- 1) Preface 11
- 2) Introduction 19
- 3) Russian possessions beyond the Caucasus 27
- Physical state 36
- Their political form 47
- People's attitude 65
- 4) Regions of Asian Turkey adjacent to Russian possessions beyond the Caucasus 79
- Pashalyk of Akhaltsykh 81
- Pashalyk of Kars 95
- Pashalyk Bayazemsky 104
- Pashalyk of Arzurum 127
- Pashalyk Mushsky 142
- About Kurds 146
- Pashalyk Trebizondsky 156
- 5) Chapter I. Sultan's Gatti-Sheriff on the declaration of war. The Porte is trying to gain the alliance of the Persians. The Persian Court refuses the terms agreed at Dey-Kargan and appoints a new plenipotentiary to conclude peace. Arrival in Dei-Kargan Abdul-Hassan-Khan. Breaking the truce. Russian troops are marching to Kaflanca. Conclusion of peace in Turkmanchay. The Sultan appoints Galib Pasha to the rank of Asian Seraskir. The qualities of this Turkish leader. Kiosa-Magmet Pasha is his assistant. Preparatory measures in Asian Turkey for war. Porta cares to outrage Caucasian peoples. The difficult position of the Russian Commander-in-Chief. His activities are in preparation for a new campaign. The carelessness of the Turks. Calculation of Russian troops and their distribution among units. Gurian affairs. Border measures 165
- 6) Chapter II. Preparations for food, hospital, artillery and engineering 200
- 7) Chapter III. Selecting an operating line. Development of roads to Gumry 213
- 8) Chapter IV. Seraskir's trick. Arrival of the Turkish envoy in Tiflis. Approximate maneuver. Small error on the border. Departure of the Commander-in-Chief to Gumry. Appeal to the residents of border Pashalyki. Mutteid Mir-Feta-Seid. Preventive measures against infection. The final formation of the active Corps in Gumry 219
- 9) Chapter V. Going abroad. The order of the Corps. Seraskir's intentions regarding the opening of war. Overnight at Tikhnis. Attachment of siege artillery. First shootout. Assumptions for the siege of Kars. Flanking movement. Shootout near the village of Azatkev. Letter to the Kars Mufti. Reconnaissance of Kars. Battle of July 19. Military remarks. Position at Kichik-ev. Annexation of the artillery park 224
- 10) Chapter VI. Description of Kars in military terms. Enhanced reconnaissance on the 20th. Laying the initial battery. The fruits of first successes. The strength of the garrison. Construction of the first parallel 247
- 11) Chapter VII. Capture of a fortified enemy camp and suburbs beyond the river. Decisiveness of Count Paskevich. Assault on the city and fortress. Surrender of the citadel. Military remarks. Treatment of the vanquished. Appeal to the residents of Pashalyk. Celebration of victory. Order to the troops 261
- 12) Chapter VIII. The appearance of plague among the troops. Strict measures by which it was stopped. Properties and treatment of the disease. The loss of people due to the infection and the resulting slowdown in action. Search in the village of Mogara. Food measures. Reducing the defense of Kars. Mutual preparations for new actions. Reasons for the march to Akhaltsykh through Akhalkalak. Preliminary maneuver. Movement from Kars through the Childirsky ridge. Reconnaissance through Akhalkalaki. The garrison rejects the offer to surrender. Description of Akhalkalak in a military sense. The treachery of the garrison. Laying down batteries and bombing. Storm and flight of the Turks. Military remarks 279
- 13) Chapter IX. The detachment is sent to capture Gertvis. Description of this fortress in a military sense. Surrendering it. Conquest of Poti. Arrival of reserves. Order to the troops 298
- 14) Chapter X. March to Akhaltsykh. News of the enemy. Difficulties of the way. The corps arrives at Kura at the same time as auxiliary forces arrive at Akhaltsykh. Reconnaissance and battle on August 5. Military remarks 305
- 15) Chapter XI. Description of Akhaltsykh in a military sense 317
- 16) Chapter XII. The first period of the siege. Joining of General Popov's detachment. Night expedition and the defeat of the Turkish auxiliary corps. Military remarks 328
- 17) Chapter XIII. Second period of the siege. Proud response of the Akhaltsykh garrison. Assault and capture of the city. Surrender of the fortress. Military remarks 349
- 18) Chapter XIV. Order for the capture of Akhaltsykh. Surrender of Atskur. Actions of the Kars detachment. Surrender of Ardahan. Order to the troops. Development of roads from Akhaltsykh to Georgia and Imereti. Behavior of the Gurian Princess. Proposal for an expedition to Batum. The main forces move to Ardahan. Conquest of Bayazesh, Diyadin and Toprah-Kale. Further actions of the Baezesh detachment. Part of the Russian troops clear the Persian provinces and enter the Bayazesh Pashalik. Gurian Affairs. The commander-in-chief returns to Tifliss. Disposition of troops for the winter. Final conclusion of the first campaign 375
- 19) Proclamation of the Sultan 410
- 20) Manifesto of the Russian Emperor 419
- 21) Declaration issued by the Russian Ministry 421
- 22) Translation of the Supreme Vizier’s letter to Count Nesselrod 433
- 23) Letter from Vice-Chancellor Count Nesselrod to the Supreme Vizier 436
Russian-Turkish War 1828-1829
The history of the Russian-Turkish wars goes back to the 17th century. At first these were wars between the Moscow state and the Ottoman Empire (Turkey). Until the 18th century on the side Ottoman Empire always performed Crimean Khanate. From Russia main reason wars there was a desire to gain access to the Black Sea, and later to establish a foothold in the Caucasus.
Causes of the war
The military conflict between the Russian and Ottoman Empires in 1828 arose as a result of the fact that after the Battle of Navarino in October 1827, the Porte (the government of the Ottoman Empire) closed the Bosporus Strait, violating the Ackerman Convention. Ackerman Convention- an agreement between Russia and Turkey, concluded on October 7, 1826 in Akkerman (now the city of Belgorod-Dnestrovsky). Turkey recognized the border along the Danube and the transition to Russia of Sukhum, Redut-Kale and Anakria (Georgia). She undertook to pay all claims of Russian citizens within a year and a half, to provide Russian citizens with the right to unhindered trade throughout Turkey, and to Russian merchant ships the right to free navigation in Turkish waters and along the Danube. The autonomy of the Danube principalities and Serbia was guaranteed; the rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia were to be appointed from local boyars and could not be removed without the consent of Russia.
But if we consider this conflict in a broader context, it must be said that this war was caused by the fact that Greek people began the struggle for independence from the Ottoman Empire (back in 1821), and France and England began to help the Greeks. Russia at this time pursued a policy of non-intervention, although it was in an alliance with France and England. After the death of Alexander I and the accession to the throne of Nicholas I, Russia changed its attitude towards the Greek problem, but at the same time, disagreements began between France, England and Russia on the issue of dividing the Ottoman Empire (dividing the skin unkilled bear). Porta immediately announced that it was free from agreements with Russia. Russian ships were prohibited from entering the Bosphorus, and Turkey intended to transfer the war with Russia to Persia.
The Porte moved its capital to Adrianople and strengthened the Danube fortresses. Nicholas I at this time declared war on the Porte, and she declared war on Russia.
Progress of the war in 1828
J. Doe "Portrait of I. Paskevich"
On May 7, 1828, the Russian army under the command of P.Kh. Wittgenstein (95 thousand) and the Separate Caucasian Corps under the command of General I.F. Paskevich (25 thousand) crossed the Prut, occupied the Danube principalities and crossed the Danube on June 9. One after another, Isakcha, Machin and Brailov capitulated. At the same time it took place sea expedition to Anapa.
Then the advance of Russian troops slowed down. Only on October 11 they were able to take Varna, but the siege of Shumla and Silistria ended in failure. At the same time, Turkish attempts to invade Wallachia were neutralized by the Russian victory at Bailesti (modern Bailesti). In the Caucasus in the summer of 1828, I.F. Paskevich’s corps launched a decisive offensive: in June he captured Kars, in July Akhalkalaki, in August Akhaltsikhe and Bayazet; The entire Bayazeti pashalik (province of the Ottoman Empire) was occupied. In November, two Russian squadrons blocked the Dardanelles.
Assault on the Kars fortress
Y. Sukhodolsky "Assault on the Kars Fortress"
The day June 23, 1828 ranks in Russian history - Turkish war special place. She fell to a small army impregnable fortress, who has seen many times formidable conquerors at her walls, but never within the walls.
The siege of the fortress lasted for three days. And Kars bowed before the victors with the inaccessible tops of its towers. Here's how it happened.
By the morning of June 23, Russian troops stood under the fortress, they were under the general command of Major General Korolkov and Lieutenant General Prince Vadbolsky, Major General Muravyov, the Erivan Carabineer Regiment and the reserve Georgian Grenadier Regiment and a combined cavalry brigade.
With the first rays of the sun, cannonade began from all Russian batteries into the Turkish camp. In response to this, a strong fire began from all tiers of the citadel. Sixteen Russian guns could hardly respond to this cannonade. “It’s unlikely that during my entire service I have been in a stronger fire than on this day,” said Muravyov, a participant in Borodin, Leipzig and Paris. “If such firing had continued for another two hours, the battery would have been razed to the ground.”
When the batteries of the Turkish camp fell silent, part of the enemy infantry descended from the fortified heights and began close combat. A hand-to-hand fight ensued.
The Russian soldiers were led by Miklashevsky and Labintsev, their courage knew no limits. Having defeated the enemy, the soldiers began to pursue those fleeing up the mountain towards the camp. It was very dangerous, but the officers could not stop the Russian soldiers. “Stop, brothers! Stop! - they shouted. “No further!” This is just a fake attack!”
“It’s absolutely impossible, your honor,” one of the soldiers answered as he ran, “this is not the first time we have had to deal with an inchrist. Until you kick him in the teeth, he can’t understand this fake attack.”
Progress of the war in 1829
In the spring of 1829, the Turks tried to take revenge and recapture Varna, but on June 11, the new Russian commander-in-chief I.I. Dibich defeated the twice superior forces of the Grand Vizier Reshid Pasha near the village. Kulevcha. Silistria surrendered on June 30, at the beginning of July the Russians crossed the Balkans, captured Burgas and Aidos (modern Aytos), defeated the Turks near Slivno (modern Sliven) and entered the Maritsa Valley. On August 20, Adrianople capitulated. In the Caucasus, I.F. Paskevich in March and June 1829 repelled the attempts of the Turks to return Kars, Bayazet and Guria, on July 8 he captured Erzurum, captured the entire Erzurum pashalik and went to Trabzon.
J. Doe "Portrait of I. Dibich"
Numerous defeats forced Sultan Mahmud II to enter into negotiations. But the Turks delayed them in every possible way, hoping for Austrian intervention. Then I.I. Dibich moved to Constantinople. The ambassadors of the Western powers recommended that Sultan Mahmud accept Russian conditions. The Peace of Adrianople was concluded on September 14 : The Ottoman Empire ceded to Russia the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus from the mouth of the Kuban to Fort St. Nicholas, the Akhaltsikhe pashalyk and the islands in the Danube Delta, granted autonomy to Moldova, Wallachia and Serbia, recognized the independence of Greece; The Bosporus and Dardanelles were opened to ships of all countries; Russia received the right to free trade throughout the Ottoman Empire.
The feat of the brig "Mercury"
I. Aivazovsky "Brig Mercury is attacked by two Turkish ships"
"Mercury"- 18-gun military brig of the Russian fleet. It was launched on May 19, 1820. In May 1829, during the Russian-Turkish War, the brig under the command of Lieutenant-Commander Alexander Ivanovich Kazarsky won an unequal battle with two Turkish battleships, for which he was awarded the stern St. George's flag.
At the end Russian-Turkish war 1828-1829, the Black Sea Fleet continued the tight blockade of the Bosphorus. Detachments of Russian ships were constantly on duty at the entrance to the strait in order to promptly detect any attempt Turkish fleet go out to sea. In May 1829, a detachment of ships under the command of Lieutenant-Commander P. Ya. Sakhnovsky was assigned to cruise at the entrance to the Bosphorus. The detachment included the 44-gun frigate “Standart”, the 20-gun brig “Orpheus” and the 18-gun brig “Mercury” under the command of Lieutenant Commander A.I. Kazarsky. The ships left Sizopol on May 12 and headed for the Bosphorus.
Early in the morning of May 14, a Turkish squadron appeared on the horizon, sailing from the shores of Anatolia (the southern coast of the Black Sea) to the Bosporus. “Mercury” began to drift, and the frigate “Standard” and the brig “Orpheus” approached the enemy to determine the composition Turkish squadron. They counted 18 ships, including 6 battleships and 2 frigates. The Turks discovered the Russian ships and gave chase. Sakhnovsky ordered each ship to escape the pursuit independently. “Standart” and “Orpheus” set all sails and quickly disappeared over the horizon. “Mercury” also left with full sail, but two Turkish ships began to catch up with it. These were 110-gun and 74-gun ships. The rest of the Turkish ships drifted, watching as the admirals hunted for the small Russian brig.
Around two o'clock in the afternoon the wind died down and the pursuit stopped. Kazarsky ordered to move on the oars. But half an hour later the wind rose again and the chase resumed. Soon the Turks opened fire with running guns (guns designed to fire straight ahead). Kazarsky invited the officers to a military council. The situation was extremely difficult. The two Turkish ships were 10 times larger than the Mercury in the number of guns, and 30 times larger in the weight of the broadside. Lieutenant of the Corps of Naval Navigators I.P. Prokofiev offered to fight. The council unanimously decided to fight to the last extremity, and then fall with one of the Turkish ships and blow up both ships. Encouraged by this decision of the officers, Kazarsky appealed to the sailors not to disgrace the honor of St. Andrew's flag. All as one declared that they would be faithful to their duty and oath to the end.
The team quickly prepared for battle. Kazarsky was already an experienced naval officer. For his distinction during the capture of Anapa, he was promoted ahead of schedule to captain-lieutenant, and then again committed heroic act during the siege of Varna, for which he was awarded a golden saber with the inscription “For bravery!” and was appointed commander of the brig Mercury. Like a real naval officer, he knew very well the strengths and weak sides of your ship. It was strong and had good seaworthiness, but due to its shallow draft it was slow-moving. In this situation, only the maneuver and accuracy of the gunners could save him.
For half an hour, using oars and sails, the Mercury avoided the enemy's broadsides. But then the Turks managed to get around it on both sides, and each of the Turkish ships fired two broadside salvos at the brig. A hail of cannonballs, cannonballs (two cannonballs connected by a chain or rod, used to disable the rigging of a ship) and firebrands (incendiary shells) rained down on him. After this, the Turks offered to surrender and drift. The brig responded with a volley of carronades (a short cast-iron cannon) and friendly fire from rifles. Kazarsky was wounded in the head, but continued to lead the battle. He understood perfectly well that he the main task deprive the Turkish ships of movement, and ordered the gunners to aim at the rigging and spars of the Turkish ships.
I. Aivazovsky "The brig "Mercury" after the victory over the Turkish ships is moving towards the Russian squadron"
This tactic of the Russian brig was fully justified: several cannonballs from the Mercury damaged the rigging and mainmast of one ship, and it was out of action. And the other continued the attacks with even greater persistence. For an hour he hit the brig with hard longitudinal salvos. Then Kazarsky decided on a desperate maneuver. The brig abruptly changed course and approached the Turkish ship. Panic began on the Turkish ship: the Turks decided that the Russians would blow up both ships. Having approached to the shortest distance, Kazarsky allowed his gunners to hit the rigging of the Turkish ship with maximum accuracy. The risk was very great, because the Turks could now shoot point-blank at the Mercury from their huge guns. But our gunners destroyed several yards, and the sails began to fall on the deck, Turkish ship couldn't maneuver. "Mercury" fired another salvo at it and began to leave. And “Standard” and “Orpheus” arrived in Sizopol on the same day with their flags at half-mast. They reported the appearance of the Turkish fleet and the death of the Mercury. The fleet commander, Vice Admiral A.S. Greig, ordered to immediately go to sea to cut off the Turkish fleet’s path to the Bosporus. The next day, on the way to the Bosphorus, the Russian squadron met the brig Mercury. The appearance of the ship spoke for itself, but the wounded brig proudly walked to join its squadron. Kazarsky boarded the flagship and reported on the heroic actions of the officers and crew. Vice Admiral A.S. Greig, in a detailed report to Emperor Nicholas I, emphasized that the crew of the brig committed "a feat for which in the chronicles sea powers there is nothing like it". After this, “Mercury” continued its journey to Sevastopol, where a solemn meeting awaited it.
For this battle, Kazarsky was promoted to captain of the 2nd rank, awarded the order St. George 4th degree and received the rank of aide-de-camp. All the officers of the brig were promoted to rank and awarded orders, and the sailors were awarded the insignia of a military order. All officers and sailors were assigned a lifelong pension in the amount of double salary. The officers were allowed to include in their coats of arms the image of a pistol, which was prepared to blow up the ship. In honor of the feat of the Mercury crew, a commemorative medal was cast. The brig was the second of the Russian ships to receive the commemorative St. George flag and pennant. The news of the unprecedented victory of our small patrol vessel over the two strongest ships of the Turkish fleet quickly spread throughout Russia. Kazarsky became a national hero.
A.I. Kazarsky
Further history of Mercury
"Mercury" served as part of Black Sea Fleet until November 9, 1857. After this, three ships alternately bore the name "Memory of Mercury", receiving and passing on his St. George's flag. Kazarsky died suddenly in 1833 in Nikolaev, when he was less than 36 years old. There is reason to believe that he was poisoned by thieving port officials in order to hide traces of his crimes. On next year A monument to one of the first heroes of the city was erected on Michmansky Boulevard in Sevastopol. The initiative to install it was taken by the commander Black Sea squadron M. P. Lazarev. The author of the project was the famous architect A.P. Bryullov. On the granite pedestal of the monument there is a very brief, but very meaningful inscription carved: “To the Kazar. An example for posterity.”
Monument to A.I. Kazarsky
The result of the war
On September 14, 1829, the two parties signed Peace of Adrianople, as a result of which it passed to Russia most of the eastern coast of the Black Sea (including the cities of Anapa, Sudzhuk-Kale, Sukhum) and the Danube Delta.
The Ottoman Empire recognized the transfer to Russia of Georgia, Imereti, Mingrelia, Guria, as well as the Erivan and Nakhichevan khanates (transferred by Iran under the Peace of Turkmanchay).
Türkiye reaffirmed its obligations under the Akkerman Convention of 1826 to respect the autonomy of Serbia.
Moldavia and Wallachia were granted autonomy, and Russian troops remained in the Danube principalities during the reforms.
Türkiye also agreed to the terms of the 1827 Treaty of London granting autonomy to Greece.
Turkey was obliged to pay Russia an indemnity in the amount of 1.5 million Dutch chervonets within 18 months.
Medal for participation in the Russian-Turkish War of 1828-1829.
13:24 — REGNUM
Battle of Akhaltsikhe 1828. Ya. Sukhodolsky. 1839
1828 On August 28 (August 16, old style), Russian troops defeated the Turkish army in the Battle of Akhaltsikhe
“Russian-Turkish relations, on the contrary, continued to deteriorate. The Porte categorically did not want to conduct any negotiations on the Greek issue and closed the straits to Russian ships. Then in April 1828, Russia declared war on Turkey. The 95,000-strong Russian army under the command of Field Marshal P. X. Wittgenstein entered the Danube principalities, crossed the Danube and, in September, took Varna with a combined attack from land and sea. At the same time, the 25,000-strong corps of I. F. Paskevich launched an offensive in the Caucasus. In July-August, he captured the fortresses of Ardagan, Akhaltsikhe, Poti , Bayazed. In 1829, Russian troops under the command of General I. I. Dibich defeated twice the Turkish forces at Kulevcha and captured Silistria on the Danube. Paskevich was able to take Erzurum and went to Trebizond. Under threat complete defeat Türkiye agreed to sign a peace treaty. According to its terms, the islands in the Danube Delta and the Eastern coast of the Black Sea from the mouth of the Kuban to the Bay of St. were transferred to Russia. Nicholas. The cities of Poti, Akhaltsikhe, and Akhalkalaki were also assigned to Russia. The Sultan's government finally recognized the annexation of Georgia and Eastern Armenia to Russia. Thus, another step was taken towards the “riches of Asia”, and what a step! Before the signing of peace, Russian troops stood at Adrianople (Edirne), very close to Istanbul."Quoted from: Mikhailov A. A. The first throw to the south. St. Petersburg: North-West Press, 2003.
History in faces
Letter from A.S. Griboedov to I.F. Paskevich:
Your Excellency, my most respected and invaluable patron, Count Ivan Fedorovich.
Returning from you 1), I was seized by a severe fever and lay in bed, as did Maltsev. The rapid change from the cold climate to the stuffy samovar here, I think, is the reason for this. Yesterday I thought that in the interval of two paroxysms I would be able to get married without an attack of illness. But I was mistaken: at the very time I was getting dressed for the wedding, I was thrown into such a fever that I could at least refuse completely, and when they got married, I could barely stand on my feet 2). Despite this, on Tuesday I am leaving with my wife for Persia 3). She testifies to you her unfeigned love and respect as a benefactor, friend and relative of her husband.
McNeil has already told me confidently about receiving the 8th Kurur 4). Glory to the Almighty God, who accompanies you everywhere and in everything, both in battles and in negotiations!
What is Akhaltsykh like!! - It came at a price, it’s not for nothing that you repeated this fatal name every minute during my stay with you. And Borodin is a brave, wonderful and devoted person to you. I feel how much this loss must upset you, but, pursuing so many brilliant and daring military enterprises, like your Excellency, you must be prepared in advance for the sacrifices and losses that are closest to your heart.
Farewell, Your Excellency, I am not in a natural position, either physically or morally, and I am not able to add anything more. Poor Lukinsky! In a few days I paid with my life for a glass of cold water. Decidedly this: he, feeling the same fever, the same illness as me, did not take care, drank water with ice, and I went from the bride to the dead corpse of the unfortunate man, who, alone, without anyone, without close friends and relatives, ended his days soon and is not mourned by anyone.
I was happy for Pyotr Maksimovich 5). May God grant you good luck in everything, you who know how to reward the worthy.
With the sincere feeling of your Lordship's spiritual affection, my most humble servant
A. Griboyedov
Quoted from: Griboyedov A.S. Essays. M.: Fiction, 1988
The world at this time
In 1828, Chaka, the ruler of the Zulu Empire, was killed
Chief Chaka. Drawing from 1824
"At the end of the day, thick clouds covered the sky, foreshadowing the first thunderstorm of the season. The light of the sun turned yellowish-green, the clouds in the west turned red. Shortly before sunset on this day, September 22, 1828, several residents of Natal arrived to Chaka. He sent them to Pondo country and border lands for crane feathers, as well as for the skins of monkeys, civets and other animals for the royal wardrobe.
From the kraal of Dukuza Chaka went to another, smaller kraal of Kwa-Nyakamubi, located nearby. There he was present at the return of cattle from the veld and received the report of the warriors sent to the Pondo country.
Dingaan and Mhlangana also came there to pay their respects to Chaka. Now they were ready to act, but the sight of the king surrounded by warriors discouraged them. They stepped aside to consult with Mbopa. He recommended that they stand behind a reed fence and hide their weapons under their cloaks. The butler, with wealth and power already looming before him, showed more determination than the killers. He paved the way for his accomplices. Chaka scolded his envoys for their slowness, and Mbopa took advantage of this.
“Mbopa rushed at the crowd with a formidable assegai in one hand and a thick stick in the other. With feigned concern for the welfare of his royal master, he rushed at the envoys and began to beat them with a stick, shouting: “How dare you bother His Majesty with your false stories?” Envoys immediately ran away. Two elderly confidants rose to reprimand the overzealous servant. The stunned Chaka fell silent, but then uttered a piercing cry, and the two confidants were instantly gone. Having chosen psychological moment, Mhlangana rushed at the king from behind and stuck his assegai, as it seemed to him, into Chaka's left side. However, thanks to the cloak, the blade only pierced his hand. Dingaan came to his brother's aid, striking him again. Jumping up and turning around, Chaka found himself face to face with the killers.
“It is you, the children of my father, who are killing me,” he addressed them from the height of his enormous height. The formidable greatness of his brother forced the killers to back away in fear. Can a mortal survive two such blows? - What did I do, Dingaan? - Chaka continued more with sadness than with anger. - What have I done, Mhlangana, why are you killing me? You think that you will rule this country, but I already see the arrival of the swallows. You will not rule after my death. The white people are already here.
Blood began to flow from Chucky's mouth, and his cape slipped off his shoulders. Then he turned his back on his brothers and walked with royal majesty towards the gates of the kraal. But Mbopa caught up with him and stabbed the king in the back. Chaka turned around again and exclaimed:
How! And you, Mbopa, son of Sitayi, are also killing me! Blood gushed from his mouth.
But the reserve vitality exhausted; like a felled tree, he began to slowly lean back and, without bending, fell on his back. Even with his death, he struck fear into the hearts of the three murderers, for who and when has seen a person die in this way? For a long time the killers stood in complete confusion, maintaining dead silence. They gazed intently at the huge body lying on its back and, even after death, retaining an aura of grandeur. Only when their wide-open eyes became misty did they become convinced that Chaka was really dead, and they quietly left - the king's brothers went to their kraals, located three or four miles away, and Mbopa - in search of two elderly confidants in order to kill witnesses to the crime . He succeeded, and spread the rumor that the murder was carried out by envoys who brought feathers and skins."
Quoted from: Ritter E.A. Zulu Chaka. Rise of the Zulu Empire. M.: Nauka, 1989
YEAR OF THE RAT They say that those born this year were characterized by insight, sensitivity, practicality, and nonsense
ALL EDUCATION HAS BEEN REORGANIZED
Chaired by the Minister public education SHISHKOV established a special committee to revise the statutes and programs of all lower and secondary schools. This committee included Prince LIVEN and S.S. UVAROV.
By December 28, a new charter for district schools and gymnasiums was developed and approved. Previously, district schools were a preparatory stage for gymnasiums. From now on, district and city schools are made completely special lower educational institutions with a completed course, and lower classes were assigned to gymnasiums. Transferring from a district school to a gymnasium is not possible. Gymnasiums are now intended to educate the children of nobles and officials only. Drastic measures were taken to stop raising children with the help of free French teachers, since it was noticed that many of the Decembrists were brought up this way. Primary education does not exist yet - the charter refers only to city and district schools of the lowest type, and not elementary ones public schools.
The IV Department was created, in charge of charitable institutions and women's schools.
AZOV COSSACK ARMY CREATED
From the Cossacks who returned from the Transdanubian Sich, the Azov was created Cossack army. about six thousand people settled on the northwest coast Sea of Azov. It will exist until 1864, when the bulk of the Cossacks will be resettled to North Caucasus.
THE OFFICER MUST BE INTEGRAL
From this year, all officers entering service from retirement are required to present a certificate from the leaders of the nobility or governors about good behavior and failure to stand trial and investigation during retirement.
IN BRIEF, WHAT'S NEW?
Established in St. Petersburg Institute of Technology.
The Askania-Nova nature reserve has been created in Ukraine.
A manufacturing council was established.
It became known about the presence of coal in the Pechora basin. Coal mining will begin in 1934.
The philosopher M. G. PAVLOV began publishing the scientific and literary magazine “Atheneum”, where he published several articles on philosophy (“On the mutual relationship of speculative and experimental information”, “On the difference between the fine arts and sciences”).
The minting of three-ruble coins from platinum began. The coin weighs 8.532 g, the proportion of pure platinum is 1.82 g.
Gaaz Fedor Petrovich is appointed chief physician of Moscow prisons. He will achieve better conditions for prisoners and the opening of a school for their children.
BAPTIZED MULTIPLE TIMES
According to information from the Tiflis military governor total number Ossetians and other Caucasian mountaineers converted to Christianity reached 62,249 people, but the figure is not exact. Many mountaineers, who received 10 arshins of linen at baptism, were baptized several times.
SPIRITUAL CENSORSHIP
Two main spiritual censorship committees under the jurisdiction of the Synod have been created at the St. Petersburg and Moscow Theological Academies. Spiritual censorship considers theological-dogmatic and church-historical works, as well as secular works, if they contain passages of spiritual content related to the dogmas of faith or sacred history. They come for approval from the secular censorship committees.
SECULAR CENSORSHIP
On April 22, two statutes were approved - secular and spiritual censorship. Censorship should promote the spread of true enlightenment, which has an unshakable basis in adherence to faith and the throne. Pre-censorship has been introduced. All works, books and periodicals must be submitted to the censor for review. Books on foreign languages, released abroad, are checked by a foreign censorship committee, with whose permission they can be distributed in Russia.
ON THE WORLD ARENA...
WARS. During the Russian-Iranian war of 1826-28. Russian troops captured the Erivan and Nakhichevan khanates and, having occupied Tabriz, forced the Shah to conclude the Turkmanchay Peace Treaty on February 10. Annexed to Russia Eastern Armenia. Merchant ships are given freedom of navigation in the Caspian Sea. The Shah pays war indemnity.
Karachay conquered.
The Russian-Turkish war began. It was a consequence of the crisis of the Ottoman Empire caused by the Greek national liberation revolution of 1821-1829. In this war, Nikolai seeks only to force her to accept his demands, trying not to harm her too much. severe defeats and not wanting the Turkish monarchy to be destroyed.
In April, Russia declared war on Turkey. Russian troops will take Kars (in June) and Erzurum in Transcaucasia and defeat Turkish troops in Bulgaria (capture of Varna in September) and approach Constantinople. The war will end with the Peace of Adrianople in 1829.
From this time to 1830, there were cases of bubonic plague in the Russian army on the Danube and in Bessarabia.
AUSTRIA. Only friends admired his music at the evenings - “Schubertiads”. And their creator Franz Schubert, a modest music teacher, vegetated in poverty close to poverty. He died on November 19 at age 31.
PARTS. In America, General Andrew Jackson founded the Democratic Party after winning the presidential election. He would serve as president from 1829 to 1837. The first was founded in Philadelphia workers' party USA.
RUSSIANS ABROAD. The Russian embassy in Rome is located in Palazzo Odescalchi in Piazza Santissimi Apostoli. KARL BRYULLOV wrote to the Society for the Encouragement of Artists: “Now. how, on the occasion of the establishment of a Russian church in the house of our embassy, all the Russian artists in Rome took upon themselves the consent of the envoy to sacrifice their labors to decorate it, I got to paint the royal doors; this work should be finished in mid-October.” subsequently the embassy will often wander from one place to another, and with it the church, the painting will be lost.
MEANWHILE...
BAKUNIN MIKHAIL, born in 1814, entered the military school in St. Petersburg, after graduating (at the age of 19) he will be released as an officer.
BANTYSH-KAMENSKY V.N. was arrested by his Highest Imperial Majesty command again and imprisoned for reprehensible acts in the Suzdal Spaso-Efimievsky Monastery. There he will soon die at the age of 51.
WRANGEL F.P. at the end of the year was appointed chief ruler of the Russian possessions in America.
GRIBOEDOV A.S., born in 1795, wrote on December 24 to his seventeen-year-old wife NINA CHAVCHAVADZE: “Now I truly feel what it means to love... Be patient a little more, my Angel, and we will pray to God that we will never be sick again after that.” don't be separated..."
GURKO TATYANA ALEKSEEVNA, nee Baroness Korf, wife of V.I. GURKO, an infantry general and participant in the War of 1812, gave birth to a son this year.
DELVIG A. A., born in 1798, at the end of January he left for Kharkov on business. At the outposts they sign in books who is going where - only then, with the device railways, barriers at outposts will be removed and entry into cities will become completely free. On October 7, Delvig returned to St. Petersburg.
KARAMZINA E.N. married a retired guard lieutenant colonel, a poor landowner, Prince P.I. MESHCHERSKY.
KERN ANNA PETROVNA lived in their apartment in the absence of the Delvigs.
KOMAROVSKY. The cloth factory of Count KOMAROVSKY was not starting to work properly, and he decided to desperate measures- signed everyone out of England the best masters for the factory, and exiled the Dutch who were there. Things immediately got better.
KOTSEBUE O. E. transferred to the Guards crew.
LERMONTOV M.Yu. was assigned to the Noble boarding school at Moscow University.
PUSHKIN A.S. often came to Anna Petrovna Kern in April, repeating the last verse he wrote that sank into her soul. Any visit is full of jokes and poetic conversations. He talked about his conversations with friends. At this time, Pushkin was passionate about A. A. OLENINA. Since the end of July, secret surveillance has been approved for him. In October he went to the Tver estate of the Wolfs, Malinniki, where he stayed for six weeks. In December, I first met young Natalie Goncharova at dance master Yogel’s ball in Moscow (in the Kologrivovs’ house on Tverskoy Boulevard). This year he completed "Poltava" and began the novel "Arap of Peter the Great."
PUSHKINA O. S. On January 28, against the will of her parents, she secretly married N. I. PAVLISHCHEV. Anna Kern and Pushkin, on behalf of NADEZHDA OSIPOVNA, at the Delvigs’ apartment together received and blessed the newlyweds with bread and salt. On this occasion, Anna Petrovna finally bestowed her favor on Pushkin.
CHIKHACHEV P. A. graduated from diplomatic school. He will work at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and at the same time study at St. Petersburg University as a self-employed student Faculty of Law.
THIS YEAR WILL BE BORN:
GURKO JOSIF VLADIMIROVICH, future field marshal general, hero of the Russian-Turkish war. He would die in 1901;
MOLOSTOVA ZINAIDA MODESTOVNA;
SUKHOMLINOV MIKHAIL IVANOVICH, future historian of Russian literature, academician. He would die in 1901;
TELESHOV NIKOLAY AFANASIEVICH, future inventor, author of one of the first aircraft projects. He would die in 1895;
TOLSTOY LEV NIKOLAEVICH in the family of Count N.I. Tolstoy, future writer. His mother will die. when he is two years old, father - when he is nine years old. He himself would die in 1910;
UVAROV ALEXEY SERGEEVICH, son of Count Sergei Semenovich Uvarov, future archaeologist. Since childhood, moving in the circle of scientists and writers, closely acquainted with Granovsky, Pogodin, Shevyrev, Spassky and others, who in the summer would often come to visit the Uvarovs' Poreche estate near Moscow, he became interested in history very early. He would die in 1884;
UNKOVSKY ALEXEY MIKHAILOVICH in the village of Dmitryukovo, Tver province, future lawyer and public figure. He would die in 1893;
CHERNYSHEVSKY NIKOLAI GAVRILOVICH in Saratov, in the family of a priest, a future writer. He would die in 1889.
WHO WILL DIE THIS YEAR:
BODISKO BORIS ANDREEVICH, born in 1800, Decembrist;
MARIA FEODOROVNA, empress, born in 1759, widow of Emperor Paul.