How gender roles are fixed. Social Behavior Styles

In modern sociology, the concept of “gender role” has acquired two meanings.

In the first case, the gender role understood as the way in which a person expresses his gender identity. In other words, how much he is a real man or ideal woman. In some cases, a person finds it difficult to identify himself with which gender, alternately playing the role of a man, then the role of a woman. Then they use the term “third gender” or talk about transsexuals And transgender people

In the second meaning, gender role implies role repertoire , i.e. a set of different behavior patterns, activities or functions that a person who has already decided on his gender identity has to perform. Let's say modern woman(social role) should be a housewife, mother, wife, worker (role repertoire).

It is known that in addition to biological differences between people belonging to the two sexes, there are also social differences due to the division of labor, the delimitation of social roles, and the distribution of activities and occupations. Anthropologists, ethnographers and historians have long established the relativity of ideas about “typically male” or “typically female”. What is considered a masculine activity (behavior, character trait) in one society may be defined as feminine in another. To be a man or a woman in society does not simply mean having certain anatomical features. This means fulfilling certain tasks prescribed to us. gender roles- models of behavior that society prescribes for men and women, as well as the set of expectations that others place on people performing these roles. External signs that make it possible to distinguish subjects of one, female, from another, male, role are biological differences between the two sexes, as well as features of speech (tone, pitch, volume, intonation of voice) and language (set of words used), behavior, adherence to norms etiquette, culture of gestures, clothing, orientation of interests, attitudes, inclinations and hobbies.

Male and female gender roles are, according to experts, mutually exclusive, and in some societies the patterns role behavior may even be polarized.

Gender roles determine, for example, that human individuals with female sexual characteristics should wear lipstick and cook cabbage soup, while those without such characteristics should wear a tie and earn money. On the contrary, in modern culture the so-called universal style of clothing and behavior is being formed - unisex(English unisex - [about fashion] asexual), which is equally characteristic of men and women, and therefore is not able to clearly distinguish representatives of different sexes.

Today, the relationship between the sexes and the definition of the roles of each of them are changing radically. New conditions, on the one hand, provide greater equality between the sexes, and on the other, erase the differences between them. Passivity, patience, loyalty and altruism are no longer considered just feminine traits. They are very beneficial to men who have learned to exploit these qualities, but do not always show equal masculine virtues in return - chivalry or nobility. Ambition, activity and independence are increasingly becoming feminine traits as well. And the introduction of men to the process of childbirth and the responsibilities of motherhood forms in them traits that have traditionally been considered purely feminine: tenderness, affection, the desire to take care of babies.

Women today have a much easier time entering public life than their mothers and grandmothers. Now they have more freedom of movement: gone are the days when a woman could only leave the house with a companion, friend or relative. But it seems they are forced to pay for this too. Statistics show that young women often become victims of sexual aggression from men.

Gender role, says Russian sociologist I. S. Kon, denotes the normative instructions and expectations that the corresponding culture places on “correct” male or female behavior and which serve as a criterion for assessing the masculinity/femininity of a child or adult. The prescriptions adopted by society in relation to each role are determined by the gender and age division and the different participation of women and men in economic life. This has been the case since ancient times.

In particular, exclusively male activities in traditional society everything that was connected with the religious and magical side of the life of the community was considered: the performance of religious rites and rituals, the assimilation and transmission of sacred myths, magic spells, and religious chants to other generations. Men perform all sacred rituals in secret from women and severely punish (including murder) those men who cannot keep a secret and those women who show excessive curiosity. Women are prohibited from approaching places of sacred rituals, looking at religious emblems, touching objects involved in rituals, knowing sacred myths, songs, and the history of the tribe. According to views primitive people, men, during their religious activities, communicate with the spirits of ancestors, sacred animals, creatures - patrons of the tribe or clan, in a word, they mediate between the world of people and the sacred world, trying to ensure the well-being of all members of the team. Witchcraft and black magic are also the domain of men. With their help, both ensuring success in various endeavors and taking revenge on enemies are achieved.

Organizing intra-community life is predominantly a male affair. In men's houses, separately from women, men make decisions related to the most important issues life of the team. This includes the distribution of food, the use of community territory, the organization of festivities, the resolution of marriage issues, the settlement of internal disputes and conflicts, control over team members and punishment of offenders, etc.

Since ancient times, men have monopolized the sphere of intercommunal and then international relations, turning a purely female (by name) field of activity - diplomacy - into their fiefdom. Whether it was the establishment of friendly inter-tribal relations and the subsequent multi-day feast, where again only males were allowed, or a declaration of war and distant campaigns of conquest, all the weights of which could only be endured by the stronger sex. Primitive men searched and explored new territories, were the first to develop future sites, and were the first to plow up plots of land. Men in to a greater extent, than women, are bound by external obligations: they are involved in a complex of kinship and community relationships that involve the exchange of food, things or certain services. Women, as a rule, are not involved in these matters.

It is not surprising that men occupied all the most important activities for the community - from politics, religion, economics to solving purely social problems. That's why they made up core primitive society, which performed a cementing function, organizing the primitive collective from the inside. The entire life of women is concentrated within the community, and they cement it from the inside not through organizational decisions and control, but through numerous interpersonal contacts and connections.

Women's sphere peripheral and is limited mainly to family, home, caring for children and husband. If the position of a man is dual: he is, as it were, between the community and the family, then the position of a woman is definite - she belongs to the family, being its center. The goal of all her activity is the well-being of this “female” world. It is achieved by maintaining economic security own family, as well as establishing proper interaction with similar groups (women’s cells) within the community, in particular through the exchange of food, mutual assistance in caring for children, participation in joint work with other women to deliver water and fuel and other collective activities.

Elements of the gender role are also clothing, gestures, and manner of speech. One person’s wardrobe, as well as the system of rules, can change throughout the day: in the morning she is a housewife (robe, curlers, nervous getting ready for work), in the afternoon she is a businesswoman (strict suit, bossy tone, makeup), in the evening she is a theatergoer (evening dress, free manners, different image) or a caring mother (Fig. 8.2).

In marriage, a woman performs a number of roles necessary for a man: the role of a friend with whom you can consult on important life issues and “vent your soul”, spend time together free time or vacation with whom you can share everyday problems, trust her; the role of a quasi-mother who bestows attention and care on him, the role of a housewife who takes care of order, comfort, and cleanliness. One of important roles women - the role of a mistress.

The topic of gender roles will not be fully explored if we limit ourselves to two genders and begin to consider the role

Rice. 8.2.

only as a model of behavior defined by the biological boundaries of one sex. The phenomenon has been known since ancient times gender change, which can occur both surgically (through genital surgery) and symbolically (through dressing up and changing the cultural image). In anthropological and sociological literature this phenomenon received the general generic name of the “third gender”.

The ritual dressing of men in women's clothing has been preserved to this day in various tribes that have inherited the customs of ancient cultures. For example, in the Namshi tribe, young men wear skirts for the initiation rite, and in the Maasai tribes, boys wear skirts from the moment of the circumcision ritual until the wounds are completely healed. Kathakali dancers in Ceylon wear precious jewelry and paint, thus trying to evoke the favor of the gods, the Zulus in such attire cause rain, and the Indian Bhotas dance in women's clothing to scare away scarlet spirits.

Performers female roles in the Japanese Kabuki theater they wear very careful makeup, speak in falsetto and move, imitating women's walking and gestures. The culture of Kabuki men is so high that many Japanese women, paradoxically, still come to the theater to learn from men the art of being a woman. They try to adopt their way of holding their back, copy gestures and much more.

From about the 16th century. In many European countries, there was a tradition of dressing boys in dresses and calling them by their maiden names until they were seven years old. In this way, apparently, the parents tried to protect their sons from evil spirits. Only after seven years were boys allowed to change their dresses to pantaloons and become members of male society. This tradition extended to all classes of society. Thus, in family portraits depicting children, it was possible to distinguish who it was, a boy or a girl, only by the toys that the children held in their hands. For boys it was either a whip or a wooden horse, for girls it was a doll. This tradition was so stable that in some places it survived until the middle of the 20th century.

Cm.: Badinter E. Decree. Op. P. 56.
For more details, see: History of primitive society. The era of the primitive tribal community. M., 1986; Manager L. N. Gender as a cultural and historical phenomenon: the era of primitiveness. URL: irbis.asu.ru
maya.cltn.ru

Personal development presupposes her socialization, her mastery of a number of social roles that she may need in the present and future in order to become a member of society. In order to successfully self-actualize, a child needs to master roles that will be useful for his professional self-determination - an attentive student, an accurate performer and confident leader, a thoughtful researcher or a creator open to everything new. But no less important is personal self-determination, which, among other things, will require mastering gender roles.

A person’s gender is not only a set of specific chromosomes, but also a set of social roles prescribed by society for men and women, and life satisfaction is largely related to whether an individual’s sense of self coincides with the requirements put forward to her and her behavior by society.

When professionals start talking to parents about the development of their children's gender behavior, parents often begin to worry, because in their minds the concept of gender is confused with the concept of gender and sexual orientation, and in such serious issues, most adults would like their child not to give them surprises . In the same time modern researchers are inclined to believe that family upbringing rarely influences a person’s perception of himself as a representative of a certain sex (gender identity) and his views on what gender of partners will suit him (sexual orientation). But on the formation of behavior and lifestyle, worldview and attitudes that allow a person to express himself in Everyday life whether a being is masculine (masculine) or feminine (feminine), family and immediate environment influence quite directly.

Parents give their children the first lessons of masculinity or femininity even before the child is able to recognize himself not only as a person of a certain gender, but as a person in general. Cloth certain colors, assigned in our culture to boys and girls, toys based on gender, the design of a child's room - all of this is aimed at raising an individual in accordance with her or his biological gender. By early childhood, your child has already managed to get used to the fact that you constantly direct his or her behavior in line with your expectations: “Don’t cry, you’re a boy!”, “Don’t fight, you’re a girl!” By the end of the period of preschool childhood, a person, as a rule, already has not fully conscious, but well-established ideas about his preferred way of life, about the ratio of sociability and isolation that is comfortable for himself, and leadership qualities or gentleness of character are manifested. A six-year-old girl acting like a tomboy forces her parents to accept her as she is, whether they like it or not.

What makes children deviate from the usual course of development within socially approved frameworks? First of all, the growing personality is influenced by the family environment. A child can imitate, voluntarily or unwittingly, the behavior of one of the parents, and not always the parent of the same sex. Children occupy the niches that the current family situation offers them. Mom works two jobs, manages to combine this with housework without any help, is she active, cheerful and bosses everyone around? Dad is soft and reserved, spends a lot of free time on the couch watching TV, obeys mom unquestioningly, depends on her worries? Whose position will the child take? Regardless of gender, a child is highly likely to imitate the one behind whom he feels positional superiority, the one who benefits from the family situation as it is. If the father manipulates his family, demonstrating his helplessness, the child will take a passive position; if the mother manipulates others, suppressing any attempts to overthrow her power, then the child will try to mirror her masculinity, if not in the family, then among his peers.

In addition to direct imitation, big role play the child’s relationship with a significant adult. A girl who receives encouragement from her father only when she behaves like a boy (achieves something in sports, demonstrates courage, fortitude, or, for example, a love of fishing), and her achievements in “female disciplines” go unnoticed by him , will develop in a more masculine spirit than if her father encouraged her for any success. It is interesting that if a child does not receive extremely specific requirements from a parent in a form that is understandable to him, he strives to meet the expectations of his significant parent, guided by his own ideas about these expectations. For example, children left without parental care have mixed feelings towards anonymous relatives. It is not uncommon among such children to fantasize about a parent who represented a social significant figure, but could not take care of the child for objective reasons (death of a parent, kidnapping of a child, various kinds dramatic events that separated them). Girls who fantasized about their father (pilot, film actor, criminal) showed more signs of masculinity and manliness than girls who imagined an imaginary mother (ballerina, wife famous person, singer). Thus, a significant adult demanded that the child meet his (the child’s) expectations even in complete physical absence.

Another important source of broadcasting norms of gender behavior is such a mouthpiece of public opinion as the media. In contrast to the direct influence of society, which offers teenagers a traditional view of the ideals of masculinity and femininity (a man should be strong, independent, courageous, active, strive for freedom and financial independence; a woman should be soft, caring, strive to look good and honor family values above all else). professional), the media do not pursue the goals of preserving traditions. Their goal is completely different - to sell goods, services, form opinions, and educate the young viewer into an ideal consumer. The media, in its own interests, imposes unrealistic patterns of behavior on young people, which is especially clearly seen in commercials. The young women in them have huge, perfectly furnished houses in which exhibition cleanliness reigns, while stylishly combed children, elite animals and a successful husband run around the house, and the owner looks like a supermodel, but has important work, plays sports and spends a lot of time with friends. Thinking rationally, the girl understands that this picture cannot be an example to follow, it is unrealistic, but the advertising is designed to touch the irrational, emotional sphere, cause a feeling of inferiority, a readiness to buy a product that will bring her closer to this beautiful, unattainable life of an ideal woman.

Young men are also subject to pressure from the media, which besieges them with pictures of successful peers: a young man, in the minds of commodity producers, barely out of the age of a teenager, begins to wear expensive suits, live in penthouses, enjoy the mass attention of beautiful women and buy only the best for himself. The fact that even with a good education a man of 21-25 years old, as a rule, cannot achieve such heights, is kept silent. There are no such forms of behavior that young people can embody on-screen ideals in their lives. All this information is capable of is to cause in a young man a sharp rejection of “long” paths to success, such as working in the real sector of the economy, to provoke him to “not so much be as be known”: not to strive for goals appropriate to his age, but to consume goods that which symbolize success earlier (and instead of) looking for opportunities for “quick money” before they become affordable.

As a result, teenagers' ideas about the behavior and lifestyle of a representative of their gender and age are greatly distorted. Dissatisfaction with oneself keeps entire industries afloat; young people intellectually understand that their real life generally corresponds to that of their peers, but unconsciously they still engage in the race for unattainable images imposed from the outside. This often leads to adolescents adopting forms of behavior that are a reaction to social pressure, but do not help them achieve their age-gender goals.

Some peoples of the North have genders, i.e. There are not two types of behavior assigned to social gender, as in our culture, but... five. Heterosexual women in women's clothing performing female functions; heterosexual men in men's clothing, with men's responsibilities; homosexual men in women's clothing; heterosexual men in women's clothing doing women's work; heterosexual women in men's clothing performing men's work. Why are there so many roles? Mainly because the society, the tribe, needs it. A man is not asked whether, as a boy, he wants to wear a woman's dress and tend the fire. When he was born, there were already enough boys in the tribe, but there were noticeably fewer of those who would do women’s work in 10-20-30 years. Therefore, society carries out its characteristic rituals and entrusts the child with a function that he will perform throughout his life, without caring whether this will make him happy. In our society, such dressing of a baby would be considered a gross violation of human rights and is therefore not practiced. But anyone can easily imagine a sign of the late Soviet era - powerful masculine women working on road repairs (society needs them because men do not want to do hard work for this money, and women agree and work conscientiously, in addition, they drink less). It is also easy to understand why modern urban culture gives rise to types of fragile and aesthetically adjusted male fashionistas of various kinds, and the larger locality, the more such characters there are in it. This is what society needs, of course. The higher the building density and crowding, the more pressing is the issue of regulating aggression. Populations of non-aggressive, non-competing physical sense men who invest their energy not in a fight for resources, but in self-improvement in intangible, intellectual, aesthetic, creative terms, make big cities a safer place.

Thus, in order to meet the interests of society, it is not necessary to establish a separate gender; you can adjust the settings of those that already exist. At the same time, parents of children and adolescents with disabilities often make an attempt to turn their child into a being of zero gender - an ageless and sexless child. Working with adolescents with disabilities, we have repeatedly drawn attention to the fact that they are subject to parental attempts to disguise and suppress what is associated with the behavior and appearance inherent in a particular gender. Boys were often timid, gentle, obedient, and dressed in what looked like a grandma's jacket. The girls, in turn, had their hair cut like boys and had no idea about jewelry, manicure or flirting, although their healthy peers were keen on just this and other aspects of life that were new to a growing girl. Adolescents with disabilities, studying in the same groups, but without guardians, demonstrated pronounced femininity and masculinity, not always in accordance with biological sex, but with great enthusiasm inherent in age.

The concerns of parents responsible for a special child are understandable. Some infantilism of their charges is also understandable: the one who is protected from society and surrounded by care, of course, will be more careless and childish. But there is something dishonest about trying to resist your child's femininity or masculinity in the interests of the family. You may suspect that your child is not mature enough socially and intellectually to become a teenager and all that that entails. But that's how most teenagers are. Perhaps you believe that your son or daughter will get into trouble because he does not have a clear understanding of the world of relationships. But if you keep it at your hem forever, he or she will never learn anything. Perhaps you believe that having difficulties with health and development, your child will never succeed as a man or as a woman, and in this case it is better for the mother to be nearby. But here you are wrong. Finding a person who can share sorrows and joys is equally difficult, but equally possible for both young people with disabilities and healthy people any age.

Don't make life difficult for your children.

It is not always easy for them to understand that the gap between who they are and what they are shown as a model is about the same scale as that of their healthy peers. Many young people do not want to hear that they are guided by false images, attributing all adversities and deprivations to a defect inherent in their health. “A man should have (hereinafter a list of luxury goods), but I do not have this and will not have it”; “A woman should look like this, but I am the complete opposite” - this is the typical idea of a teenager with disabilities about his place in society as a representative of his gender. In addition to distorted ideas about themselves, the media and social networks form in adolescents an idea of the desired behavior of a partner, which automatically makes any peer uncompetitive and unsuitable for a relationship. “We met with him three times, but he didn’t give me anything significant,” the young girl complains to the psychologist, “I’ll have to break up with him, but it’s a pity, I really liked him, it was fun with him.” When asked how she knows about the obligatory nature of gifts, the girl refers to the community in which she was “enlightened.”

Boys and girls who are trying to start dating their peers trust the stereotypes spread by anonymous online advisers, and as a result they are faced with the fact that their lives are out of control, that they are looking for something in people, not what they need. imposed by society. Teenagers discover that, having kissed a thousand frogs in search of their princess, it is difficult to remain a prince, since each new relationship breaks down more easily than the previous one and meeting “their person” is almost impossible.

This problem is aggravated by the fact that older generation can no longer serve as an example and source of information for their children, since the pace and content of young people's daily lives have changed radically since their parents were considered youth. Boys and girls are trying to adopt the lifestyle they saw in American cinema and television shows, but this image has no cultural and historical roots in our country. For example, in American school a girl who has been on dates (meaning going out - a walk, a trip to the cinema, a cafe) with dozens of fans and has not chosen any of them - is popular, arouses a desire to imitate herself and the respect of her peers. In our culture, she will cause a mixed reaction - some of her classmates will consider her popular, the other part will be sure that the girl has tarnished her reputation and needs to stay away from her. Same mismatch gender stereotypes arises in other areas of life, and it is increasingly difficult for young people to understand each other correctly. After all, the established rules that parents followed disappeared, and in their place a complete confusion arose.

The only way out for teenagers who have reached a dead end in their search ideal relationship, it becomes necessary to listen more to your heart than to public opinion, and to look for people who share their own ideas about how modern men and women should live. After all, only independent choice and acceptance of responsibility for it make a child mature personality in control of your life.

Kropivyanskaya S.O.

A gender role is a type of social role that defines acceptable and desirable behavior for men and women.

In the North Caucasus, almost all women are economically active

Everything related to development tends to change, so there is nothing permanent in the world, including expectations from the behavior of men and women. But we’ll look into how gender roles are fixed and what determines them in our article.

Let's consider the concept of gender role in order to clearly understand the meaning of this phenomenon.

Gender roles represent the traditional behavioral responses expected in society from males and females. They can be expected, attributed, imposed, demanded by society, but any person has the right to decide for himself whether he needs stereotypical behavior.

They are instilled by society by raising from childhood a certain manner of behavior inherent in one or another gender. Let's find out what the gender role of a representative of one sex or another means using specific examples.

Examples of gender roles

Examples of individual gender roles have changed over time and as humanity has changed. Moreover, they continue to change. Thus, a person’s gender roles can be imposed and prevent him from manifesting himself as nature created him. These behavioral stereotypes lead to misunderstanding between the sexes, conflicts, and therefore make people unhappy.

Let's now look at some examples of gender roles. Since ancient times, a man has been a hunter, a leader, a warrior with such character traits as self-confidence, risk-taking, aggression, and quick reaction. The woman was always distinguished by her gentleness, compassion, care and was only concerned with maintaining the home and raising the future generation.

Naturally, time leaves its mark on behavioral stereotypes, so it is rare to find truly feminine or masculine behavior in its pure form.

Female gender role

Recently, representatives of the fair half of humanity are increasingly claiming equality and almost duplicating men's line behavior, earning money, holding leadership positions and serving in the military.

What are the features of the female gender role?

The female gender role in the previous understanding implies the keeper of the hearth, mother and wife. As modernity dictates its own laws, the gender role of women is changing and expanding.

The modern gender role of women has expanded. Now a lady is often not only the keeper of the hearth, but also a worker

To do this, you will have to understand what the features of the female gender role are. It lies in the fact that a woman strives to be successful, active, hardy under the prevailing rules in society that equalize both sexes. Thus, a lady must have time to manage the house, give birth to children, build a career, and also look amazing.

Male gender role

Men's actions are characterized by the presence of fortitude, will, and courage at all times, but this does not mean that changes did not also affect men.

Traditional education of a boy as a bearer of the male gender role (masculinity)

The essence of the male gender role

IN modern world Not only strength and courage are expected from representatives of the stronger sex. Men are required to gain status and respect, mental and emotional stability, physical stamina and avoidance of feminine activities. If a man does not achieve success in one aspect, he seeks to compensate for this by being more active in another.

A lot of other qualities are gradually being added to this list, such as intelligence, caring, restraint, the ability to communicate, and empathy.

At the same time, such signs of male behavior as clarity of thinking, stability and transmission of the gene to the future generation remain unshakable.

What is the difference between the gender roles of men and women?

With the development of society, representatives of the fair half of humanity no longer want to put up with the fate of a housewife, which forces us to reconsider social stereotypes about female behavior. This is explained by the fact that society lives according to male laws, where there is a winner and a loser, and there is no sympathy and compassion.

Following this, there is often a change in roles, when the lady is the breadwinner, and her husband manages the housework. There have been quite a lot of such couples lately, and the woman herself is not satisfied with the situation, as well as the man, because both of them lack the actions inherent in nature.

It should only be noted that the husband will cope with any housework no worse than his beloved, but in one thing he will not be able to replace her, because only a woman is destined to bear and give birth to a child. As we see, the boundaries between generally accepted behavior representatives of both sexes are erased, bringing with them a lot of consequences.

Equalization of representatives of different sexes leads to the fact that the family does not have time to have a child, because there are still so many things that can be interfered with. Girls are getting married later because they need to make a career first, which also aggravates demographic situation and devalue the institution of family.

How are gender roles reinforced?

Children of both sexes are born and have standard behavior. Social reactions are acquired by girls and boys under the influence of upbringing and social expectations. Girls are encouraged to self-sacrifice, tenderness, devotion, convinced to be calm and allowed to show emotions. Boys are shown traditional male behavior, goals and principles; they require restraint in emotions and impatience with injustice.

It is worth noting that some stereotypes are already being criticized. And although it is considered shameful for a girl to be the first to meet someone, while shy boys are not held in high esteem, this situation no longer surprises anyone, whereas 100 years ago it would have led to disastrous consequences.

So, if a girl starts to fight, she is stopped instead of being enrolled in the appropriate section, but for a boy this is considered the norm. Conversely, a boy who dances causes ridicule or an ironic smile from many.

As a result, men and women, when creating a family, do not understand each other and take a long time to get used to opposing views for life, quarrel and gradually learn mutual understanding.

Do not forget that everyone modern man there is freedom to choose those reactions in which he does not lose his essence, remaining himself, ignoring all sorts of stereotypes and imposed expectations.

Now it has become clear what gender is, how gender roles are fixed, so each person can objectively assess his purpose in the family and behave as he suggests. inner voice conscience.

We wish you to always remain yourself and be happy!

Gender roles

One type of social role, a set of expected behavior patterns (or norms) for men and women. A role in social psychology is defined as a set of norms that determine how people should behave in a given social position. Shakespeare can rightfully be considered the first representative of role theory, who wrote:

The whole world is a theater

There are women, men - all actors.

They have their own exits and exits;

And everyone plays more than one role.

Currently, there is no unified theory of social roles as such. Gender roles, their characteristics, origin and development are considered within the framework of various sociological, psychological and biosocial theories. But existing research allows us to conclude that their formation and development in humans is influenced by society and culture, and the ideas about the content and specifics of gender roles enshrined in them. And during historical development society, the content of gender roles undergoes changes. A blow to the belief that men and women are naturally designed to perform certain roles was dealt by Margaret Mead in her book Sex and Temperament. Her observations of tribal life in New Guinea convincingly refute this. The women and men she observed performed perfectly various roles, sometimes directly opposite to the stereotypes accepted for each gender. One of the ideas declared women's movement 70s, was that traditional gender roles were holding back personal development and realizing existing potential. It served as an impetus for the concept of Sandra Bem (S. Bem), which is based on the concept of androgyny, according to which any person, regardless of his biological sex, can combine traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine qualities (such people are called androgynes). And this allows people to adhere less rigidly to gender role norms and freely move from traditionally feminine activities to traditionally masculine ones and vice versa. Developing this idea, Pleck began to talk in his works about the splitting or fragmentation of gender roles. There is no single role for a man or a woman. Each person performs a series various roles, for example, wife, mother, student, daughter, friend, etc. Sometimes these roles do not combine, which leads to role conflict. The conflict between the role of a businesswoman and the role of a mother is well known to everyone. There is now evidence that performing multiple roles contributes to psychological well-being person.

The diversity of gender roles across cultures and eras supports the hypothesis that our gender roles are shaped by culture. According to Hofstede's theory, differences in gender roles depend on the degree of gender differentiation in cultures or the degree of masculinity or femininity in a particular culture. Based on cross-cultural research, Hofstede showed that people from masculine cultures have higher achievement motivation, see the meaning of life in work and are able to work a lot and hard. A number of cross-cultural studies have also found that feminine cultures with low power distance (Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden) have personality-oriented families that promote equality in gender roles. While cultures with high power distance and pronounced masculinity (Greece, Japan, Mexico) have families focused on strict gender role positions. Such families ultimately contribute to strict differentiation in gender roles.

Gender roles depend not only on culture, but also on historical era. I. S. Kon noted that the traditional system of differentiation of sex roles and associated stereotypes of femininity and masculinity was distinguished by the following characteristic features: female and male activities and personal qualities differed very sharply and seemed polar; these differences were sanctified by religion or references to nature and presented as inviolable; female and male functions were not just complementary, but also hierarchical; women were assigned a dependent, subordinate role. Nowadays, in almost all cultures, radical changes are taking place in relation to gender roles, in particular in post-Soviet space, however, not as quickly as we would like.

Gender roles

Literature:

Kon I. S. Psychology of sexual differences // Questions of psychology. 1981. N 2. P. 53.

Lebedeva N. M. Introduction to ethical and cross-cultural psychology. M.: Klyuch, 1999. pp. 141-142.

Bem S. The measurement of psychological androgyny // Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1974. 42. R. 165-172.

Hofstede G. Culture's consequences: international differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills, 1984.

Mead M. Sex and temperament in three primitive societies. New York: Morrow, 1935.

Pleck J. The theory of male sex role identity: its rise and fall from 1936 to the present // The making of masculinities: the new men's studies. Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1987. P. 221-38.

Thesaurus of Gender Studies Terminology. - M.: East-West: Women's Innovation Projects. A. A. Denisova. 2003.

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GENDER ISSUES- (English gender gender), social and psychological problems associated with the role of male and female persons in society, since differences in the behavioral patterns of men and women can cause intrapersonal, interpersonal and intergroup... encyclopedic Dictionary

Gender issues- (English gender gender) social and psychological problems associated with the role of male and female persons in society, since differences in the behavior patterns of men and women can cause intrapersonal, interpersonal and intergroup... ... Political science. Dictionary.

GENDER DIFFERENCES- (English gender gender), differences between people due to their gender. Thus, it is believed that men have more developed spatial and math skills, they are more aggressive and dominant, more significant for them... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Gender differences- Contents 1 Gender differences 2 Gender identity 3 ... Wikipedia

A stereotype is a judgment, in a sharply simplifying and generalizing form, with emotional overtones, attributing certain properties to a certain class of persons or, conversely, denying them these properties. Stereotypes are considered as special forms... ...

- (personal computers) are observed during the interaction of a person and a computer in all age groups. Stereotypes public consciousness and the media, the bias of education and released software products to some extent determine that... Gender Studies Terms

GENDER TECHNOLOGIES- methods, mechanisms, channels for the formation of the institution of gender and the consolidation of corresponding gender identifications. Logics modern definition social gender (see Gender) indicates the inextricable connection of the concepts of gender, discourse and power. G.t.... ... Modern philosophical dictionary

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Why men lie and women cry, Pease Allan. In a world where gender roles are so clearly blurred and transformed, the authors brilliantly managed to articulate the differences in the perception of reality by men and women, and explain the motives...

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Gender role and gender identity

Gender role should be distinguished from gender identity: the first concept describes social expectations external to a person in connection with his gender, the second - a person’s internal sense of self as a representative of a particular gender. A person's gender identity and gender role may not be the same - particularly for transgender and intersex people. Adjusting one's gender role to one's gender identity is part of the transgender transition.

Gender roles in different cultures

IN modern societies the binary gender system dominates - the way social organization, in which people are divided into two opposing groups - men and women. The binary gender system implies a strict correspondence between the sex assigned at birth and the gender role, as well as other parameters (in particular, gender identity and sexual orientation). As anthropological research shows, the establishment of such a correspondence is not universal: in many cultures, biological, in particular anatomical sex does not play a key role in determining the gender role or gender identity. It is not universal to single out only two genders. For example, many indigenous North American cultures recognize three or four genders and corresponding gender roles. In West African Yoruba culture, gender is not traditionally a significant social category, and social roles are determined primarily by age and kinship.

Even within close cultures or within the same culture, gender roles can vary markedly. For example, in European secular culture During the 18th and 19th centuries, women were expected to be weak and fragile, while in most peasant cultures women were considered naturally strong and resilient. In Western (North American and Western European) middle-class cultures since the 1950s, the female gender role has been that of the housewife, and participation in productive work has been excluded for women. Yet at the same time and in the same societies, working outside the home was an expected and self-evident element of the gender role for working-class women. Women's gender roles in socialist societies also included a combination of work outside the home, housework, and family care.

Explanations of gender development

In the debate about the origins of gender roles and differences, there are two main points of view: supporters of biological determinism suggest that gender differences are determined by biological, natural factors, and supporters of social constructivism - that they are formed by society in the process of socialization. Various theories of gender development have been put forward in science. Biologically-based theories that explain differences in gender roles by evolution have not found convincing empirical support. Empirical research also refuted psychoanalytic theories that explained gender development through the child’s relationship with his parents. The strongest empirical support exists for cognitive and social-cognitive theories that explain gender development complex interaction biological, cognitive and social factors.

Views on the origins of gender roles

Ordinary consciousness often represents those existing in a given society in a specific historical period gender roles as natural and natural. There is also much research that seeks to identify the biological basis of gender roles - in particular, to establish the biological origin of gender differences between men and women, as well as to find the biological causes of gender nonconformity. But the historical and anthropological knowledge accumulated to date does not support this point of view, since the diversity of ideas about gender and gender roles in the cultures of the world and throughout history is too great. At the same time, modern social sciences have collected a lot of data on how gender roles are formed under the influence of various social processes.

Biological determinism

The point of view according to which social phenomena determined by biological factors, called biological determinism. A concept close to it is naturalization social practices - describes the process of interpreting social practices as facts of nature. Biological determinism regarding gender roles is expressed, for example, in widespread statements that motherhood is a woman's natural destiny, or that men are not naturally emotional.

WITH late XIX centuries scientists from different scientific fields have conducted many studies on gender differences between men and women. Until the 1970s, the main goal of these studies was to confirm the biological nature of gender differences and justify the content of existing gender roles. However, the results of most studies show that there are many more similarities between men and women than differences. In a widely cited review study, psychologists Eleanor Maccoby and Carol Jacklin cited four dimensions on which differences were found between men and women: spatial ability, math ability, language skills, and aggressiveness. But even these detected differences are small and strongly depend on the methodology and conditions of the study.

Since the 1970s, scientists have also become interested in the causes of gender nonconformity, that is, violation of gender roles. In particular, studies were conducted to clarify biological reasons transsexuality. There are currently theories linking transsexuality to genetics, brain structure, brain activity, and androgen exposure during intrauterine development. However, the results of these studies are also controversial - for example, the identified features of the brain structure of transsexual people are not unique (similar differences are observed in homosexual people compared to heterosexual people), and there is evidence that the structure of the brain can change under the influence of life experiences.

Social constructivism

The view that gender roles are shaped, or constructed, by society belongs to the theory of social constructivism. The basis for studying the social nature and processes of constructing gender roles was laid, in particular, by the theoretical works of Simone de Beauvoir and Michel Foucault. Research on the social construction of gender roles shows how, in the process of socialization and interaction between people, those gender differences and expectations are formed that are perceived as natural and natural in ordinary consciousness.

According to the latest research, the differences found between men and women are largely explained social factors. For example, research reveals several reasons why women are less successful in mathematics than men: firstly, they lack confidence in their abilities, and secondly, they consider mathematics classes to be inappropriate for their gender role and refuse them even when show excellent abilities in this area, thirdly, parents and teachers encourage girls to do mathematics much less than boys. Thus, as some researchers have noted, gender stereotypes function as self-fulfilling prophecies: through socialization, people are taught information about gender roles that shapes their expectations of themselves, and as a result, they engage in gender-conforming behavior.

Biological theories

Biologically based explanations of gender development and differences are widespread. One of the most influential such theories, evolutionary psychology, attributes gender differentiation to heredity. The hereditary origins of gender roles are analyzed through preferences in choosing sexual partners, reproductive strategies, parental investment in caring for offspring, and male aggressiveness. From the point of view of this theory, modern gender roles are due to the successful adaptation of the ancestors of modern humans to differences in the reproductive tasks of men and women.

Empirical data refutes the main assumptions biological theories gender development. Many researchers also criticize the methodology of biologically oriented research. Nevertheless, biological theories continue to be very popular, including among the general public. According to some authors, this is due to the fact that in many societies ordinary consciousness ascribes to biology the status of absolute truth. In addition, the provisions of biological theories correspond to gender stereotypes.

Reproductive strategies

According to evolutionary psychology, in the process of evolution, men and women have acquired different reproductive strategies at the genetic level, dictated by the need to ensure the survival of humans as a biological species. The reproductive strategy of men is aimed at maximizing the spread of their genes, so men prefer to have many sexual partners and not waste time caring for offspring. Women's reproductive strategy is aimed at having few sexual partners who will be able to provide for themselves and their offspring. necessary resources for survival.

Many researchers question the very concept of reproductive strategy. From the point of view of the general theory of evolution, natural selection is determined by immediate practical benefits, and not by future goals. The assertion that ancient men sought to father as many children as possible, and ancient women sought to find reliable providers, suggests that they had a conscious or unconscious goal, which, according to some authors, contradicts the Darwinian functional explanation.

Other authors have noted that the evolutionary psychology hypothesis is not supported by empirical evidence. In particular, the assumption that ancient women did not have enough food during pregnancy and lactation looks quite convincing, but with the same success it can be assumed that in connection with this women developed increased abilities for spatial orientation and memory , which would allow them to find and remember the location of food sources. To substantiate any hypothesis about specific adaptive mechanisms, it is required Additional Information. Such information could come from molecular studies of fossilized human remains or archaeological data, but evolutionary psychology does not offer such data. Some authors have noted that the concept of reproductive strategies represents an attempt to "retroactively" explain modern gender stereotypes.

Anthropological data also speak against the hypothesis of reproductive strategies. They show, in particular, that reproductive behavior is influenced by cultural beliefs about the human body and reproduction. In cultures where reproduction is believed to require insemination by multiple partners, women have sexual intercourse with different partners, and these partners are not jealous of each other.

Choice of sexual partners

Evolutionary psychology argues that men tend to choose young and physically attractive partners because such partners are more likely to bear healthy offspring, and women tend to choose financially secure men who can support them. In support of these data, the results of surveys are presented in which men and women named the most attractive characteristics of potential partners. However, numerous studies show that what people say is significantly different from how they actually behave: in fact, physical attractiveness influences the choice of partners in the same way for men and women. On the other hand, indicators of physical attractiveness are extremely diverse in different cultures world, and most of these characteristics are not related to fertility. Some authors also point out that evolutionary psychology only explains heterosexual behavior, and suggest that proponents of evolutionary psychology avoid considering research data on non-heterosexual people because their behavior and gender roles do not match gender stereotypes and thus undermine evolutionary explanations.

Aggressive behavior

Psychoanalytic theories

Although psychoanalytic theory had a great influence on the formation of developmental psychology, empirical evidence does not support it. Research has not found a strong connection between identification with a same-sex parent and gender role internalization. Role models in children's behavior are much more likely to be caring adults or adults who are endowed with social power than threatening adults with whom the child has a competitive relationship.

Lack of empirical evidence for classical psychoanalytic theory led to the emergence of various updated versions of it. In the field of gender development, one of the most influential latest versions is Nancy Chodorow's theory. According to this theory, gender identification is formed in infancy, and not in the phallic phase, as Freud argued. Both boys and girls initially identify with their mother, but because daughters are the same sex as their mother, identification between daughters and mothers is stronger than between sons and mothers. During further development girls retain identification with their mother and psychologically merge with her. As a result, the girl's and woman's self-image is characterized by strong feeling interdependence, which results in a desire for interpersonal relationships and encourages a woman, in turn, to become a mother. The development of a boy is determined by the desire to separate from his mother and further define himself in terms of difference from women, which leads to the belittlement of femininity.

But empirical evidence does not support Chodorow's theory either. Research does not find a stronger bond between mothers and daughters than between mothers and sons. There is also no evidence that women's interpersonal needs are met only through motherhood. On the contrary, research shows that women whose only social role is that of mother and wife are more susceptible to developing psychological problems than childless married or unmarried women and working mothers.

Cognitive and social theories

Cognitive and social theories of gender development include theories of cognitive development, gender schemas, social learning and social cognitive theory. Although in the early stages these theories differed significantly from each other, and their proponents had heated discussions among themselves, modern versions of these theories have much in common. In general, cognitive and social theories view gender development as difficult process interactions of biological, social and cognitive factors. They all pay significant attention social source m of gender development and the active role that a person plays in his own gender development.

Social sources of gender development

Social sources of gender development include, in particular, the influence of parents, other significant adults and peers, as well as information pressure from the media, cinema, literature, etc.

Parental influence

Differences in the upbringing of boys and girls are described by the concept of “differential socialization.” Differential socialization is not necessarily expressed in the form of direct instructions or prohibitions. Research shows that differential socialization begins even before the birth of a child, as soon as his gender is determined using ultrasound. Mothers who have found out the gender of their unborn child in this way describe boys as “active” and “active,” and girls as “calm.” From birth, children are typically surrounded by gender-specific toys, diapers, and other items; Boy babies are called "large", "strong" and "independent", and girls are called "gentle", "delicate" and "beautiful", even if there are no objective differences in appearance or the behavior of babies no. Thus, ideas and expectations from children related to gender are formed by adults based on gender stereotypes long before the child can begin to exhibit this or that behavior.

Differential socialization continues in later life child. For example, numerous studies show that parents are more stimulating and responsive to physical activity in male infants than in female infants. Another revealing experiment concerns the influence of adult gender stereotypes on the choice of toys for children. The experiment was initially carried out with the participation of a three-month-old child, and later again with the participation of several children aged from three to 11 months. Three groups of adults were asked to play with the child, while the first group was told that the child was a girl, the second that it was a boy, and the third was not told about the child’s gender. The adults had three toys at their disposal: a doll, a ball, and a gender-neutral teething ring. Most adults who considered the child a boy offered him a ball, and the majority who considered the child a girl offered him a doll, without trying to find out which of the toys was more interesting to the child himself.

Peer influence

As the child’s social world expands, peer groups become another important source of gender development, as well as social learning in general. In interactions with peers, children from the age of three to four reward each other for gender-typical behavior, as well as for playing in gender-same groups, and punish each other for behavior that is considered inappropriate for their gender.

Information pressure

Finally, the media, especially television, as well as literature, cinema and video games, play a significant role in gender development. In these sources from which children receive information about gender roles, men and women are often portrayed in exaggerated stereotypes: men are portrayed as active and enterprising, and women as dependent, unambitious and emotional. Portrayals of the professional lives of men and women often do not correspond to reality: men are portrayed as representatives of a variety of professions, leaders and bosses, and women as either housewives or working in low-status positions. This image does not correspond either to the real statistics of professional employment of men, or to the widespread involvement of women in professional activity. Research shows that gender stereotypes in the media and culture have a big impact on children: those who watch a lot of TV develop more stereotypical ideas about gender roles. On the other hand, non-stereotypical portrayals of different genders broaden the range of children's desires and aspirations, as well as the roles they consider acceptable for their gender. Repeated depictions of equal participation of different genders in certain activities contribute to a sustained reduction in gender stereotyping in young children.

The active role of man in gender development

Social sources of gender development often provide conflicting information about gender roles and impose conflicting expectations on the child. This requires the child, starting from the very early age, actively seek and build his own rules and ideas about gender as a new and significant social category for him. Activity in the formation of ideas about gender is manifested, in particular, in selective attention and memory, as well as in the formation of preferences - for example, gender-typical or atypical toys, games with peers of the same or another gender.

The meaning of gender roles

Gender roles in Russian society

Notes

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