating the nerves causes a smaller response than stimulating each nerve separately).

The synaptic delay in the autonomic ganglia is greater than in similar structures of the central nervous system, and the postsynaptic potential is long. A wave of excitation in ganglion neurocytes is replaced by depression. These factors lead to a relatively low impulse rhythm, compared to the central nervous system.

What functions do ganglia perform?

The main purpose of the autonomic nodes is the distribution and transmission of nerve impulses, as well as the generation of local reflexes. Each ganglion, depending on its location and trophic characteristics, is responsible for the functions of a specific area of ​​the body.

Ganglia are characterized by autonomy from the central nervous system, which allows them to regulate the activity of organs without the participation of the brain and spinal cord.

The structure of the intramural nodes contains pacemaker cells that can set the frequency of contractions of the smooth muscles of the intestine.

The peculiarity is associated with the interruption of CNS fibers directed to the internal organs at the peripheral nodes of the autonomic system, where they form synapses. In this case, the axons emerging from the ganglion directly influence the internal organ.

Each nerve fiber entering the sympathetic ganglion innervates up to thirty postganglionic neurocytes. This makes it possible to multiply the signal and spread the excitation impulse leaving the nerve ganglion.

In the parasympathetic nodes, one fiber innervates no more than four neurocytes, and impulse transmission occurs locally.

Ganglia – reflex centers

The ganglia of the nervous system take part in the reflex arc, which makes it possible to correct the activity of organs and tissues without the participation of the brain. At the end of the nineteenth century, the Russian histologist Dogel, as a result of experiments studying nerve plexuses in the gastrointestinal tract, identified three types of neurons - motor, intercalary and receptor, as well as synapses between them.

The presence of receptor nerve cells also confirms the possibility of transplanting heart muscle from a donor to a recipient. If the regulation of heart rate was carried out through the central nervous system, after heart transplantation the nerve cells would undergo degeneration. Neurons and synapses in the transplanted organ continue to function, which indicates their autonomy.

At the end of the twentieth century, the mechanisms of peripheral reflexes that make prevertebral and intramural vegetative nodes were experimentally established. The ability to create a reflex arc is characteristic of some nodes.

Local reflexes allow you to relieve the central nervous system, make the regulation of important functions more reliable, and are able to continue the autonomous functioning of internal organs in the event of interruption of communication with the central nervous system.

Autonomic nodes receive and process information about the functioning of organs, and then send it to the brain. This triggers a reflex arc in both the autonomic and somatic systems, which triggers not only reflexes, but also conscious behavioral responses.

GANGLIA (ganglia nerve ganglia) - clusters of nerve cells surrounded by connective tissue and glial cells, located along the course of peripheral nerves.

G. is distinguished between the autonomic and somatic nervous systems. The cells of the autonomic nervous system are divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic and contain the bodies of postganglionic neurons. The glands of the somatic nervous system are represented by the spinal ganglia and the glands of the sensory and mixed cranial nerves, which contain the bodies of sensory neurons and give rise to the sensitive portions of the spinal and cranial nerves.

Embryology

The rudiment of the spinal and vegetative nodes is the ganglion plate. It is formed in the embryo in those parts of the neural tube that border the ectoderm. In the human embryo, on the 14-16th day of development, the ganglion plate is located along the dorsal surface of the closed neural tube. Then it splits along its entire length, both halves move ventrally and, in the form of neural folds, lie between the neural tube and the superficial ectoderm. Subsequently, according to the segments of the dorsal side of the embryo, foci of proliferation of cellular elements appear in the neural folds; these areas thicken, become isolated and turn into spinal nodes. Sensitive ganglia of the U, VII-X pairs of cranial nerves, similar to the spinal ganglia, also develop from the ganglion plate. The germinal nerve cells, neuroblasts that form the spinal ganglia, are bipolar cells, that is, they have two processes extending from opposite poles of the cell. The bipolar form of sensory neurons in adult mammals and humans is preserved only in the sensory cells of the vestibulocochlear nerve, vestibular and spiral ganglia. In the rest, both spinal and cranial sensory nodes, the processes of bipolar nerve cells in the process of their growth and development come closer and merge in most cases into one common process (processus communis). On this basis, sensitive neurocytes (neurons) are called pseudounipolar (neurocytus pseudounipolaris), less often protoneurons, emphasizing the antiquity of their origin. Spinal nodes and nodes c. n. With. differ in the nature of the development and structure of neurons. Development and morphology of the autonomic ganglia - see Autonomic nervous system.

Anatomy

Basic information about G.'s anatomy is given in the table.

Histology

The spinal ganglia are covered on the outside with a connective tissue membrane, which passes into the membrane of the dorsal roots. The stroma of the nodes is formed by connective tissue with blood and lymph vessels. Each nerve cell (neurocytus ganglii spinalis) is separated from the surrounding connective tissue by a capsule shell; Much less often, one capsule contains a colony of nerve cells tightly adjacent to each other. The outer layer of the capsule is formed by fibrous connective tissue containing reticulin and precollagen fibers. The inner surface of the capsule is lined with flat endothelial cells. Between the capsule and the body of the nerve cell there are small stellate or spindle-shaped cellular elements called gliocytes (gliocytus ganglii spinalis) or satellites, trabants, mantle cells. They are elements of neuroglia, similar to lemmocytes (Schwann cells) of peripheral nerves or oligodendrogliocytes c. n. With. A common process extends from the mature cell body, starting with an axon tubercle (colliculus axonis); then it forms several curls (glomerulus processus subcapsularis), located near the cell body under the capsule and called the initial glomerulus. In different neurons (large, medium and small), the glomerulus has different structural complexity, expressed in an unequal number of curls. Upon exiting the capsule, the axon is covered with a pulpy membrane and, at a certain distance from the cell body, divides into two branches, forming a T- or Y-shaped figure at the site of division. One of these branches leaves the peripheral nerve and is a sensory fiber that forms a receptor in the corresponding organ, while the other enters through the dorsal root into the spinal cord. The body of the sensory neuron - the pyrenophore (part of the cytoplasm containing the nucleus) - has a spherical, oval or pear-shaped shape. There are large neurons ranging in size from 52 to 110 nm, medium ones - from 32 to 50 nm, small ones - from 12 to 30 nm. Medium-sized neurons make up 40-45% of all cells, small ones - 35-40%, and large ones - 15-20%. Neurons in the ganglia of different spinal nerves vary in size. Thus, in the cervical and lumbar nodes the neurons are larger than in others. There is an opinion that the size of the cell body depends on the length of the peripheral process and the area of ​​the area innervated by it; There is also a certain correspondence between the size of the body surface of animals and the size of sensory neurons. For example, among fish, the largest neurons were found in the sunfish (Mola mola), which has a large body surface. In addition, atypical neurons are found in the spinal ganglia of humans and mammals. These include “fenestrate” cells of Cajal, characterized by the presence of loop-like structures on the periphery of the cell body and axon (Fig. 1), in the loops of which there is always a significant number of satellites; “hairy” cells [S. Ramon y Cajal, de Castro (F. de Castro), etc.], equipped with additional short processes extending from the cell body and ending under the capsule; cells with long processes equipped with flask-shaped thickenings. The listed forms of neurons and their numerous varieties are not typical for healthy young people.

Age and previous diseases affect the structure of the spinal ganglia - a significantly larger number of different atypical neurons appear in them than in healthy ones, especially with additional processes equipped with flask-shaped thickenings, as, for example, in rheumatic heart disease (Fig. 2), angina pectoris, etc. Clinical observations, as well as experimental studies on animals, have shown that sensory neurons of the spinal nodes respond much faster with intensive growth of additional processes to various endogenous and exogenous harms than motor somatic or autonomic neurons. This ability of sensory neurons is sometimes significantly expressed. In cases of hron, irritation, the newly formed processes can wrap around (in the form of a winding) around the body of its own or neighboring neuron, resembling a cocoon. Sensory neurons of the spinal ganglia, like other types of nerve cells, have a nucleus, various organelles and inclusions in the cytoplasm (see Nerve cell). Thus, a distinctive property of sensory neurons of the spinal and cranial nerve nodes is their bright morphology, reactivity, expressed in the variability of their structural components. This is ensured by a high level of synthesis of proteins and various active substances and indicates their functional mobility.

Physiology

In physiology, the term “ganglia” is used to designate several types of functionally different nerve formations.

In invertebrates, g. play the same role as c. n. With. in vertebrates, being the highest centers for coordination of somatic and autonomic functions. In the evolutionary series from worms to cephalopods and arthropods, glands that process all information about the state of the environment and internal environment reach a high degree of organization. This circumstance, as well as the simplicity of anatomical preparation, the relatively large size of nerve cell bodies, and the possibility of introducing several microelectrodes simultaneously into the soma of neurons under direct visual control have made G. invertebrates a common object of neurophysiological experiments. On neurons of roundworms, octapods, decapods, gastropods and cephalopods, studies of the mechanisms of potential generation and the process of synaptic transmission of excitation and inhibition are carried out using electrophoresis, direct measurement of ion activity and voltage clamping, which is often impossible to do on most mammalian neurons. Despite the evolutionary differences, the basic electrophysiol, constants and neurophysiol, the mechanisms of neuronal operation are largely the same in invertebrates and higher vertebrates. Therefore, studies of G. and invertebrates have general physiology. meaning.

In vertebrates, somatosensory cranial and spinal glands are functionally the same type. They contain the bodies and proximal parts of the processes of afferent neurons that transmit impulses from peripheral receptors to the central nervous system. n. With. In somatosensory neurons there are no synaptic switches, efferent neurons or fibers. Thus, the neurons of the spinal cord in the toad are characterized by the following basic electrophysiological parameters: specific resistance - 2.25 kOhm/cm 2 for depolarizing and 4.03 kOhm/cm 2 for hyperpolarizing current and specific capacitance 1.07 μF/cm 2 . The total input resistance of somatosensory neurons is significantly lower than the corresponding parameter of the axons; therefore, with high-frequency afferent impulses (up to 100 impulses per second), the conduction of excitation can be blocked at the level of the cell body. In this case, action potentials, although not recorded from the cell body, continue to be conducted from the peripheral nerve to the dorsal root and persist even after extirpation of the nerve cell bodies, provided that the T-shaped axonal branches are intact. Consequently, excitation of the soma of somatosensory neurons is not necessary for the transmission of impulses from peripheral receptors to the spinal cord. This feature first appears in the evolutionary series in tailless amphibians.

In functional terms, the vegetative glands of vertebrates are usually divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic. In all autonomic neurons, synaptic switching occurs from preganglionic fibers to postganglionic neurons. In the vast majority of cases, synaptic transmission is carried out chemically. by using acetylcholine (see Mediators). In the parasympathetic ciliary gland of birds, electrical transmission of impulses has been discovered using the so-called. connection potentials, or communication potentials. Electrical transmission of excitation through the same synapse is possible in two directions; in the process of ontogenesis, it is formed later than the chemical one. The functional significance of the electrical transmission is not yet clear. In sympathetic G. amphibians, a small number of synapses with chemicals have been identified. transmission of noncholinergic nature. In response to a strong single stimulation of the preganglionic fibers of the sympathetic nerve, an early negative wave (O-wave) primarily appears in the postganglionic nerve, caused by excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) upon activation of n-cholinergic receptors of postganglionic neurons. The inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP), which arises in postganglionic neurons under the influence of catecholamines secreted by chromaffin cells in response to the activation of their m-cholinergic receptors, forms a positive wave (P-wave) following the 0-wave. The late negative wave (LP wave) reflects the EPSP of postganglionic neurons upon activation of their m-cholinergic receptors. The process is completed by a long late negative wave (LNE wave), which arises as a result of the summation of EPSPs of a noncholinergic nature in postganglionic neurons. Under normal conditions, at the height of the O-wave, when the EPSP reaches a value of 8-25 mV, a propagating excitation potential appears with an amplitude of 55-96 mV, a duration of 1.5-3.0 ms, accompanied by a wave of trace hyperpolarization. The latter significantly masks waves P and PO. At the height of trace hyperpolarization, excitability decreases (refractory period), so usually the frequency of discharges of postganglionic neurons does not exceed 20-30 impulses per 1 second. According to basic electrophysiol. the characteristics of vegetative neurons are identical to most neurons of c. n. With. Neurophysiol. A feature of autonomic neurons is the absence of true spontaneous activity during deafferentation. Among the pre- and postganglionic neurons, neurons of groups B and C predominate according to the Gasser-Erlanger classification, based on electrophysiological characteristics of nerve fibers (see. ). Preganglionic fibers branch extensively, so stimulation of one preganglionic branch leads to the appearance of EPSPs in many neurons of several neurons (multiplication phenomenon). In turn, each postganglionic neuron ends with the terminals of many preganglionic neurons, differing in the threshold of stimulation and conduction speed (convergence phenomenon). Conventionally, a measure of convergence can be considered the ratio of the number of postganglionic neurons to the number of preganglionic nerve fibers. In all vegetative G. it is greater than one (with the exception of the ciliary ganglion of birds). In the evolutionary series, this ratio increases, reaching a value of 100:1 in human sympathetic genes. Animation and convergence, which provide spatial summation of nerve impulses, in combination with temporal summation, are the basis of the integrating function of G. in the processing of centrifugal and peripheral impulses. Afferent pathways pass through all vegetative G., the bodies of neurons of which lie in the spinal G. For the inferior mesenteric G., the celiac plexus, and some intramural parasympathetic G., the existence of true peripheral reflexes has been proven. Afferent fibers that conduct excitation at a low speed (approx. 0.3 m/sec) enter the nerve as part of the postganglionic nerves and end on postganglionic neurons. In vegetative G. the endings of afferent fibers are found. The latter inform the c. n. With. about what is happening in G. functional-chemical. changes.

Pathology

In wedges, practice, ganglionitis (see), also called sympatho-ganglionitis, is the most common disease associated with damage to the ganglia of the sympathetic trunk. The defeat of several nodes is defined as polyganglionitis, or truncite (see).

The spinal ganglia are often involved in the pathological process in radiculitis (see).

Brief anatomical characteristics of the nerve ganglia (nodes)

Name	Topography	Anatomical affiliation	Direction of FIBERS leaving nodes
Gangl, aorticorenale (PNA), s. renaleorticum aortic-renal node	Lies at the origin of the renal artery from the abdominal aorta	Sympathetic ganglion of the renal plexus	To the renal plexus
Gangl. Arnoldi Arnold knot	See Gangl, cardiacum medium, Gangl, oticum, Gangl, splanchnicum
Gangl, basale basal ganglion	Old name for the basal ganglia of the brain
Gangl, cardiacum craniale cranial cardiac node	See Gangl, cardiacum superius
Gangl, cardiacum, s. Wrisbergi cardiac node (Wrisberg node)	Lies on the convex edge of the aortic arch. Unpaired	Sympathetic ganglion of the superficial extracardiac plexus
Gangl, cardiacum medium, s. Arnoldi middle cardiac node (Arnold's node)	Variably found in the middle cardiac cervical nerve	Sympathetic ganglion of the middle cardiac cervical nerve	Into the cardiac plexuses
Gangl, cardiacum superius, s. craniale superior cardiac node	Located in the thickness of the superior cardiac cervical nerve	Sympathetic ganglion of the superior cardiac cervical nerve	Into the cardiac plexuses
Gangl, caroticum carotid ganglion	Lies in the area of ​​the second flexure of the internal carotid artery	Sympathetic ganglion of the internal carotid plexus	Part of the sympathetic internal carotid plexus
Gangl, celiacum (PNA), s. coeliacum (BNA, JNA) celiac ganglion	Lies on the anterior surface of the abdominal aorta at the origin of the celiac trunk	Sympathetic ganglion of the celiac plexus	To the organs and vessels of the abdominal cavity as part of the periarterial plexuses
Gangl, cervicale caudale (JNA) caudal cervical ganglion	See Gangl, cervicale inferius
Gangl, cervicale craniale (JNA) cranial cervical ganglion	See Gangl, cervicale superius
Gangl, cervicale inferius (BNA), s. caudale (JNA) lower cervical node	Lies at the level of the transverse process of the VI cervical vertebra	Often merges with the first thoracic node	To the vessels and organs of the head, neck, chest cavity and as part of the gray connecting branches in the brachial plexus
Gangl, cervicale medium (PNA, BNA, JNA) middle cervical ganglion	Lies at the level of the transverse processes of the IV-V cervical vertebrae	Cervical sympathetic trunk node	To the vessels and organs of the neck, chest cavity and as part of the nerves of the brachial plexus to the upper limb
Gangl, cervicale superius (PNA, BNA), craniale (JNA) superior cervical ganglion	Lies at the level of the transverse processes of the II-III cervical vertebrae	Cervical sympathetic trunk node	To the vessels and organs of the head, neck and chest cavity
Gangl, cervicale uteri cervical node	Lies in the pelvic floor area	Sympathetic node of the uterovaginal plexus	To the uterus and vagina
Gangl, cervicothoracicum (s. stellatum) (PNA) cervicothoracic (stellate) node	Lies at the level of the transverse processes of the lower cervical vertebrae	Sympathetic trunk node. Formed by the fusion of the lower cervical and first thoracic nodes	To the vessels in the cranial cavity, to the vessels and organs of the neck, chest cavity and as part of the nerves of the brachial plexus to the upper limb
Gangl, ciliare (PNA, BNA, JNA) ciliary node	Lies in the orbit on the lateral surface of the optic nerve	Parasympathetic node. Receives fibers from nuci, accessorius (Yakubovich's nucleus), passing as part of the oculomotor nerve	To the smooth muscles of the eye (ciliary and constrictor pupillary muscles)
Gangl, coccygeum coccygeal ganglion	See gangl, impar
Gangl. Corti's node of Corti	See Gangl, spirale cochleae
Gangl, extracraniale (JNA) extracranial ganglion	See Gangl, inferius
Gangl. Gasseri gasser knot	See Gangl, trigeminale
Gangl, geniculi (PNA, BNA, JNA) knee joint	Lies in the area of ​​the bend of the facial nerve canal of the temporal bone	Sensory ganglion of the intermediate nerve. Gives rise to sensory fibers of the intermediate and facial nerves	To the taste buds of the tongue
Gangl, habenulae leash knot	Old name for leash cores
Gangl, impar, s. coccygeum unpaired (coccygeal) node	Lies on the front surface of the coccyx	Unpaired ganglion of the right and left sympathetic trunks	To the autonomic plexuses of the pelvis
Gangl, inferius (PNA), nodosum (BNA, JNA), s. plexiforme inferior (nodular) ganglion	Lies on the vagus nerve inferior to the jugular foramen		To the organs of the neck, chest and abdomen
Gangl, inferius (PNA), petrosum (BNA), s. extracraniale (JNA) inferior (petrosal) node	Lies in a stony dimple on the lower surface of the pyramid of the temporal bone		To the tympanic nerve for the mucous membrane of the tympanic cavity and auditory tube
Ganglia intermedia intermediate nodes	They lie on the internodal branches of the sympathetic trunk in the cervical and lumbar regions; are less common in the thoracic and sacral regions	Sympathetic trunk nodes	To the vessels and organs of the relevant areas
Gangl, interpedunculare interpeduncular node	Old name for the interpeduncular nucleus of the brain
Ganglia intervertebralia intervertebral nodes	See Ganglia spinalia
Gangl, intracranial (JNA) intracranial node	See Gangl, superius
Ganglia lumtalia (PNA, BNA, JNA) 5 lumbar knots	Lie on the anterolateral surface of the lumbar vertebral bodies	Nodes of the lumbar sympathetic trunk	To the organs and vessels of the abdominal cavity and pelvis, as well as as part of the nerves of the lumbar plexus to the lower extremities
Gangl, mesentericum caudale (JNA) caudal mesenteric ganglion	See Gangl, mesentericum inferius i |
Gangl.mesentericum craniale (JNA) cranial mesenteric ganglion	See Gangl, mesentericum superius
Gangl. mesentericum inferius (PNA, BNA), s. caudale (JNA) inferior mesenteric ganglion	Lies at the origin of the inferior mesenteric artery from the abdominal aorta	Autonomic nervous system	To the descending colon, sigmoid colon and rectum, vessels and pelvic organs
Gangl, mesentericum superius (PNA, BNA), s. craniale (JNA) superior mesenteric ganglion	Lies at the origin of the superior mesenteric artery from the abdominal aorta	Part of the celiac plexus	To the organs and vessels of the abdominal cavity as part of the superior mesenteric plexus
Gangl, n. laryngei cranialis (JNA) ganglion of the cranial laryngeal nerve	Occurs inconsistently in the thickness of the superior laryngeal nerve	Sensory ganglion of the superior laryngeal nerve
Gangl, nodosum nodular ganglion
Gangl, oticum (PNA, BNA, JNA), s. Arnoldi ear node (Arnold's node)	Lies below the foramen ovale on the medial side of the mandibular nerve	Parasympathetic node. Receives preganglionic fibers from the lesser petrosal nerve	To the parotid salivary gland
Ganglia pelvina (PNA) pelvic nodes	Lie in the pelvis	Sympathetic nodes of the inferior hypogastric (pelvic) plexus	To the pelvic organs
Gangl, petrosum stony ganglion	See Gangl, inferius (glossopharyngeal nerve)
Ganglia phrenica (PNA, BNA, JNA) diaphragmatic nodes	Lie on the lower surface of the diaphragm near the inferior phrenic artery	Sympathetic nodes	To the diaphragm and its vessels
Gangl, plexiforme plexus-like node	See Gangl, inferius (vagus nerve)
Gangl, pterygopalatinum (PNA, JNA), s. sphenopalatinum (BNA) pterygopalatine ganglion	Lies in the pterygopalatine fossa of the skull	Parasympathetic ganglion, receives preganglionic fibers from the greater petrosal nerve	To the lacrimal gland, glands of the mucous membrane of the nasal cavity and mouth
Gangl, renaleorticum renal-aortic node	See Gangl, aorticorenale
Ganglia renalia (PNA) renal nodes	Lie along the renal artery	Part of the renal plexus
Ganglia sacralia (PNA, BNA, JNA) 5-6 sacral nodes	Lie on the anterior surface of the sacrum	Nodes of the sacral sympathetic trunk	To the vessels and organs of the pelvis and as part of the nerves of the sacral plexus to the lower extremities
Gangl. Scarpae Scarpa's knot	See Gangl. vestibulare, gangl, temporale
Gangl, semilunare semilunar ganglion	See Gangl, trigeminale
Gangl, solare solar node	Lies at the beginning of the celiac trunk on the anterior surface of the abdominal aorta	Merged right and left celiac nodes (option)	To the abdominal organs
Ganglia spinalia (PNA, BNA, JNA), s. intervertebralia 31-32 pairs of spinal nodes	Lie in the corresponding intervertebral foramina	Sensory ganglia of the spinal nerves	In spinal nerves and dorsal roots
Gangl, spirale cochleae (PNA, BNA), s. Corti spiral ganglion of the cochlea (Corti)	Lies in the labyrinth of the inner ear at the base of the spiral plate of the cochlea	Sensory ganglion of the cochlear part of the vestibulocochlear nerve	In the cochlear part (auditory) of the vestibulocochlear nerve
Gangl, sphenopalatinum sphenopalatine ganglion	See Gangl, pterygopalatinum
Gangl, splanchnicum, s. Arnoldi splanchnic node (Arnold's node)	Lies on the greater splanchnic nerve near its entrance to the diaphragm	Sympathetic ganglion of the greater splanchnic nerve	To the celiac plexus
Gangl, stellatum stellate ganglion	See Gangl, cervicothoracicum
Gangl, sublinguale (JNA) sublingual node	Lies next to the sublingual salivary gland		To the sublingual salivary gland
Gangl, submandibulare (PNA, JNA), s. submaxillare (BNA) submandibular node	Lies next to the submandibular salivary gland	Parasympathetic node. Receives preganglionic fibers from the lingual nerve (from the chorda tympani)	To the submandibular salivary gland
Gangl, superius (PNA, BNA), s. intracraniale (JNA) superior node (intracranial)	Lies inside the skull, at the jugular foramen	Sensory ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve	To the glossopharyngeal nerve
Gangl, superius (PNA), s. jugula, re (BNA, JNA) superior node (jugular)	Lies inside the skull at the jugular foramen	Sensory ganglion of the vagus nerve	The vagus nerve
Gangl, temporale, s. Scarpae temporal ganglion (Scarpa's ganglion)	Lies at the origin of the posterior auricular artery from the external carotid	Sympathetic ganglion of the external carotid plexus	In the external carotid plexus
Gangl, terminale (PNA) terminal node	Lies under the cribriform plate of the skull	Sensitive ganglion of the terminal nerve (n. terminalis)	In the terminal nerve (n. terminalis)
Ganglia thoracica (PNA, JNA), s. thoracalia (BNA) 10-12 thoracic nodes	Lie on the sides of the thoracic vertebral bodies at the heads of the ribs	Nodes of the thoracic sympathetic trunk	To the vessels and organs of the thoracic and abdominal cavities and as part of the gray connecting branches to the intercostal nerves
Gangl, trigeminale (PNA), s. semilunare (JNA), s. semilunare (Gasseri) (BNA) trigeminal ganglion	Lies in the trigeminal cavity of the dura mater on the anterior surface of the pyramid of the temporal bone	Sensory ganglion of the trigeminal nerve	The trigeminal nerve and its branches
Ganglia trunci sympathici nodes of the sympathetic trunk	See Gangl, cervicale sup., Gangl, cervicale med., Gangl, cervicothoracicum, Ganglia thoracica, Ganglia lumbalia, Ganglia sacralia, Gangl, impar (s. coccygeum)
Gangl, tympanicum (PNA), s. intumescentia tympanica (BNA, JNA) tympanic ganglion (tympanic thickening)	Lies on the medial wall of the tympanic cavity	Sensory ganglion of the tympanic nerve	To the mucous membrane of the tympanic cavity and auditory tube
Gangl, vertebrale (PNA) vertebral ganglion	Lies on the vertebral artery at its entrance to the opening in the transverse process of the VI cervical vertebra	Sympathetic ganglion of the vertebral plexus	Into the plexus on the vertebral artery
Gangl, vestibulare (PNA, BNA), s. vestibuli (JNA), s. Scarpae vestibular node (Scarpa's node)	Lies in the internal auditory canal	Sensory ganglion of the vestibulocochlear nerve	In the vestibular part of the vestibulocochlear nerve
Gangl. Wrisbergi Wrisberg junction	See Gangl, cardiacum

Bibliography Brodsky V. Ya. Cell trophism, M., 1966, bibliogr.; Dogel A. S. Structure of spinal nodes and cells in mammals, Notes of the imp. Academician Sciences, vol. 5, no. 4, p. 1, 1897; Milokhin A. A. Sensitive innervation of autonomic neurons, new ideas about the structural organization of the autonomic ganglion, L., 1967; bibliography; Roskin G.I., Zhirnova A.A. and Shornikova M.V. Comparative histochemistry of sensory cells of the spinal ganglia and motor cells of the spinal cord, Dokl. USSR Academy of Sciences, new, ser., vol. 96, JSfc 4, p. 821, 1953; Skok V.I. Physiology of the autonomic ganglia, L., 1970, bibliogr.; Sokolov B. M. General gangliology, Perm, 1943, bibliogr.; Yarygin H. E. and Yarygin V. N. Pathological and adaptive changes in the neuron, M., 1973; de Castro F. Sensory ganglia of the cranial and spinal nerves, normal and pathological, in the book: Cytol a. cell. path, of the nervous system, ed. by W. Penfield, v. 1, p. 91, N.Y., 1932, bibliogr.; Clara M. Das Nervensystem des Menschen, Lpz., 1959.

E. A. Vorobyova, E. P. Kononova; A. V. Kibyakov, V. N. Uranov (physics), E. K. Plechkova (embr., hist.).

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) mainly provides innervation to internal organs.

Divided by:

1. Sympathetic department

2. Parasympathetic Division

3. Metasympathetic (Enteral)

Differences between the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system:

1. Not under conscious control
2. Possibility of autonomous functioning (even with complete disruption of communication with the central nervous system)
3. The generalized nature of the spread of excitation in the peripheral part of the ANS (especially in the sympathetic part).
4. The presence of an autonomic ganglion in the efferent part of the reflex arc. Thus, the efferent part of the ANS is represented by two neurons: a preganglionic neuron within the central nervous system (brain stem, spinal cord), a postganglionic neuron in the autonomic ganglion. Those. the bodies of the last neurons of the autonomic arches are moved outside the central nervous system.
5. Low speed of nerve impulse conduction (preganglionic fibers type B, postganglionic fibers type C)
6. Target tissues for the ANS: smooth muscle cells, striated cardiac muscle, glandular tissue (for somatic tissue - striated skeletal MT). Sympathetic fibers can influence glycogenolysis in the liver and lipolysis in fat cells (metabolic effect)

Typically, internal organs have double innervation: sympathetic and parasympathetic, however, the bladder and ciliary muscle receive mainly parasympathetic, the blood vessels, sweat glands, hair muscles of the skin, spleen, uterus, brain, sensory organs, adrenal glands - only sympathetic.

Higher vegetative centers

structures of the limbic system, basal ganglia, CGM, hypothalamus (anterior nuclei - the zone of parasympathetic nuclei, posterior - the zone of sympathetic nuclei), central gray matter of the midbrain, reticular formation (its neurons form the vital centers of the medulla oblongata SSC, DC).

Nerve centers (central division) of the sympathetic nervous system– intermediolateral nuclei of the lateral horns of the spinal cord C VIII— L II — III

Nerve centers (central division) of the parasympathetic nervous system– autonomic nuclei of the III pair (oculomotor nerve - Yakubovich Nucleus), VII (facial nerve - superior salivary), IX (glossopharyngeal nerve - inferior salivary), X (vagus nerve - posterior nucleus), intermediolateral nuclei of the spinal cord S II -S IV

At the level of the working sections, there are efferent cells, the axons of which do not go directly to the working organ, unlike somatic ones, but are interrupted in the peripheral autonomic ganglion. Here they switch to the last neurons. The fibers of the spinal cord neurons are called preganglionic. Preganglionic fibers switch in the autonomic ganglion to the next neuron, the axon of which is called postganglionic.

Sympathetic autonomic ganglion

The ganglion is covered on top by a capsule. There are the following cells:

1. Sensory neurons
2. Efferent neurons
3. Chromaffin cells that secrete catecholamines (regulate the level of excitability of node cells.

Functions of the ganglion: conductive, closing and receptor.

Neurons of the autonomic ganglion have the same properties as neurons of the central nervous system.

Parasympathetic autonomic ganglion

The ganglion is covered on top by a capsule. It contains the following cells:

1. Sensitive - Dogel cells of the 2nd type, their receptors can be mechano-, thermo-, and chemosensitive.
2. Effector neurons - Dogel cells of the 1st type, have many short dendrites and one axon extending beyond the ganglion.
3. Intercalated – Dogel cells type 3.
4. The ganglion also contains chromaffin cells that secrete catecholamines, possibly serotonin, ATP, and neuropeptides (regulatory function).

Physiology of the autonomic ganglion

(switching from preganglionic fibers to postganglionic fibers)

1. Low lability of autonomic ganglion neurons (10-15 impulses per second), in somatic ones 200 impulses/sec.
2. Long synaptic delay, 5 times more.
3. Long EPSP duration (20-50 ms), action potential duration 1.5-3 ms due to prolonged trace hyperpolarization of ganglion neurons.
4. Spatial and sequential summation plays an important role.

• Transmitter: in the autonomic ganglia – preganglionic neurons secrete ACh.

1. At the level of the ganglion, convergence and divergence (multiplication) are well developed.

Sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system

Sympathetic autonomic ganglia are located in the sympathetic trunk, prevertebral ganglia, plexus ganglia (abdominal aortic, superior and inferior hypogastric).

Preganglionic fibers are short and highly branched. Postganglionic fibers are long, thin, and branch repeatedly to form plexuses. The animation is well developed.

Mediator of postganglionic adrenergic sympathetic fibers – NA (90%), adrenaline (7%), dopamine (3%). The mediator is persistent and shows its activity for a long time. NA binds to α and β adrenergic receptors of effector organs. The classification is based on their sensitivity to pharmaceuticals: α-adrenergic receptors are blocked by phentolamine, β - by propranolol. Adrenergic receptors are present not only on organs innervated by sympathetic fibers (heart, adipose tissue, blood vessels, pupillary dilator muscle, uterus, vas deferens, intestines) (α 1 and β 1), but also outside synapses (on platelets, skeletal muscles, endocrine and exocrine glands) (α 2 and β 2), as well as on the presynaptic membrane.

The transfer of excitation occurs faster than through the sympathetic department. The influences are short-term.

Influences:

1. Constant (tonic)
2. Phasic (triggering) – a sharp change in function (pupillary reflex)
3. Adaptation-trophic

Adaptive-trophic influence of the sympathetic nervous system Orbeli-Ginetzinsky

This is the adaptation of metabolic processes to the level of functional activity. The idea of ​​trophic influence was formulated by I.P. Pavlov. In an experiment on a dog, I discovered a sympathetic branch going to the heart, irritation of which caused an increase in heart contractions, without changing the frequency. Increased contractions of a tired muscle are associated with activation of metabolic (trophic) processes under the influence of NA. It activates specific receptors in the muscle fiber membrane, triggers a cascade of chemical reactions in the cytoplasm, accelerating the synthesis of macroergs, and increases the excitability of peripheral receptors. The presence of trophogens in nerve endings is assumed. Trophogens include nucleotides, some amino acids, prostaglandins, catecholamines, serotonin, ACh, complex lipids, and gangliosides.

Parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system

Parasympathetic autonomic ganglia (far from the central nervous system) are located inside organs (intramural) or periorgan (ciliary, pterygopalatine, auricular, sublingual, submandibular nodes), in the plexus nodes.

Preganglionic fibers are long and weakly branched. Postganglionic fibers are short and have few branches. Animation is poorly developed.

Mediator of postganglionic parasympathetic fibers ACh.

Acetylcholine on effector cells is bound by M-cholinergic receptors. M-cholinergic receptors are stimulated by muscarine and blocked by curare poison.

Acetylcholine is an unstable neurotransmitter, the main part is destroyed by acetylcholinesterase to choline and acetate, which are then captured by the presynaptic membrane and used for synthesis. A smaller part diffuses into the interstitium and blood.

Influences:

1. Constant (tonic)
2. Phasic (starting) - a sharp change in function (inhibition of the heart, activation of peristalsis, constriction of the pupil)

Tone of the vegetative centers

Many preganglionic and ganglionic neurons have a constant activity called tone. At rest, the frequency of electrical impulses in vegetative fibers is 0.1-5 impulses/s. The tone of autonomic neurons is subject to daily fluctuations: sympathotonus is higher during the day, lower at night, and the tone of parasympathetic fibers increases during sleep. Sympathotonus ensures constant vascular tone. The tonic influence of the vagus nerve (vagotonus) on the heart constantly restrains heart rate. The higher a person’s physical activity, the more pronounced the parasympathetic tone (decreased heart rate in athletes). Causes of autonomic tone:

1. Spontaneous activity. A high level of spontaneous activity is characteristic of RF neurons.
2. Flow of afferent impulses from various reflexogenic zones.
3. Action of biologically active substances and metabolites

Autonomic reflexes. Classification:

By circuit level:

1. central (somatovegetative reflex - has a common afferent part with the somatic reflex)
2. peripheral, autonomous (the arc of the reflex can close outside the central nervous system in the autonomic ganglion intraorganly or extraorganically, the existence of an axon reflex is possible)

By receptor location:

1. Interoceptive (mechano-, chemo-, thermo-, noce-, polymodal receptors)

a) Viscero-visceral (carotid sinus, solar plexus, peristalsis)

b) Viscero-cutaneous (corresponding to the Zakharyin-Ged zones)

c) Viscero-motor (irritation of interoreceptors can cause motor reactions).

1. 1. Transfer of excitation from preganglionic neurons to postganglionic neurons. However, in some ganglia of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system, the presence of excitation transmission from receptors located in the internal organs to the central nervous system has been shown.
   2. Reflex function. This function is based on the transfer of excitation from afferent neurons to efferent ones, i.e. Autonomic ganglia take part in the implementation of peripheral true reflexes.
   3. Receptor function. Thanks to this function, the central nervous system receives information about the chemical processes occurring in the ganglion itself.
   4. Integrative-coordinating function. This function is most well expressed in the intramural ganglia of the parasympathetic nervous system and in the metasympathetic nervous system.

   126. What is the transfer function of the autonomic ganglia? ev?

   Transfer function of ganglia.
   In the autonomous ganglia, the phenomenon of animation, irradiation of excitation, central occlusion, spatial and temporal summation is well expressed.
   Autonomous ganglia are characterized by integration of excitation, i.e. they are able to respond with excitement to a single stimulus.
   Let us consider in more detail the features of excitation in the ganglia.
   1. In the autonomous ganglia the phenomenon of animation is most pronounced. This means that one preganglionic fiber ends on a very large number of neurons. For example, in the superior sympathetic node - 32. Thanks to animation, excitation coming from any receptor brings various organs into a state of activity.
   2. The preganglionic fiber in the autonomic ganglion forms a synapse on the postganglionic neuron. Features of this synapse:
   a) the synaptic delay in this synapse is much greater than in the central nervous system and is equal to 15 to 30 ms;
   b) The EPSP developing on the postsynaptic membrane is longer than in the central nervous system.
   The experiment showed that not only fast depolarization (fast EPSP), which leads to the generation of an action potential, but also slow IPSP (2 s), slow EPSP (30 s) and late slow EPSP develop on the postsynaptic membrane of the postsynaptic neuron. The late slow EPSP is very long (4 min). These 3 responses apparently regulate the transmission of excitation in the sympathetic ganglion. The initial depolarization is created by acetylcholine through H-cholinergic receptors. Slow IPSP is likely generated by dopamine, which is secreted by interneurons located within the autonomic ganglion. Interneurons are excited by M-cholinergic receptors. These interneurons are small and intensely fluorescent cells. Slow EPSP is created by Ach acting on M-cholinergic receptors located on the membrane of the postganglionic cell. Late slow EPSP is generated by GnRH.
   3. In the action potential developing on postganglionic neurons, trace hyperpolarization is well expressed.
   In accordance with the three above features, the frequency of action potentials generated by postganglionic neurons is low, ranging from 10-15 per 1 s, while up to 100 impulses/s are transmitted through preganglionic fibers. Thus, the autonomous ganglia are characterized by the phenomenon of rhythm transformation towards its decrease. Moreover, such a rhythm is the most adequate for regulating, for example, smooth muscles that contract slowly.

   
   
   

   127. What is the reflex function of the autonomic ganglia??

   These two functions began to be isolated after specific afferent neurons were discovered.

   For a long time, thanks to the work of Langley, it was believed that all afferent fibers are cerebrospinal, having a neuron body in the spinal ganglia or nuclei of the brain.

   
   
   

   At the end of the last century, Dogel A.S. described receptor and effector cells in the nerve plexuses of the intestines and stomach. Receptor cells are also called type II Dogel cells. These are multipolar cells with long dendrites. Type I Dogel cells are called effector cells. They have short dendrites and a long axon. Type II Dogel cells do not have synapses, i.e. preganglionic neurons do not terminate on them. Therefore, Dogel recognized them as sensitive. Their axons terminate on type I Dogel cells. Type I Dogel cell axons emerge from the ganglion and terminate on muscles or glands. Dogel believed that impulse transmission was possible between these cells, i.e. peripheral reflex.

   Dogel cells type III were also isolated. These are associative neurons (or intercalary neurons).

   In 1977 Sakovnin N.N. described the following phenomenon.

   He showed that electrical stimulation of the central end of the cut hypogastric nerve, produced under conditions of separation of the inferior mesenteric ganglion from the central nervous system and leaving the other hypogastric nerve intact, leads to contraction of the bladder.

   Scheme of experiment Sakovnina N.N.

   Cutting

   hypogastric nerve

   inferior mesenteric node

   
   

   bladder

   He assessed this phenomenon as a peripheral reflex that closed in this ganglion.

   However, Langley, who confirmed the facts of N.N. Sakovnin, explained them as a false reflex, pseudoreflex or axon reflex. The axon reflex was first described in the electric organ of the Nile catfish. It was believed that axon reflexes are widespread, but they have a rather limited significance. They can occur when excitation propagates along axon branches. For example, when the skin is mechanically irritated, it becomes red. This is due to the fact that one branch of the axon ends in the skin (sensitive), and the other innervates the vessel (vasomotor).

   Further research proved that true reflexes can be closed in the ganglia. The following evidence was obtained for this. If axons are cut, those parts that have lost connection with the neuron body degenerate. It turned out that after transection of the hypogastric nerve, not all fibers the sections located below that go to the bladder are degenerated. This proves that the cell bodies of these neurons lie in the wall of the bladder. Further research by Bulygin (academician of the BAN) established that these fibers belong to afferent neurons located in the autonomic node. Consequently, neurons that send their processes to the ganglia and then to the central nervous system can be divided into 2 types:

   1. Neurons whose bodies are located intramurally, i.e. in the wall of the organ (obviously these are Dogel cells of type II), and their long axons go to the ganglia and the central nervous system. Passing through the autonomous ganglia they form synapses.

   2. These are neurons whose bodies are located in the prevertebral ganglion (solar and mesenteric). These neurons have short axons and dendrites at their long ones are directed to the periphery to the organs.

   Afferent autonomic nerve fibers can be classified as group C fibers with an excitation velocity of 0.3-0.8 m/s.

   128. What is the receptor function of the autonomic ganglia?

   129. What is the essence of the integrative-coordinating function of the autonomic ganglia?

   Thanks to local reflexes, organs separated from the central nervous system are able to perform their functions quite effectively. In the wall of organs there are excitatory, inhibitory neurons, neurons with background activity, as well as silent neurons (among them are receptor neurons that respond to mechanical stimulation, temperature, etc.), as well as efferent neurons and interneurons. Thanks to this, A.D. Nozdrachev was able to designate this part of the autonomic nervous system as an independent one - the metasympathetic nervous system.

   130. What types of autonomic reflexes do you know??

   Autonomic reflexes are divided into

   True False

   (Axon reflex)

   Central Peripheral

   (the reflex arc of these reflexes closes in the intramural ganglia, i.e., exists within the metasympathetic n.s.)

   Autonomic ganglia can be divided, depending on their location, into three groups:

   • vertebrates (vertebral),
   • prevertebral (prevertebral),
   • intra-organ.

   Vertebral ganglia belong to the sympathetic nervous system. They are located on both sides of the spine, forming two border trunks (they are also called sympathetic chains). The vertebral ganglia are connected to the spinal cord by fibers that form white and gray connecting branches. Along the white connecting branches - rami comroimicantes albi - preganglionic fibers of the sympathetic nervous system go to the nodes.

   The fibers of post-ganglionic sympathetic neurons are sent from the nodes to the peripheral organs either along independent nerve pathways or as part of somatic nerves. In the latter case, they go from the nodes of the border trunks to the somatic nerves in the form of thin gray connecting branches - rami commiinicantes grisei (their gray color depends on the fact that postganglionic sympathetic fibers do not have pulpy membranes). The course of these fibers can be seen in rice. 258.

   In the ganglia of the border trunk, most of the sympathetic preganglionic nerve fibers are interrupted; a smaller part of them passes through the border trunk without interruption and is interrupted in the precertebral ganglia.

   Prevertebral ganglia are located at a greater distance from the spine than the ganglia of the border trunk; at the same time, they are located at some distance from the organs they innervate. The prevertebral ganglia include the ciliary ganglion, the upper and middle cervical sympathetic nodes, the solar plexus, the upper and lower 6th mesenteric ganglia. In all of them, with the exception of the ciliary ganglion, sympathetic preganglionic fibers are interrupted, passing through the nodes of the border trunk without interruption. In the ciliary ganglion, the parasympathetic preganglionic fibers innervating the eye muscles are interrupted.

   TO intraorgan ganglia These include plexuses rich in nerve cells located in the internal organs. Such plexuses (intramural plexuses) are found in the muscular walls of many internal organs, for example the heart, bronchi, middle and lower third of the esophagus, stomach, intestines, gallbladder, bladder, as well as in the glands of external and internal secretion. On the cells of these nerve plexuses, as shown by histological studies by B.I. Lavrentyev and others, parasympathetic fibers are interrupted.

   . Autonomic ganglia play a significant role in the distribution and propagation of nerve impulses passing through them. The number of nerve cells in the ganglia is several times greater (in the superior cervical spmpathic ganglion 32 times, in the ciliary ganglion 2 times) greater than the number of preganglionic fibers coming to the ganglion. Each of these fibers forms synapses on many ganglion cells.