Firstly, mankind uses clocks as a means of program-time control.
Secondly, today the measurement of time is the most accurate type of measurement of all: the accuracy of time measurement is now determined by an incredible error of the order of 1·10-11%, or 1 s in 300 thousand years.
And we achieved such accuracy modern people when they started using atoms, which, as a result of their oscillations, are the regulator of the atomic clock. Cesium atoms are in two energy states we need (+) and (-). Electromagnetic radiation with a frequency of 9,192,631,770 hertz is produced when atoms change from the (+) state to the (-) state, creating a precise, constant periodic process - the regulator of the atomic clock code.
In order to atomic clock worked precisely, cesium must be evaporated in a furnace, as a result of this process its atoms are released. Behind the oven there is a sorting magnet which has throughput atoms in the (+) state, and in it, due to irradiation in a microwave field, the atoms pass into the (-) state. The second magnet directs the atoms that have changed state (+) to (-) into the receiving device. Many atoms that have changed their state are obtained only if the frequency of the microwave emitter exactly coincides with the cesium vibration frequency of 9,192,631,770 hertz. Otherwise, the number of atoms (-) in the receiving device decreases.
The devices constantly monitor and regulate the constant frequency of 9,192,631,770 hertz. This means that the dream of watch designers has come true, an absolutely constant periodic process has been found: a frequency of 9,192,631,770 hertz, which regulates the course of atomic clocks.
Today, as a result of international agreement, a second is defined as the period of radiation multiplied by 9,192,631,770, corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine structural levels of the ground state of the cesium atom (isotope cesium-133).
To measure precise time, you can also use vibrations of other atoms and molecules, such as atoms of calcium, rubidium, cesium, strontium, hydrogen molecules, iodine, methane, etc. However, the radiation of the cesium atom is recognized as the frequency standard. In order to compare the vibrations of different atoms with a standard (cesium), a titanium-sapphire laser was created that generates a wide range of frequencies in the range from 400 to 1000 nm.
The first creator of quartz and atomic clocks was an English experimental physicist Essen Lewis (1908-1997). In 1955, he created the first atomic frequency (time) standard using a beam of cesium atoms. As a result of this work, 3 years later (1958) a time service based on the atomic frequency standard arose.
In the USSR, Academician Nikolai Gennadievich Basov put forward his ideas for creating an atomic clock.
So, atomic clock, one of exact types clock - a device for measuring time, where a pendulum is used natural vibrations atoms or molecules. The stability of atomic clocks is the best among all existing types watches, which is the key to the highest accuracy. The atomic clock generator produces more than 32,768 pulses per second, unlike conventional clocks. Atomic vibrations do not depend on air temperature, vibrations, humidity and many other external factors.
IN modern world, when navigation is simply impossible, atomic clocks have become indispensable assistants. They are capable of determining the location of a spaceship, satellite, ballistic missile, aircraft, submarine, car automatically via satellite communications.
Thus, for the last 50 years, atomic clocks, or rather cesium clocks, have been considered the most accurate. They have long been used by time services, and time signals are also broadcast by some radio stations.
The atomic clock device includes 3 parts: 
quantum discriminator,
quartz oscillator,
electronics complex.
The quartz oscillator generates a frequency (5 or 10 MHz). The oscillator is an RC radio generator, which uses piezoelectric modes of a quartz crystal as a resonant element, where atoms that have changed state (+) to (-) are compared. To increase stability, its frequency is constantly compared with the oscillations of a quantum discriminator (atoms or molecules) . When a difference in oscillation occurs, the electronics adjust the frequency of the quartz oscillator to zero, thereby increasing the stability and accuracy of the watch to the desired level.
In the modern world, atomic clocks can be manufactured in any country in the world for use in Everyday life. They are very small in size and beautiful. The size of the latest new atomic clock is no more than matchbox and their low power consumption - less than 1 Watt. And this is not the limit, perhaps in the future technical progress will reach mobile phones. In the meantime, compact atomic clocks are installed only on strategic missiles to increase navigation accuracy many times over.
Today, men's and women's atomic watches for every taste and budget can be bought in online stores.
In 2011, the world's smallest atomic clock was created by specialists from Symmetricom and Sandia National Laboratories. This watch is 100 times more compact than previous commercially available versions. The size of an atomic chronometer is no larger than a matchbox. To operate, it only needs 100 mW of power - this is 100 times less compared to its predecessors.
It was possible to reduce the size of the watch by installing instead of springs and gears a mechanism operating on the principle of determining frequency electromagnetic waves, emitted by cesium atoms under the influence of a laser beam of negligible power.
Such clocks are used in navigation, as well as in the work of miners, divers, where it is necessary to accurately synchronize time with colleagues on the surface, as well as precise time services, because the error of atomic clocks is less than 0.000001 fractions of a second per day. The cost of the record small atomic clock Symmetricom was about $1,500.
In the 21st century, satellite navigation is developing at a rapid pace. You can determine the position of any objects that are somehow connected with satellites, be it mobile phone, car or spaceship. But none of this could be achieved without atomic clocks.
These watches are also used in various telecommunications, such as mobile communications. This is the most accurate watch that ever was, is and will be. Without them, the Internet would not be synchronized, we would not know the distance to other planets and stars, etc.
In hours, 9,192,631,770 periods are taken per second electromagnetic radiation, which arose during the transition between two energy levels of the cesium-133 atom. Such clocks are called cesium clocks. But this is only one of three types of atomic clocks. There are also hydrogen and rubidium watches. However, cesium clocks are used most often, so we will not dwell on other types.
Operating principle of a cesium atomic clock
The laser heats the atoms of the cesium isotope and at this time, the built-in resonator registers all transitions of the atoms. And, as mentioned earlier, after reaching 9,192,631,770 transitions, one second is counted.
A laser built into the watch case heats the atoms of the cesium isotope. At this time, the resonator records the number of transitions of atoms to a new energy level. When a certain frequency is reached, namely 9,192,631,770 transitions (Hz), the second is counted based on the international SI system.
Use in satellite navigation
Definition process exact location Identifying one or another object using a satellite is very difficult. Several satellites are involved in this, namely more than 4 per receiver (for example, a GPS navigator in a car).
Each satellite contains a high-precision atomic clock, a satellite radio transmitter, and a digital code generator. The radio transmitter sends a digital code and information about the satellite to Earth, namely orbital parameters, model, etc.
The clock determines how long it took for this code to reach the receiver. Thus, knowing the speed of propagation of radio waves, the distance to the receiver on Earth is calculated. But one satellite is not enough for this. Modern GPS receivers can receive signals from 12 satellites simultaneously, which allows you to determine the location of an object with an accuracy of up to 4 meters. By the way, it is worth noting that GPS navigators do not require a subscription fee.
Archive ArticlesWhich “watchmakers” came up with and improved this extremely precise mechanism? Is there a replacement for him? Let's try to figure it out.
In 2012, atomic timekeeping will celebrate its forty-fifth anniversary. In 1967, the category of time in the International System of Units began to be determined not by astronomical scales, but by the cesium frequency standard. This is what the common people call the atomic clock.
What is the operating principle of atomic oscillators? These “devices” use quantum energy levels of atoms or molecules as a source of resonant frequency. Quantum mechanics connects with the system atomic nucleus- electrons" several discrete energy levels. An electromagnetic field of a certain frequency can provoke a transition of this system from low level to a higher one. The opposite phenomenon is also possible: an atom can move from a high energy level to a lower one by emitting energy. Both phenomena can be controlled and these energy interlevel jumps can be recorded, thereby creating a similarity oscillatory circuit. The resonant frequency of this circuit will be equal to the energy difference between the two transition levels divided by Planck's constant.
The resulting atomic oscillator has undoubted advantages over its astronomical and mechanical predecessors. The resonant frequency of all atoms of the substance chosen for the oscillator will be, unlike pendulums and piezocrystals, the same. In addition, atoms do not wear out or change their properties over time. Perfect option for a virtually eternal and extremely precise chronometer.
For the first time, the possibility of using interlevel energy transitions in atoms as a frequency standard was considered back in 1879 by British physicist William Thomson, better known as Lord Kelvin. He proposed using hydrogen as a source of resonator atoms. However, his research was more likely theoretical nature. Science at that time was not yet ready to develop an atomic chronometer.
It took almost a hundred years for Lord Kelvin's idea to come to fruition. It was a long time, but the task was not easy. Transforming atoms into ideal pendulums turned out to be more difficult in practice than in theory. The difficulty lay in the battle with the so-called resonant width - a small fluctuation in the frequency of absorption and emission of energy as atoms move from level to level. The ratio of the resonant frequency to the resonant width determines the quality of the atomic oscillator. Obviously, what more value resonant width, the lower the quality atomic pendulum. Unfortunately, increase resonant frequency to improve quality is not possible. It is constant for the atoms of each specific substance. But the resonant width can be reduced by increasing the time of observation of atoms.
Technically, this can be achieved as follows: let an external, for example quartz, oscillator periodically generate electromagnetic radiation, causing the atoms of the donor substance to jump across energy levels. In this case, the task of the atomic chronograph tuner is to bring the frequency of this quartz oscillator as close as possible to the resonant frequency of the interlevel transition of atoms. This becomes possible if there is enough long period observing the vibrations of atoms and creating feedback, regulating the quartz frequency.
True, in addition to the problem of reducing the resonant width in an atomic chronograph, there are a lot of other problems. This is the Doppler effect - a shift in the resonant frequency due to the movement of atoms, and mutual collisions of atoms, causing unplanned energy transitions, and even the influence of the pervasive energy of dark matter.
First time attempt practical implementation atomic clock was undertaken in the thirties of the last century by scientists at Columbia University under the leadership of the future Nobel laureate Dr. Isidor Rabi. Rabi proposed using the cesium isotope 133 Cs as a source of pendulum atoms. Unfortunately, Rabi's work, which greatly interested NBS, was interrupted by World War II.
After its completion, the lead in the implementation of the atomic chronograph passed to NBS employee Harold Lyons. His atomic oscillator worked on ammonia and gave an error commensurate with the best examples quartz resonators. In 1949, the ammonia atomic clock was demonstrated to the general public. Despite the rather mediocre accuracy, they implemented the basic principles of future generations of atomic chronographs.
The prototype of a cesium atomic clock obtained by Louis Essen provided an accuracy of 1 * 10 -9, while having a resonance width of only 340 Hertz
A little later, professor Harvard University Norman Ramsey improved the ideas of Isidor Rabi, reducing the impact on the accuracy of measurements of the Doppler effect. He proposed, instead of one long high-frequency pulse exciting atoms, to use two short ones sent to the arms of the waveguide at some distance from each other. This made it possible to sharply reduce the resonant width and actually made it possible to create atomic oscillators that are an order of magnitude superior in accuracy to their quartz ancestors.
In the fifties of the last century, based on the scheme proposed by Norman Ramsey, at the National Physical Laboratory (UK), its employee Louis Essen worked on an atomic oscillator based on the cesium isotope 133 Cs previously proposed by Rabi. Cesium was not chosen by chance.
Scheme of hyperfine transition levels of atoms of the cesium-133 isotope
Belonging to the group alkali metals cesium atoms are extremely easily excited to jump between energy levels. For example, a beam of light can easily knock out atomic structure cesium electron flow. It is due to this property that cesium is widely used in photodetectors.
Design of a classical cesium oscillator based on a Ramsey waveguide
First official cesium frequency standard NBS-1
Descendant of NBS-1 - the NIST-7 oscillator used laser pumping of a beam of cesium atoms
For the Essen prototype to become a true standard, it took more than four years. After all, precise adjustment of atomic clocks was possible only by comparison with existing ephemeris units of time. Over the course of four years, the atomic oscillator was calibrated by observing the Moon's rotation around the Earth using a precision lunar camera invented by the US Naval Observatory's William Markowitz.
The "adjustment" of atomic clocks to lunar ephemeris was carried out from 1955 to 1958, after which the device was officially recognized by the NBS as a frequency standard. Moreover, the unprecedented accuracy of cesium atomic clocks prompted NBS to change the unit of time in the SI standard. Since 1958, the “duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of radiation corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels” has been officially adopted as a second standard condition atom of the isotope cesium-133".
Louis Essen's device was named NBS-1 and was considered the first cesium frequency standard.
Over the next thirty years, six modifications of NBS-1 were developed, the latest of which, NIST-7, created in 1993 by replacing magnets with laser traps, provides an accuracy of 5 * 10 -15 with a resonant width of only sixty-two Hertz.
Comparison table of characteristics of cesium frequency standards used by NBS
| Cesium frequency standard | Operating time | Time served as an official NPFS standard | Resonance width | Microwave waveguide length | Error value |
| NBS-1 | 1952-1962 | 1959-1960 | 300 Hz | 55 cm | 1*10 -11 |
| NBS-2 | 1959-1965 | 1960-1963 | 110 Hz | 164 cm | 8*10 -12 |
| NBS-3 | 1959-1970 | 1963-1970 | 48 Hz | 366 cm | 5*10 -13 |
| NBS-4 | 1965-1990s | No | 130 Hz | 52.4 cm | 3*10 -13 |
| NBS-5 | 1966-1974 | 1972-1974 | 45 Hz | 374 cm | 2*10 -13 |
| NBS-6 | 1974-1993 | 1975-1993 | 26 Hz | 374 cm | 8*10 -14 |
| NBS-7 | 1988-2001 | 1993-1998 | 62 Hz | 155 cm | 5*10 -15 |
NBS devices are stationary stands, which allows them to be classified as standards rather than practically used oscillators. But for purely practical purposes, Hewlett-Packard worked for the benefit of the cesium frequency standard. In 1964, the future computer giant created a compact version of the cesium frequency standard - the HP 5060A device.
Calibrated using NBS standards, the HP 5060 frequency standards fit into a typical radio rack and had commercial success. It was thanks to the cesium frequency standard set by Hewlett-Packard that the unprecedented accuracy of atomic clocks became widespread.
Hewlett-Packard 5060A.
As a result, such things as satellite television and communications became possible, global systems navigation and time synchronization services of information networks. There have been many applications for the industrialized atomic chronograph technology. At the same time, Hewlett-Packard did not stop there and is constantly improving the quality of cesium standards and their weight and dimensions.
Hewlett-Packard family of atomic clocks
In 2005, Hewlett-Packard's atomic clock division was sold to Simmetricom.
Along with cesium, the reserves of which in nature are very limited, and the demand for it in a variety of technological fields extremely large, rubidium, whose properties are very close to cesium, was used as a donor substance.
It would seem that, existing scheme atomic clocks have been brought to perfection. Meanwhile, it had an annoying drawback, the elimination of which became possible in the second generation of cesium frequency standards, called cesium fountains.
Fountains of time and optical molasses
Despite highest precision the NIST-7 atomic chronometer, which uses laser detection of the state of cesium atoms, its circuit is not fundamentally different from the circuits of the first versions of cesium frequency standards.
A design disadvantage of all these schemes is that it is fundamentally impossible to control the speed of propagation of a beam of cesium atoms moving in a waveguide. And this despite the fact that the speed of movement of cesium atoms at room temperature- one hundred meters per second. Very quickly.
That is why all modifications of cesium standards are a search for a balance between the size of the waveguide, which has time to influence fast cesium atoms at two points, and the accuracy of detecting the results of this influence. The smaller the waveguide, the more difficult it is to make successive electromagnetic pulses affecting the same atoms.
What if we find a way to reduce the speed of cesium atoms? It was precisely this thought that preoccupied the Massachusetts student Institute of Technology Jerold Zacharius, who studied the influence of gravity on the behavior of atoms in the late forties of the last century. Later, involved in the development of a variant of the cesium frequency standard Atomichron, Zacharius proposed the idea of a cesium fountain - a method to reduce the speed of cesium atoms to one centimeter per second and get rid of the double-armed waveguide of traditional atomic oscillators.
Zacharius' idea was simple. What if you fired cesium atoms vertically inside an oscillator? Then the same atoms will pass through the detector twice: once while traveling up, and again down, where they will rush under the influence of gravity. In this case, the downward movement of atoms will be significantly slower than their takeoff, because during their journey in the fountain they will lose energy. Unfortunately, in the fifties of the last century, Zacharius was unable to realize his ideas. In his experimental facilities atoms moving upward interacted with those falling downward, which confused the accuracy of detection.
The idea of Zacharius was returned only in the eighties. Scientists at Stanford University, led by Steven Chu, have found a way to realize the Zacharius Fountain using a method they call "optical molasses."
In the Chu cesium fountain, a cloud of cesium atoms fired upward is pre-cooled by a system of three pairs of counter-directed lasers that have a resonant frequency just below the optical resonance of the cesium atoms.
Scheme of a cesium fountain with optical molasses.
The laser-cooled cesium atoms begin to move slowly, as if through molasses. Their speed drops to three meters per second. Reducing the speed of atoms gives researchers the opportunity to more accurately detect states (you must admit that it is much easier to see the license plates of a car moving at a speed of one kilometer per hour than a car moving at a speed of one hundred kilometers per hour).
A ball of cooled cesium atoms is launched upward about a meter, passing a waveguide along the way, through which the atoms are exposed to an electromagnetic field of a resonant frequency. And the detector of the system records the change in the state of atoms for the first time. Having reached the “ceiling”, the cooled atoms begin to fall due to gravity and pass through the waveguide a second time. On the way back, the detector again records their condition. Since the atoms move extremely slowly, their flight in the form of a fairly dense cloud is easy to control, which means that in the fountain there will not be atoms flying up and down at the same time.
Chu's cesium fountain facility was adopted by NBS as a frequency standard in 1998 and named NIST-F1. Its error was 4 * 10 -16, which means that NIST-F1 was more accurate than its predecessor NIST-7.
In fact, NIST-F1 reached the limit of accuracy in measuring the state of cesium atoms. But scientists did not stop at this victory. They decided to eliminate the error that black body radiation introduces into the operation of atomic clocks - the result of the interaction of cesium atoms with the thermal radiation of the body of the installation in which they move. The new NIST-F2 atomic chronograph placed a cesium fountain in a cryogenic chamber, reducing black body radiation to almost zero. The NIST-F2 error is an incredible 3*10 -17.
Graph of error reduction of cesium frequency standard options
Currently, atomic clocks based on cesium fountains provide humanity with the most accurate standard of time, relative to which the pulse of our technogenic civilization beats. Thanks to engineering tricks, the pulsed hydrogen masers that cool cesium atoms in the stationary versions of NIST-F1 and NIST-F2 were replaced by a conventional laser beam working in tandem with a magneto-optical system. This made it possible to create compact and very stable structures. external influences variants of NIST-Fx standards that can work in spacecraft. Quite imaginatively called "Aerospace Cold Atom Clock", these frequency standards are installed in the satellites of navigation systems such as GPS, which ensures their amazing synchronization to solve the problem of very accurate calculation of the coordinates of the GPS receivers used in our gadgets.
A compact version of the cesium fountain atomic clock, called the "Aerospace Cold Atom Clock", is used in GPS satellites
The calculation of the reference time is performed by an "ensemble" of ten NIST-F2s located in different research centers, collaborating with NBS. Exact value atomic second is obtained collectively, and thereby eliminates various errors and the influence of the human factor.
However, it is possible that one day the cesium frequency standard will be perceived by our descendants as a very crude mechanism for measuring time, just as we now look condescendingly at the movements of the pendulum in the mechanical grandfather clocks of our ancestors.
Atomic clock January 27th, 2016
The birthplace of the world's first pocket watch with a built-in atomic time standard will not be Switzerland or even Japan. The idea of their creation originated in the heart of Great Britain at the London brand Hoptroff
Atomic clocks, or as they are also called “quantum clocks,” are a device that measures time using natural vibrations associated with processes occurring at the level of atoms or molecules. Richard Hoptroff decided that it was time for modern gentlemen who are interested in ultra-technological devices to change their pocket mechanical watches for something more extravagant and extraordinary, and also in line with modern urban trends.
Thus, the public were shown elegant in their own way appearance pocket atomic clock Hoptroff No. 10, which can surprise the modern generation, sophisticated with an abundance of gadgets, not only with its retro style and fantastic accuracy, but also with its service life. According to the developers, having this watch with you, you can remain the most punctual person for at least 5 billion years.
What else can you find out interesting about them...
Photo 2. 
For all those who have never been interested in such watches, it is worth briefly explaining the principle of their operation. There is nothing inside the “atomic device” that resembles a classic mechanical watch. In Hoptroff no. 10 there are no mechanical parts as such. Instead, pocket atomic clocks are equipped with a sealed chamber filled with radioactive material. gaseous substance, the temperature of which is controlled by a special oven. Precise timing occurs as follows: lasers excite atoms chemical element, which is a kind of “filler” of the clock, and the resonator records and measures each atomic transition. Today basic element Such devices are cesium. If we recall the SI system of units, then in it the value of a second is related to the number of periods of electromagnetic radiation during the transition of cesium-133 atoms from one energy level to another.
Photo 3. 
If in smartphones the heart of the device is considered to be a processor chip, then in Hoptroff No. 10 this role takes over the reference time generator module. It is supplied by Symmetricom, and the chip itself was initially aimed at use in the military industry - in unmanned aerial vehicles.
The CSAC atomic clock is equipped with a temperature-controlled thermostat, which contains a chamber containing cesium vapor. Under the influence of a laser on cesium-133 atoms, their transition from one energy state to another begins, which is measured using a microwave resonator. Since 1967 International system units (SI) defines one second as 9,192,631,770 periods of electromagnetic radiation arising during the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom. Based on this, it is difficult to imagine a more technically accurate cesium-based watch. Over time, given latest achievements In the field of time measurement, the accuracy of new optical clocks based on an aluminum ion pulsating at a frequency of ultraviolet radiation (100,000 times higher than the microwave frequencies of cesium clocks) will be hundreds of times higher than the accuracy of atomic chronometers. To put it simply accessible language, Hoptroff's new pocket model No.10 has a running error of 0.0015 seconds per year, 2.4 million times COSC standards.
Photo 4. 
The functional side of the device is also on the verge of fantasy. With its help you can find out: time, date, day of the week, year, latitude and longitude in different sizes, pressure, humidity, star clock and minutes, tide forecast and many other indicators. The watch comes in gold, and the case is made from precious metal It is planned to use 3D printing.
Richard Hoptrof sincerely believes that it is this option production of your brainchild is the most preferable. To slightly change the design component of the structure, it will not be necessary to rebuild the production line at all, but to use the functional flexibility of the 3D printing device for this. However, it is worth noting that the prototype of the watch shown was made in the classical way.
Photo 5. 
Time is very expensive these days, and the Hoptroff No. 10 is a direct confirmation of this. According to preliminary information, the first batch atomic devices will be 12 units, and as for the cost, the price for 1 copy will be $78,000.
Photo 6. 
According to Richard Hoptroff, managing director of the brand, Hoptroff's London residence played a role key role in the emergence of this idea. “In our quartz movements we use high-precision oscillatory system with GPS signal. But in the center of London it is not so easy to catch this very signal. One day during a trip to Greenwich Observatory I saw the Hewlett Packard atomic clock there and decided to buy something similar for myself via the Internet. And I couldn't. Instead, I came across information about a chip from Symmetricon, and after three days of thinking, I realized that it would be perfect for a pocket watch.”
The chip we're talking about we're talking about, is the SA.45s Cesium Atomic Clock (CSAC), one of the first generation of miniature atomic clocks for GPS receivers, backpack radios and unmanned vehicles. Despite its modest dimensions (40 mm x 34.75 mm), it is still unlikely to fit into a wristwatch. Therefore, Hoptroff decided to equip them with a pocket model of rather respectable dimensions (82 mm in diameter).
In addition to being the most accurate clock in the world, Hoptroff No 10 (the brand's tenth movement) also claims to be the first gold case made using 3D printing technology. Hoptroff cannot yet say with certainty how much gold will be required to make the case (work on the first prototype was completed when the issue went to press), but estimates that its cost will be “at least several thousand pounds.” And considering all that volume scientific research, required to develop the product (take, for example, the function of calculating the ebb and flow of tides using harmonic constants for 3 thousand different ports), we can expect its final retail price to be about 50 thousand pounds sterling.
Gold body of model No. 10 as it comes out of the 3D printer and in finished form
Buyers automatically become members of an exclusive club and will be required to sign a written pledge not to use the atomic clock chip as a weapon. “This is one of the conditions of our contract with the supplier,” explains Mr. Hoptroff, “since the atomic chip was originally used in missile guidance systems.” Not much to pay for the opportunity to have a watch with impeccable accuracy.
The lucky owners of the No.10 from Hoptroff will have much more at their disposal than just a high-precision watch. The model also functions as a pocket navigation device, allowing one to determine longitude with an accuracy of one nautical mile, even after many years at sea, using a simple sextant. The model will receive two dials, but the design of one of them is still kept secret. The other is a whirlwind of counters displaying as many as 28 complications: from all possible chronometric functions and calendar indicators to a compass, thermometer, hygrometer (a device for measuring humidity levels), barometer, latitude and longitude counters and a high/low tide indicator. And this is not to mention the vital indicators of the state of the atomic thermostat.
Hoptroff has plans to produce a number of new products, including electronic version George Daniels' legendary Space Traveler complication watch. Now they are being worked on, the goal of which is to integrate them into watches Bluetooth technology to save personal information owner and provide automatic adjustment of complications such as the moon phase indicator.
The first copies of No.10 will appear in next year, in the meantime, the company is looking for suitable partners among retailers. “We could, of course, try to sell it online, but this is a premium model, so you still need to hold it in your hands to really appreciate it. This means that we will still have to use the services of retailers, and we are ready to start negotiations,” says Mr. Hoptroff in conclusion.
And even The original article is on the website InfoGlaz.rf Link to the article from which this copy was made -
When the light suddenly goes off and comes back on a little later, how do you know what time to set the clock? Yes, I'm talking about electronic watches, which many of us probably have. Have you ever thought about how time is regulated? In this article, we will learn all about the atomic clock and how it makes the whole world tick.
Are atomic clocks radioactive?
Atomic clocks tell time better than any other clock. They show time better than the rotation of the Earth and the movement of the stars. Without atomic clocks, GPS navigation would be impossible, the Internet would not be synchronized, and the positions of the planets would not be known with sufficient accuracy to space probes and devices.
Atomic clocks are not radioactive. They do not rely on atomic fission. Moreover, it has a spring, just like a regular watch. The biggest difference between a standard clock and an atomic clock is that oscillations in an atomic clock occur in the nucleus of an atom between the electrons surrounding it. These oscillations are hardly parallel to the balance wheel on a winding watch, but both types of oscillation can be used to track the passage of time. The frequency of vibrations inside an atom is determined by the mass of the nucleus, gravity and the electrostatic “spring” between positive charge nucleus and a cloud of electrons around it.
What types of atomic clocks do we know?
Today there are Various types atomic clocks, but they are built on the same principles. The main difference relates to the element and means of detecting changes in energy levels. Among different types There are the following atomic clocks:
- Cesium atomic clocks using beams of cesium atoms. The clock separates cesium atoms with different energy levels using a magnetic field.
- Hydrogen atomic clocks keep hydrogen atoms on target energy level in a container whose walls are made of a special material so that the atoms do not lose their high-energy state too quickly.
- Rubidium atomic clocks, the simplest and most compact of all, use a glass cell containing rubidium gas.
The most accurate atomic clocks today use a cesium atom and a conventional magnetic field with detectors. In addition, cesium atoms are contained by laser beams, which reduces minor changes frequencies due to the Doppler effect.
How do cesium-based atomic clocks work?
Atoms have a characteristic vibration frequency. A familiar example of frequency is the orange glow of sodium in table salt if thrown into the fire. The atom has many different frequencies, some in the radio range, some in the range visible spectrum, and some in between these two. Cesium-133 is most often chosen for atomic clocks.
To cause the cesium atoms to resonate in an atomic clock, one of the transitions, or the resonant frequency, must be accurately measured. This is usually done by locking a crystal oscillator into the fundamental microwave resonance of the cesium atom. This signal is in the microwave range of the radio frequency spectrum and has the same frequency as direct broadcast satellite signals. Engineers know how to create equipment for this spectrum region, in great detail.
To create a clock, cesium is first heated so that the atoms are vaporized and passed through a high-vacuum tube. They first pass through a magnetic field, which selects atoms with the desired energy state; they then pass through an intense microwave field. The frequency of microwave energy jumps back and forth in a narrow range of frequencies so that at a certain point it reaches a frequency of 9,192,631,770 hertz (Hz, or cycles per second). The range of the microwave oscillator is already close to this frequency because it is produced by a precise crystal oscillator. When a cesium atom receives microwave energy of the desired frequency, it changes its energy state.
At the end of the tube, another magnetic field separates atoms that have changed their energy state if the microwave field was of the right frequency. The detector at the end of the tube produces an output signal proportional to the number of cesium atoms that hit it, and peaks when the microwave frequency is sufficiently correct. This peak signal is needed for correction to bring the crystal oscillator, and therefore the microwave field, to the desired frequency. This blocked frequency is then divided by 9,192,631,770 to give the familiar one pulse per second that the real world needs.
When was the atomic clock invented?
In 1945, Columbia University physics professor Isidor Rabi proposed a clock that could be made based on techniques developed in the 1930s. It was called an atomic beam magnetic resonance. By 1949, the National Bureau of Standards announced the creation of the world's first atomic clock based on the ammonia molecule, the vibrations of which were read, and by 1952 it created the world's first atomic clock based on cesium atoms, NBS-1.
In 1955 the National physical laboratory in England built the first clock using a cesium beam as a calibration source. Over the next decade, more advanced watches were created. In 1967, during the 13th General Conference on Weights and Measures, the SI second was determined based on vibrations in the cesium atom. In the world's timekeeping system there was no more precise definition than this. NBS-4, the world's most stable cesium clock, was completed in 1968 and was in use until 1990.