Dictionary of concepts in biology. Biological terms

Biology Glossary

Abiogenesis is the development of living things from non-living matter in the process of evolution (a hypothetical model of the origin of life).

Acarology is the science that studies mites.

Allele is one of the specific states of a gene (dominant allele, recessive allele).

Albinism is the lack of pigmentation of the skin and its derivatives, caused by a violation of the formation of the melanin pigment. The causes of albinism are varied.

The aminoacial center is the active center in the ribosome where contact between the codon and anticodon occurs.

Amitosis – direct division cells, in which there is no uniform distribution of hereditary material between daughter cells.

Amniotes are vertebrates in which a provisional organ, the amnion (water membrane), is formed during embryogenesis. The development of amniotes occurs on land - in the egg, or in utero (reptiles, birds, mammals, humans).

Amniocentesis is the collection of amniotic fluid containing the cells of the developing fetus. Used for prenatal diagnosis of hereditary diseases and sex determination.

Anabolia (Superstructure) - the appearance of new characteristics in the later stages of embryonic development, leading to an increase in the duration of ontogenesis.

Analogous organs are organs of animals of different taxonomic groups, similar in structure and the functions they perform, but developing from different embryonic rudiments.

Anamnia is the stage of mitosis (meiosis), in which chromatids separate to the poles of the cell. In anaphase I of meiosis, it is not the chromatids that separate, but the whole chromosomes, consisting of two chromatids, as a result of which each daughter cell ends up with a haploid set of chromosomes.

Developmental anomalies are a violation of the structure and function of organs in the process of individual development.

Antigens are protein substances that, when they enter the body, cause an immunological reaction with the formation of antibodies.

An anticodon is a triplet of nucleotides in a tRNA molecule that contacts an mRNA codon in the aminoacial center of the ribosome.

Antimutagens are substances of various natures that reduce the frequency of mutations (vitamins, enzymes, etc.).

Antibodies are immunoglobulin proteins produced in the body in response to the penetration of antigens.

Anthropogenesis – evolutionary path origin and development of man.

Anthropogenetics is a science that studies issues of heredity and variability in humans.

Aneuploidy is a change in the number of chromosomes in the karyotype (heteroploidy).

Arachnology is the science that studies arachnids.

Aromorphosis is an evolutionary morphofunctional transformation of general biological significance that increases the level of organization of animals.

Archallaxis is changes that occur at different stages of embryonic development and direct phylogeny along a new path.

Archanthropes – group ancient people, combined into one species - homo erectus (straightened man). This species includes Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, Heidelberg man and other related forms.

Atavism is the complete development of a rudimentary organ, not typical for a given species.

Autophagy is the process of digestion by a cell of irreversibly changed organelles and areas of the cytoplasm with the help of hydrolytic enzymes of lysosomes.

Twins:

Monozygotic - twins that develop from one egg fertilized by one sperm (polyembryony);

Dizygotic (polyzygotic) – twins that develop from two or more eggs fertilized by different sperm (polyovulation).

Hereditary - diseases caused by a violation of the structure and function of hereditary material. There are genetic and chromosomal diseases;

Molecular – diseases caused by gene mutations. This may change the structure structural proteins and enzyme proteins;

Chromosomal – diseases caused by a violation of the structure or number of chromosomes (autosomes or sex chromosomes) due to chromosomal or genomic mutations;

Wilson-Konovalov (hepatocerebral degeneration) is a molecular disease associated with impaired copper metabolism, which leads to damage to the liver and brain. Inherited in an autosomal recessive manner;

Galactosemia is a molecular disease associated with impaired carbohydrate metabolism. Inherited in an autosomal recessive manner;

Sickle cell anemia is a molecular disease based on a gene mutation that leads to a change in the amino acid composition of the hemoglobin B chain. Inherited by the type of incomplete dominance;

Phenylketonuria is a molecular disease caused by a disorder in the metabolism of amino acids and phenylalanine. Inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.

Basal body (kinetosome) - A structure at the base of a flagellum, or cilium, formed by microtubules.

Biogenesis – The origin and development of organisms from living matter.

Developmental biology is a science that arose at the intersection of embryology and molecular biology and studies the structural, functional and genetic foundations of individual development, mechanisms for regulating the vital functions of organisms.

Blastoderm is a collection of cells (blastomeres) that form the wall of the blastula.

Brachydactyly - short fingers. Inherited in an autosomal dominant manner.

Genetic vectors are DNA-containing structures (viruses, plasmids) used in genetic engineering to attach genes and introduce them into a cell.

Viruses are non-cellular life forms; capable of living cells and multiplying in them. They have their own genetic apparatus, represented by DNA or RNA.

Vital staining (intravital) is a method of staining other structures using dyes that do not have a toxic effect on them.

Inclusions are unstable components of the cytoplasm of cells, represented by secretory granules, reserve nutrients, and end products of metabolism.

Degeneracy of the genetic code (redundancy) is the presence in the genetic code of several codons corresponding to one amino acid.

Gametogenesis is the process of formation of mature germ cells (gametes): female gametes - oogenesis, male gametes - spermatogenesis.

Gametes are sex cells with a haploid set of chromosomes.

Haploid cells – cells containing a single set of chromosomes (n)

Gastrocoel is a cavity in a two- or three-layer embryo.

Gastrulation is a period of embryogenesis in which the formation of a two- or three-layer embryo occurs.

Biohelminths are helminths in the life cycle of which there is a change of hosts or the development of all stages occurs within one organism without exiting into the external environment;

Geohelminths are helminths whose larval stages develop in the external environment (roundworm, roundworm);

Contact-transmitted - helminths, the invasive stage of which can enter the host’s body through contact with a patient (dwarf tapeworm, pinworm).

Hemizygous organism is an organism that has a single allele of the gene being analyzed due to the absence of a homologous chromosome (44+XY).

Hemophilia is a molecular disease linked to the X chromosome (recessive type of inheritance). Manifests itself with a blood clotting disorder.

Gene – Structural unit of genetic information:

Allelic genes are genes localized in identical loci of homologous chromosomes and determining different manifestations of the same trait.

Non-allelic genes - localized in different loci of homologous chromosomes or in non-homologous chromosomes; determine the development of various characteristics;

Regulatory – controlling the work of structural genes, their function is manifested in interaction with enzyme proteins;

Structural – containing information about the polypeptide structure of the chain;

Mobile – capable of moving throughout the cell genome and inserting into new chromosomes; they can change the activity of other genes;

Mosaic - eukaryotic genes consisting of informative (exons) and non-informative (introns) sections;

Modulators are genes that enhance or weaken the action of basic genes;

Mandatory (genes " household") – genes encoding proteins synthesized in all cells (histones, etc.);

Specialized (“luxury genes”) – encoding proteins synthesized in individual specialized cells (globins);

Holandric - localized in areas of the Y chromosome that are non-homologous to the X chromosome; determine the development of traits inherited only through the male line;

Pseudogenes – having similar nucleotide sequences to functioning genes, but due to the accumulation of mutations in them, are functionally inactive (part of the alpha and beta globin genes).

Genetics is the science of heredity and variability of organisms. The term was introduced into science in 1906. English geneticist V. Batson.

A genetic map is a conventional image of chromosomes in the form of lines with gene names printed on them and observing the distances between genes, expressed as a percentage of crossing over - morganids (1 morganid = 1% crossing over).

Genetic analysis is a set of methods aimed at studying the heredity and variability of organisms. Includes a hybridological method, a method of accounting for mutations, cytogenetic, population-statistical, etc.

Genetic load is the accumulation in the gene pool of a population of recessive alleles, which in the homozygous state lead to a decrease in the viability of individual individuals and the population as a whole.

The genetic code is a system for “recording” genetic information in the form of a sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule.

Genetic engineering is a targeted change in the hereditary program of a cell using molecular genetics methods.

Genocopies are the similarity of phenotypes that have different genetic natures (mental retardation in some molecular diseases).

Genome – the number of genes in a haploid cell, characteristic of a given type of organism.

Genotype is a system of interacting alleles of genes characteristic of a given individual.

Gene pool is the totality of genes of individuals that make up a population.

Geriatrics is a branch of medicine that deals with the development of treatments for older people.

Gerontology is a science that studies the aging processes of organisms.

Geroprotectors are antimutagenic substances that bind free radicals. Slow down the onset of old age and increase life expectancy.

Genetic heterogeneity of populations is the presence in individuals of a given population of several allelic variants (at least two) of one gene. Causes genetic polymorphism of populations.

A heterozygous organism is an organism whose somatic cells contain different alleles of a given gene.

Heteroplody is an increase or decrease in the number of individual chromosomes in a diploid set (monosomy, trisomy).

Heterotopy is a change in the process of evolution of the location of the anlage in the embryogenesis of a particular organ.

Heterochromatin - regions of chromosomes that maintain a spiral state in interphase, are not transcribed. Heterochronies are changes in the process of evolution of the time of formation in the embryogenesis of a particular organ.

A hybrid is a heterozygous organism formed by crossing genetically different forms.

Hypertrichosis – local – a trait linked to the Y chromosome; manifests itself in increased hair growth on the edge of the auricle; is inherited in a recessive manner.

Embryonic histogenesis is the formation of tissues from the material of the germ layers through cell division, their growth and differentiation, migration, integration and intercellular interactions.

The hominid triad is a combination of three characteristics unique to humans:

Morphological: absolute upright posture, development of a relatively large brain, development of a hand adapted for fine manipulation;

Psychosocial – abstract thinking, second signaling system (speech), conscious and purposeful work activity.

A homozygous organism is an organism whose somatic cells contain identical alleles of a given gene.

Homoothermic animals are organisms capable of maintaining a constant body temperature regardless of the ambient temperature (warm-blooded animals, humans).

Homologous organs are organs that develop from the same embryonic rudiments; their structure may be different depending on the function performed.

Homologous chromosomes are a pair of chromosomes of the same size and structure, one of which is paternal, the other is maternal.

The gonotrophic cycle is a biological phenomenon observed in blood-sucking arthropods, in which the maturation and laying of eggs is closely associated with blood feeding.

A linkage group is a set of genes located on the same chromosome and inherited by linkage. The number of linkage groups is equal to the haploid number of chromosomes. Loss of adhesion occurs during crossing over.

Color blindness is a molecular disease linked to the X chromosome (recessive type of inheritance). Manifested by impaired color vision.

Deviation (deviation) is the appearance of new characters in the middle stages of embryonic development, defining a new path of phylogenesis.

Degeneration is an evolutionary change characterized by a simplification of the body’s structure compared to ancestral forms.

Deletion is a chromosomal aberration in which a section of a chromosome is lost.

Determination is the genetically determined ability of embryonic cells only to a certain direction of differentiation.

Diakinesis is the final stage of prophase I of meiosis, during which the process of separation of homologous chromosomes after conjugation is completed.

Divergence is the formation in the process of evolution of several new groups from a common ancestor.

A diploid cell is a cell containing a double set of chromosomes (2n).

Diplotene - stage of prophase I of meiosis - the beginning of the divergence of homologous chromosomes after conjugation.

Sex differentiation is the process of development of sexual characteristics in ontogenesis.

A dominant trait is a trait that manifests itself in a homo- and heterozygous state.

Donor is an organism from which tissue or organs are taken for transplantation.

The tree of life is a schematic representation of the paths of evolutionary development in the form of a tree with branches.

Genetic drift (genetic-automatic processes) – changes in the genetic structure in small populations, expressed in a decrease in genetic polymorphism and an increase in the number of homozygotes.

Cleavage is a period of embryogenesis in which the formation of a multicellular embryo occurs through successive mitotic divisions of blastomeres without increasing their size.

Duplication is a chromosomal aberration in which a portion of a chromosome is duplicated.

Natural selection is a process in which, as a result of the struggle for existence, the fittest organisms survive.

Gill arches (arterial) are blood vessels passing through the gill septa and undergoing quantitative and qualitative changes during the evolution of the circulatory system of vertebrates.

Life cycle - the time of existence of a cell from the moment of its formation until death or division into two daughters as a result of the transition from the G 0 state to the mitotic cycle.

The embryonic period is, in relation to humans, the period of embryogenesis from the 1st to the 8th week of intrauterine development.

The embryonic organizer is a section of the zygote (gray sickle), which largely determines the course of embryogenesis. When the gray sickle is removed, development stops at the cleavage stage.

Zygotene is the stage of prophase I of meiosis, in which homologous chromosomes are combined (conjugated) into pairs (bivalents).

Idioadaptation (allomorphosis) is morphofunctional changes in organisms that do not increase the level of organization, but make a given species adapted to specific living conditions.

Variability is the property of organisms to change certain characteristics in the process of individual development:

Modification – phenotypic changes caused by the influence of environmental factors on the genotype;

Genotypic – variability associated with quantitative and qualitative changes in hereditary material;

Combinative - a type of variability that depends on the recombination of genes and chromosomes in the genotype (meiosis and fertilization);

Mutational – a type of variability associated with a violation of the structure and function of hereditary material (mutations).

Immunosuppression is the suppression of the body’s protective immunological reactions.

Immunosuppressors are substances that suppress the response of the recipient’s immune system to the transplant, helping to overcome tissue incompatibility and engraftment of the transplanted tissue.

Inversion is a chromosomal aberration in which intrachromosomal breaks occur and the excised section is rotated by 180 0.

Embryonic induction is an interaction between parts of the embryo, during which one part (the inducer) determines the direction of development (differentiation) of the other part.

Initiation is a process that ensures the beginning of template synthesis reactions (translation initiation - binding of the AUG codon to tRNA-methionine in the peptide center of the small ribosomal subunit).

Inoculation is the introduction of a pathogen by a vector into a wound with saliva in the bite.

Interphase is the part of the cell cycle during which the cell prepares to divide.

Intron is an uninformative region of a mosaic gene in eukaryotes.

Karyotype is a diploid set of somatic cells, characterized by the number of chromosomes, their structure and size. Species-specific trait.

Housing is a form of symbiosis in which one organism uses another as a home.

Keylons are protein substances that inhibit the mitotic activity of cells. The kinetoplast is a specialized region of the mitochondrion that provides energy for the movement of the flagellum.

The kinetochore is a specialized region of the centromere, in the area of ​​which short spindle microtubules are formed and connections between chromosomes and centrioles are formed.

Classification of chromosomes:

Denver - chromosomes are grouped based on their size and shape. To identify chromosomes, a solid staining method is used;

Parisian - based on the characteristics of the internal structure of chromosomes, which is revealed using differential staining. The same arrangement of segments is found only in homologous chromosomes.

Gene clusters are groups of different genes with related functions (globin genes).

Cell clone is a collection of cells formed from one parent cell through successive mitotic divisions.

Gene cloning is the production of a large number of homogeneous DNA fragments (genes).

Codominance is a type of interaction of allelic genes (in the presence of many alleles), when two dominant gene manifest themselves in the phenotype independently of each other (IU blood group).

A codon is a sequence of three nucleotides in a DNA (mRNA) molecule corresponding to an amino acid (sense codon). In addition to sense ones, there are stop and initiation codons.

Colinearity is the correspondence of the order of nucleotides in a DNA (mRNA) molecule to the order of amino acids in a protein molecule.

Colchicine is a substance that destroys spindle microtubules and stops mitosis at the metaphase stage.

Commensalism (freeloading) is one of the forms of symbiosis that is beneficial only for one organism.

Complementarity - strict correspondence of nitrogenous bases to each other (A-T; G-C)

The type of interaction of non-allelic genes, when the development of a trait is determined by two pairs of genes.

Consulting (medical-genetic) – counseling the applicant about the possible inheritance of a certain disease and a way to prevent it using the method of genetic analysis.

Contamination is a method of infection using a vector, in which the pathogen enters the body through microtraumas on the skin and mucous membranes or orally with contaminated products.

Conjugation - conjugation in bacteria is a process in which microorganisms exchange plasmids, and therefore cells acquire new properties:

Conjugation in ciliates is a special type of sexual process in which two individuals exchange haploid migrating nuclei;

Chromosome conjugation is the joining of homologous chromosomes into pairs (bivalents) in prophase I of meiosis.

Copulation is the process of fusion of germ cells (individuals) in protozoa.

Correlations are the interdependent, conjugate development of certain structures of the body:

Ontogenetic – consistency of development of individual organs and systems in individual development;

Phylogenetic (coordination) - stable interdependencies between organs or parts of the body, determined phylogenetically (combined development of teeth, intestinal length in carnivores and herbivores).

Crossing over is an exchange of sections of chromatids of homologous chromosomes, which occurs in prophase I of meiosis and leads to recombination of genetic material.

Cultivation of cells and tissues is a method that allows one to maintain the viability of structures when they are grown on artificial nutrient media outside the body to study the processes of proliferation, growth, and differentiation.

Leptotene is the initial stage of prophase I of meiosis, in which the chromosomes in the cell nucleus are visible in the form of thin threads.

Lethal equivalent is a coefficient that allows you to quantify the genetic load of a population. In humans, the equivalent is 3-8 recessive homozygous conditions, leading to the death of the body before the reproductive period.

Ligases are enzymes that connect (“crosslink”) individual fragments of nucleic acid molecules into a single whole (connection of exons during splicing).

Macroevolution is evolutionary processes occurring in taxonomic units above the species level (order, class, phylum).

The marginotomy hypothesis is a hypothesis that explains the aging process by reducing the DNA molecule by 1% after each cell division (shorter DNA - shorter life).

Mesonerphosis (primary kidney) is a type of vertebrate kidney in which the structural and functional elements are the Bowman-Shumlyansky capsules that are beginning to form, associated with capillary glomeruli. It is located in the trunk region.

Meiosis is the division of oocytes (spermatocytes) during maturation (gametogenesis). The result of meiosis is recombination of genes and the formation of haploid cells.

Metagenesis is the alternation of sexual and asexual reproduction in the life cycle of organisms.

Metanephros (secondary kidney) is a type of vertebrate kidney, the structural and functional element of which is the nephron, consisting of specialized sections. It is laid in the phase department.

Metaphase is the stage of mitosis (meiosis), in which maximum spiralization of chromosomes located along the equator of the cell is achieved and the mitotic apparatus is formed.

Genetics methods:

Gemini is a method of studying twins by establishing intra-pair similarities (concordance) and differences (discordance) between them. Allows you to determine the relative role of heredity and the environment for the development of traits in descendants;

Genealogical - a method of compiling pedigrees; allows you to establish the type of inheritance and predict the probability of inheritance of traits in descendants;

Somatic cell hybridization is an experimental method that allows the fusion of somatic cells of different organisms in culture to obtain combined karyotypes;

Hybridological is a method that establishes the nature of inheritance of traits using a system of crossings. It consists in obtaining hybrids, analyzing them over a series of generations using quantitative data;

Modeling of hereditary diseases - the method is based on the law of homological series of hereditary variability. Allows the use of experimental data obtained on animals to study hereditary human diseases;

Ontogenetic (biochemical) method is based on the use of biochemical medicines to identify metabolic disorders caused by an abnormal gene in individual development;

Population-statistical method is based on the study of the genetic composition of populations (Hardy-Weinberg law). Allows you to analyze the number of individual genes and the ratio of genotypes in the population;

Cytogenetic is a method of microscopic study of the hereditary structures of a cell. Used for karyotyping and determination of sex chromatin.

Microevolution is elementary evolutionary processes occurring at the population level.

Mitotic (cellular) cycle is the time of cell existence during the period of preparation for mitosis (G 1, S, G 2) and mitosis itself. The G0 period is not included in the duration of the mitotic cycle.

Mimicry is a biological phenomenon expressed in the imitative similarity of unprotected organisms to unrelated protected or inedible species.

Mitosis is a universal method of division of somatic cells, in which the genetic material is evenly distributed between two daughter cells.

The mitotic apparatus is a division apparatus formed in metaphase and consisting of centrioles, microtubules and chromosomes.

Modification of mRNA is the final stage of processing that occurs after splicing. Modification of the 5' end occurs by attaching a cap structure represented by methylguanine, and a polyadenine tail is attached to the 3' end.

Sauropsid - a type of vertebrate brain in which the leading role belongs to the forebrain, where clusters of nerve cells in the form of islands first appear - the ancient cortex (reptiles, birds);

Ichthyopsid - a type of vertebrate brain in which the leading role belongs to the midbrain (cyclostomes, fish, amphibians);

Mammal - a type of vertebrate brain in which the integrating function is performed by the cerebral cortex, which completely covers the forebrain - the new cortex (mammals, humans).

Genetic monitoring – Information system recording the number of mutations in populations and comparing mutation rates over a number of generations.

Monomer is a structural element (block) of a polymer chain (in a protein - an amino acid, in DNA - a nucleotide).

Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency

Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education

"Orenburg State Agrarian University"

Department of Forestry, Botany and Plant Physiology

Compiled by V.B. Shchukin, N.D. Kononova, N.V. Ilyasova

BIOLOGY

WITH THE BASICS OF ECOLOGY

Glossary of terms and concepts

Considered at a meeting of the Department of Forestry, Botany and Plant Physiology (Minutes No. 1 of 09/02/2013) and recommended for publication by the methodological commission of the Institute of Agricultural Technologies and Forestry of the Orenburg State Agrarian University(Minutes No. 1 of September 10, 2013).

Compiled by:

Viktor Borisovich Shchukin– Doctor of Agricultural Sciences, Professor, Head. Department of Forestry, Botany and Plant Physiology, Orenburg State Agrarian University;

Nina Dmitrievna Kononova– Candidate of Agricultural Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Forestry, Botany and Plant Physiology, Orenburg State Agrarian University;

Natalya Viktorovna Ilyasova– Candidate of Agricultural Sciences, senior lecturer at the Department of Forestry, Botany and Plant Physiology, Orenburg State Agrarian University

Reviewers:

T.Yu. Parshina - doctor biological sciences, Professor of the Department of Zoology and Physiology of Humans and Animals, Orenburg State Pedagogical University;

N.F. Gusev – Doctor of Biological Sciences, Professor of the Department of Biology, Environmental Management and Environmental Safety of Orenburg State Agrarian University

B 63 Biology with basics of ecology. Dictionary of terms and concepts: textbook / comp. V.B. Shchukin, N.D. Kononova, N.V. Ilyasova. – Orenburg: Publishing center of OSAU, 2013. – 208 p.

This dictionary of terms and concepts was compiled at the Department of Forestry and Botany

And plant physiology of the Orenburg State Agrarian University and includes basic biological terms and concepts covering all sections of the discipline “Biology with fundamentals of ecology”. The dictionary is intended for use by full-time students

And part-time study in the areas of training 110800.62 – Agricultural engineering, 220400.62 – Management in technical systems to increase the level of assimilation and consolidation of knowledge, increasing the intensity of the educational process during classroom classes and independent study of educational material, in the preparation of reports, messages, abstracts.

ISBN 978-5-88883-825-9

© Shchukin V.B., Kononova N.D., Ilyasova N.V., 2013 © Publishing center OGAU, 2013

INTRODUCTION

Biology is the science of life, the main task of which is to reveal the general properties of living organisms and explain the reasons for their diversity, identifying connections between the structure of organisms and environmental conditions. Biology is divided into separate sciences according to the subject of study: botany, which studies the structure and vital functions of representatives of the plant kingdom; microbiology, which studies the world of bacteria; zoology, the study of the animal kingdom; physiology of plants and animals, studying the functions of living organisms, etc.

Achievements in biology have led to the emergence of fundamentally new directions in science, which have become independent sections in the complex of biological disciplines. For example, disclosure molecular structure structural units of heredity (genes) became the basis for the creation of genetic engineering, the study of the biochemical properties of substances - for industrial production biologically active substances; studying the relationships between organisms - for the development of biological methods for controlling crop pests, etc.

In the future, the practical importance of biology will increase even more, which is associated with the rapid growth of the population on the planet and the corresponding increase in the need for food resources. An important role here will be played by the breeding of new highly productive forms of microorganisms, plants, animals, and the rational, scientifically based use of natural resources. In this regard, biology plays an extremely important role important role in the training of agricultural production specialists.

This dictionary of terms and concepts was compiled at the Department of Forestry, Botany and Plant Physiology of the Orenburg State Agrarian University and includes basic biological concepts covering all sections of the discipline “Biology with Fundamentals of Ecology”. Intended for use by full-time and correspondence forms training in areas of training 110800.62 – Agricultural engineering, 220400.62 – Management in technical systems to increase the level of assimilation and consolidation of knowledge, increasing intensity educational process during classroom lessons and independent study of sections of the discipline, when preparing reports, messages, abstracts.

Abiogenesis is the formation of organic compounds in nature without the participation of living organisms.

Aborigines are the indigenous inhabitants (people, animals, plants) of any territory or country.

Abstraction (from Latin abstraction - distraction) - product mental activity person, displaying a generalized image of reality,

V in which the natural properties and relationships of objects are preserved

And phenomena of the surrounding reality and there are no random unimportant signs.

Vitamin deficiency is the absence of a particular vitamin in the body. With vitamin deficiency, the activity of redox enzymes, the processes of protein biosynthesis and nucleic acids, metabolic disorders occur, leading to the development of serious diseases, even death of the body.

Australopithecines(Australopithecinae) – subfamily extinct

great apes, usually included in the hominid family. There are three types: zind-janthropus, paranthropus, plesianthrope.

The geological age of Australopithecus finds discovered in Southern and Eastern Africa dates back to the end of the Pliocene and the beginning of the Pleistocene. They walked on two legs and had small body(height 120 – 130 cm, weight 30 – 40 kg), brain volume was 500 – 600 cm3. Along with plant food, Australopithecines consumed meat food. They probably lived in groups in which there was a distribution of responsibilities, in open areas such as savannas. Sticks and stones could be used as weapons of defense, attack and obtaining food. According to many anthropologists, the most progressive australopithecines moved on to making tools, creating the earliest culture of the Stone Age - the Oldovian, or Pebble, and thus became the most ancient people. Australopithecines are also considered as a stage of human evolution that immediately preceded the emergence of the most ancient people (archanthropes).

Autolysis is the breakdown of substances and organelles contained in the cell under the action of enzymes present in lysosomes.

Autotropism is the ability of organs to straighten tropical bends after the irritation that caused the bend has ceased to act. For example, if the irritation turns out to be short-lived, the curled tendril straightens again.

Autotrophs are organisms that take the chemical elements they need for life from the inert matter surrounding them and do not require ready-made organic compounds of another organism to build their body.

ganizma. They use either the electromagnetic energy of the Sun (phototrophs) or the energy of chemical reactions (chemotrophs).

Autochthons are organisms that have lived in a given area since their formation (for example, eucalyptus is an autochthon of Australia, wild potatoes are of South America).

Agnosia is a violation of the process of recognizing objects while maintaining the functions of the corresponding sensory systems. Occurs when the association cortex is damaged.

Aggression is a form of communication characterized by the extermination of individuals of its own species.

Agrobiocenosis, or agrocenosis, is the totality of all organisms living on agricultural lands occupied by crops or plantings of cultivated plants.

Agroforestry– forestry activities aimed at improving soil-hydrological and climatic conditions region (landscape).

Agrosteppe is an artificial grass biogeocenosis created for the purpose of reclamation of disturbed steppes.

The agrosphere is a global system that unites the entire territory of the Earth, transformed by human agricultural activity.

Agrophytocenosis – plant community, man-made by sowing or planting cultivated plants. The agrocenosis includes cultivated and weed plants.

Agrocenosis is a biocenosis on agricultural lands, created for the purpose of obtaining agricultural products, which is a biotic community regularly maintained by humans, with low ecological reliability, but high productivity (yield) of one or more selected species plants or animals.

Agroecosystems, or agrocenoses, are artificial ecosystems that arise as a result of agricultural economic activity humans, created to obtain high net production of autotrophs. They contain producers (crops and weeds), consumers (insects, birds, mice, etc.), decomposers (fungi and bacteria) and an obligatory link food chains- Human. Agroecosystems differ from natural biocenoses in the following: insignificant species diversity; short power circuits; incomplete cycle of substances (some of the nutrients are carried out with the harvest); the source of energy is not only the Sun, but also human activity (land reclamation, irrigation, use of fertilizers); artificial selection (the effect of natural selection is weakened, selection is carried out by humans); lack of self-regulation (regulation is carried out by a person). In general, agroecosystems are

They are unstable systems and can only exist with human support.

Morphological adaptations– adaptations accompanied by changes in the structure of the organism (for example, leaf modification in desert plants). Morphological adaptations lead to the formation of certain life forms.

Physiological adaptations– changes in the physiology of organisms (for example, the body’s ability to provide itself with water by oxidizing fat reserves).

Ethological adaptations– changes in behavior (for example, hibernation in winter period). Characteristic of animals.

Adaptation (from Lat.adaptatio - adaptation, adjustment) - a set of morphophysiological, behavioral, population and other features of a given biological species, providing the possibility of a specific lifestyle in certain environmental conditions. Adaptations develop under the influence of three main factors: heredity, variability and natural (as well as artificial) selection.

Adenine is a 6-aminopurine, purine base. Structural component of adenosine phosphoric acids (AMP, ADP, ATP), coenzymes (NAD, NADP, FAD).

Adenoviruses (Adenoviridae) are a family of DNA-containing spherical viruses that lack an outer lipoprotein shell. The diameter of the viral particles is 70–90 nm, the capsid is icosahedral. They contain a single linear double-stranded DNA molecule, multiply in the cell nuclei of vertebrates, and inhibit the synthesis of DNA, RNA and proteins in infected cells. They spread without vectors. They affect various organs of mammals (including humans), birds, and can cause the formation of tumors.

Adenosine diphosphate(ADP) is a nucleotide consisting of adenine, ribose and two phosphoric acid residues. It plays an important role in the energetics of a living cell, being an acceptor of phosphoryl group in the processes of oxidative and photosynthetic phosphorylation, as well as a precursor of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a universal energy accumulator.

Adrenaline – hormone, neurotransmitter nervous system from the group of catecholamines. The main source of hormonal adrenaline in mammals is the adrenal medulla. The secretion of adrenaline into the blood by the adrenal glands increases in situations that require adaptive changes in metabolism - during stress, hypoglycemia, etc. In other critical situations, the adrenal glands secrete norepinephrine.

Azotobacter is a genus of free-living aerobic nitrogen-fixing bacteria with an oval or coccoid shape.

(2×5 µm), motile or immobile, gram-negative, non-spore forming. It is most often found on well-cultivated soils and is a producer of a number of vitamins, growth substances (such as auxins), and some antibiotics, which explains its positive effect on agricultural crops.

Nitrogen fixers are microorganisms capable of assimilating molecular nitrogen.

Biological nitrogen fixation – assimilation of molecular nitrogen from the air by nitrogen-fixing bacteria with the formation of nitrogen compounds available for use by other organisms. It is carried out both by free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria (for example, Azotobacter, cyanobacteria) and by symbiotic nitrogen-fixers living in symbiosis with higher plants (for example, nodule bacteria).

Acclimatization- adaptation of organisms to new or changed conditions of existence, in which they go through all stages of development and produce viable offspring. Occurs when organisms migrate both to completely new places for them, and to those where they previously lived, but for various reasons disappeared (reacclimatization).

Acclimation is the adaptation of the body to artificially created conditions.

Accommodation of the eye - a term to denote the process of adaptation of the eye to clearly seeing objects at various distances. This is achieved by changing the curvature of the lens due to the work of special internal muscles of the eye. In mammals, it is ensured by the activation of midbrain structures with the participation of the visual area of ​​the cerebral cortex.

Acropetal – directed from the base to the apex. Acceleration – 1. Acceleration of somatic development and physiological

skogo maturation of children and adolescents. It has been observed in the last 100 - 150 years. Newborn babies have increased body weight. Milk and permanent teeth erupt earlier, puberty, the development of psychomotor functions accelerated, the growth period shortened. Adults have increased body size (but less than children and adolescents), and women experience menopause later. The reasons for this phenomenon are associated both with environmental factors acting during a person’s individual life, and with endogenous factors caused by changes in heredity. 2. The process of accelerating growth and physiological development children and adolescents in comparison with previous generations. Acceleration phenomena have begun to be observed over the last 100–150 years. It was noted that the height of newborn children increased by 0.5 - 1.0 cm, weight - by an average of 100 - 300 g; the body length of school-age children has increased by 10–15 cm; milk teeth began to erupt earlier and occur

replacement with permanent ones; ossification of the skeleton occurs earlier, which indicates an earlier cessation of growth (on average by 2–3 years); earlier dates of puberty were noted.

Axon is a neurite, an axial cylinder, a single, rarely branching, elongated (up to 1 m) cytoplasmic process of a neuron that conducts nerve impulses from the cell body and dendrites to other neurons or effector organs. Its initial segment - the axon hillock - is the most excitable and is the site of generation of nerve impulses, and the terminal branches (terminals) form synaptic contacts with other neurons, muscle or glandular cells. Bundles of axons form nerve fibers.

Actin is a muscle fiber protein.

Sea anemones, sea anemones (Actiniaria) - a detachment of six-rayed corals (about 1500 species). Single (rarely colonial) non-skeletal polyps, mostly attached, and there are also species that slowly move along the substrate, burrow into the ground, and swimming species. The body is from a few millimeters to 1.5 m in diameter, with a corolla of tentacles, and is usually brightly colored. They feed on invertebrates and even small fish; there are planktivores. Reproduction is sexual and asexual, by longitudinal and transverse division. Touching the tentacles of sea anemones can cause a painful burn in humans.

Actinomycetales are an order of bacteria that form cells or hyphae with true branching. In many actinomycetes, branching is weakly expressed; hyphae are formed only at a certain stage of development and quickly disintegrate into rods and cocci. A number of atinomycetes, for example, streptomycetes, develop abundant substrate and (or) aerial mycelium. They reproduce by dividing cells or hyphae by multiple transverse partitions, followed by their disintegration into fragments of various sizes and shapes (fragmentation) and (or) through the formation of spores. Aerobes, but a number of species are anaerobes or facultative anaerobes. Mostly saprophytes, but there are plant symbionts and species that are pathogenic for humans, animals, and plants. Many actinomycetes produce physiologically active compounds, including antibiotics (for example, streptomycin, tetracycline).

Actinophages are actinomycete viruses.

Alkaloids – heterocyclic compounds, containing in the cycle one or more nitrogen atoms, less often oxygen. They are organic bases and form salts with organic acids. Contained

V plants, most often in the form of salts of malic, citric, tartaric and other acids. In the form of salts, alkaloids are soluble in water, in free form

V insoluble in water, but soluble in organic solvents. Used in the plant to build other compounds (e.g.

the alkaloid hordenine is converted into lignin); are a certain intermediate form of the process of transformation of nitrogenous compounds in plants - in this form, nitrogenous metabolic products are neutralized and stored; can participate in redox processes (the resulting N-oxide forms of alkaloids, in which pentavalentine nitrogen is bound to an oxygen atom, can easily give up their oxygen, oxidizing various compounds - ascorbic and citric acids, hydroquinone, pyrogallol); may be (for example, nicotine) a source of material necessary for the synthesis of enzymes; act as growth regulators, in particular as germination inhibitors; help maintain ionic balance due to their chelating ability.

Allelopathy is the mutual influence of plants on each other through the release of biologically active substances (phytoncides, colins, antibiotics, etc.) into the external environment. Like other plant relationships, it underlies the emergence, development and change of plant groups, and plays an important role in the soil-forming process. Most cultivated plants are allelopathically weakly active. The role of allelopathy must be taken into account when creating mixed crops and plantings when justifying crop rotations.

Allele is an allelomorph, one of the possible structural states of a gene.

Allergy (from the Greek allos - other, other and ergon - action) is a form of immunological response, manifested in the body's increased sensitivity to various antigens (so-called allergens - plant pollen, house dust, certain types of food, medicines

And etc.). Manifests itself in the form of edema and inflammation, spasm and relaxation of smooth muscles, microcirculation and hemodynamic disorders. It is considered a pathological disorder of the immune system.

Allogenesis is the direction of evolution of a group of organisms (with a change in habitat), in which close species change one particular adaptation to another, but the general level of organization remains the same. It is expressed in adaptive transformations - allomorphoses, or idioadaptations. During allogenesis, some organs develop progressively

And differentiate, others lose their functional significance and are reduced.

Allopatry - habitation different groups organisms (including populations of the same species) in different geographical areas. Each population of a given species adapts to the specific conditions of its habitat under the influence of natural selection.

Allochory is the spread of diaspores by external factors, for example, wind (anemochory), animals (zoochory), water (hydrochory), etc.

Abasia- Loss of the ability to walk, usually as a result of a disease of the nervous system.

Abbreviation- Loss by a species during evolution or by an individual in the process of ontogenesis of characteristics or phases of development that were present in its ancestors.

Abiogenesis- The emergence of living things from non-living things in the process of evolution.

Aborigine- An indigenous inhabitant of a certain area, who has lived in it since ancient times.

Avitaminosis- A disease caused by a long-term lack of vital vitamins in food.

Autogamy- Self-pollination and self-fertilization in flowering plants.

Autoduplication- The process of synthesis by living organisms or their parts of substances and structures that are completely identical to the original formations.

Autolysis- Self-dissolution, the breakdown of body tissues under the influence of enzymes contained in the same tissues.

Automixis- Fusion of germ cells belonging to the same individual; widely distributed among protozoa, fungi, and diatoms.

Autotomy- The ability of some animals to discard parts of their body; protective device.

Autotroph- An organism that synthesizes organic matter from inorganic compounds using the energy of the Sun or energy released during chemical reactions.

Agglutination- 1) Gluing and precipitation from a homogeneous suspension of bacteria, red blood cells and other cells. 2) Protein coagulation in a living cell, which occurs when exposed to high temperatures, toxic substances and other similar agents.

Agglutinins- Substances formed in the blood serum, under the influence of which proteins coagulate, microbes and blood cells stick together.

Agony- The final moment of life preceding clinical death.

Agranulocyte- Leukocyte that does not contain grains (granules) in the cytoplasm; in vertebrates these are lymphocytes and monocytes.

Agrocenosis- A biotic community of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms created to produce agricultural products and regularly maintained by humans.

Adaptation- Complex of morphophysiological and behavioral characteristics individual, population or species, ensuring success in competition with other species, populations and individuals, and resistance to the effects of abiotic environmental factors.

Adynamia- Muscle weakness, impotence.

Azotobacteria- A group of aerobic bacteria capable of fixing nitrogen from the air and thereby enriching the soil with it.

Acclimatization- A set of measures to introduce a species into new habitats, carried out in order to enrich natural or artificial communities with organisms useful to humans.

Accommodation- Adaptation to something. 1) Accommodation of the eye - adaptation to viewing objects at different distances. 2) Physiological accommodation - adaptation of muscle and nervous tissue to the action of a stimulus that slowly increases in strength.

Accumulation- Accumulation in organisms of chemicals found in the environment in lower concentrations.

Acromegaly- Excessive, disproportionate growth of the limbs and facial bones due to dysfunction of the pituitary gland.

Alkalosis- Increased content of alkalis in the blood and other tissues of the body.

Allele- Different forms of the same gene located in the same loci of homologous chromosomes.

Allogenesis

Albinism- Congenital absence of pigmentation that is normal for this type of organism.

Algology- The scientific branch of botany that studies algae.

Amensalism- Suppression of one organism by another without a reverse negative impact from the suppressed.

Amitosis- Direct cell division.

Anabiosis- A temporary state of the body in which life processes are so slow that all visible manifestations life.

Anabolism- Plastic exchange.

Analysis cross- Crossing the test organism with another, which is a recessive homozygote for a given trait, which makes it possible to establish the genotype of the test person.

Similar bodies- Organs that perform the same functions, but have different structures and origins, the result convergence.

Anatomy- A group of scientific branches that study the shape and structure of individual organs, their systems and the entire organism as a whole.

Anaerobe- An organism capable of living in an oxygen-free environment.

Angiology- Section of anatomy that studies the circulatory and lymphatic systems.

Anemia- A group of diseases characterized by a decrease in the number of red blood cells, their hemoglobin content or total blood mass.

Aneuploidy- Multiple changes in the number of chromosomes; an altered set of chromosomes in which one or more chromosomes from the normal set are either missing or are represented by additional copies.

Antheridium- Male reproductive organ.

Antigen- A complex organic substance capable of causing an immune response when entering the body of animals and humans - formation antibodies.

Anticodon- A section of a tRNA molecule consisting of 3 nucleotides that specifically binds to an mRNA codon.

Antibody- Immunoglobulin in the blood plasma of humans and warm-blooded animals, synthesized by lymphoid tissue cells under the influence of various antigens.

Anthropogenesis- The process of human origin.

Anthropology- An interdisciplinary discipline that studies the origin and evolution of man as a special sociobiological species.

Apomixis- Formation of an embryo from an unfertilized female reproductive cell or from cells of the germ or embryo sac; asexual reproduction.

Arachnology- Branch of zoology that studies arachnids.

Area- Area of ​​distribution of the species.

Arogenesis

Aromorphosis - Evolutionary direction, accompanied by the acquisition of major structural changes; increasing the complexity of the organization, raising it to a higher level high level, morphophysiological progress.

Arrhenotokia- Parthenogenetic birth of offspring consisting exclusively of males, for example, the development of drones from unfertilized eggs laid by the queen bee.

Archegonium- The female reproductive organ in mosses, ferns, horsetails, mosses, some gymnosperms, algae and fungi, containing an egg.

Assimilation- One of the aspects of metabolism, the consumption and transformation of substances entering the body or the deposition of reserves, due to which energy is accumulated.

Astasia- Loss of the ability to stand, usually as a result of a disease of the nervous system.

Astrobiology- A scientific branch that deals with the detection and study of signs of life in the Universe, in space and on planets.

Asphyxia- Cessation of breathing, suffocation, oxygen starvation. Occurs when there is a lack of aeration, including when plants get wet.

Atavism- The appearance in some individuals of a given species of characteristics that existed in distant ancestors, but were then lost in the process of evolution.

Atony- Intravital reduction in the size of organs and tissues, replacement of their functioning cells with connective tissue, fat, etc. Accompanied by disruption or even cessation of their functions.

Outbreeding- Crossing of individuals of the same species that are not directly related leads to the phenomenon of heterosis.

Autosome- Any non-sex chromosome; humans have 22 pairs of autosomes.

Acidosis- Accumulation of negatively charged ions (anions) of acids in the blood and other tissues of the body.

Aerobe- An organism capable of living only in an environment containing free molecular oxygen.

Aeroponics- Growing plants without soil in moist air thanks to periodic spraying of the roots with nutrient solutions. It is used in greenhouses, conservatories, on spaceships, etc.

Aerotaxis- Movement of unicellular and some multicellular lower organisms to a source of oxygen or, conversely, from it.

Aerotropism- The growth of plant stems or roots in the direction from which oxygen-rich air comes, for example, the growth of roots in mangroves towards the soil surface.

Bacteriology- The branch of microbiology that studies bacteria.

Bacterial carriage

Bacteriophage- A bacterial virus that can infect a bacterial cell, multiply in it and cause its dissolution.

Bacteriocide- Antibacterial substance (proteins) produced by bacteria of a certain type and suppressing the vital activity of bacteria of other types.

Baroreceptors- Sensitive nerve endings in the walls of blood vessels that sense changes in blood pressure and reflexively regulate its level.

Bacillus- Any bacteria that is rod-shaped.

Bivalent- Two homologous chromosomes formed during division of the cell nucleus.

Bilaterality- Bilateral symmetry in organisms.

Biogeography- Scientific branch that studies general geographical patterns organic world Land: distribution of plant cover and animal population various parts the globe, their combinations, floristic and faunal divisions of land and ocean, as well as the distribution of biocenoses and their species of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms.

Biogeochemistry- Scientific discipline that studies the role of living organisms in destruction rocks and minerals, circulation, migration, distribution and concentration chemical elements in the biosphere.

Biogeocenosis- Evolutionarily formed, spatially limited, long-term self-sustaining homogeneous natural system, in which living organisms and their surroundings are functionally interconnected abiotic environment, characterized by a relatively independent metabolism and a special type of use of the flow of energy coming from the Sun.

Biology- A complex of knowledge about life and a set of scientific disciplines that study living nature.

Biometrics- A set of techniques for planning and processing biological research data using mathematical statistics methods.

Biomechanics- A branch of biophysics that studies the mechanical properties of living tissues, organs and the body as a whole, as well as the mechanical processes occurring in them.

Bionics- One of the areas of cybernetics that studies the structure and vital activity of organisms in order to use the identified patterns in solving engineering problems and building technical systems similar in characteristics to living organisms and their parts.

Biorhythm- Rhythmic-cyclic fluctuations in the intensity and nature of biological processes and phenomena, giving organisms the opportunity to adapt to environmental changes.

Biosphere- The shell of the Earth populated by living organisms.

Biotechnology- A section of game science that studies ways to increase biological productivity and economic productivity of hunting grounds.

Biotechnology- A scientific discipline and area of ​​practice bordering between biology and technology that studies ways and methods of changing the human environment natural environment according to his needs.

Biophysics- A scientific discipline that studies physical and physicochemical processes in living organisms, as well as physical structure biological systems at all levels of their organization - from molecular and subcellular to cell, organ and organism as a whole.

Biochemistry- Scientific discipline that studies the chemical composition of living things, chemical reactions They also contain a natural order of these reactions that ensures metabolism.

Biocenosis- An interconnected collection of microorganisms, plants, fungi and animals inhabiting a more or less homogeneous area of ​​land or body of water.

Bifurcation- Dividing something into two branches.

Blastula- Single-layer embryo.

Botany- A complex of scientific disciplines exploring the kingdom of Plants.

Bryology- Scientific branch that studies mosses.

Vaccine- A preparation made from living or dead microorganisms used for immunization of humans and animals for prophylactic or therapeutic purposes.

Virology- Scientific discipline that studies viruses.

Virus carriage- Residence and reproduction of pathogens of infectious or invasive diseases in the body of humans and animals in the absence of signs of disease.

Gamete- Sexual, or reproductive, cell with a haploid set of chromosomes.

Gametogenesis- The process of formation and development of sex cells - gametes.

Gametophyte- Representative of the sexual generation or stage life cycle plants from spore to zygote.

Haploid- A cell or individual with a single set of unpaired chromosomes, formed as a result of reduction division.

Gastrula- Phase of embryonic development of multicellular animals, two-layer embryo.

Gastrulation- The process of gastrula formation.

Heliobiology- A branch of biophysics that studies the influence of solar activity on terrestrial organisms and their communities.

Hemizygote- A diploid organism that has only one allele of a given gene or one chromosome segment instead of the usual two. For organisms in which the heterogametic sex is male (as in humans and all other mammals), almost all genes associated with the X chromosome are hemizygous, since males normally have only one X chromosome. The hemizygous state of alleles or chromosomes is used in genetic analysis in order to search for the location of genes responsible for any trait.

Hemolysis- Destruction of red blood cells with the release of hemoglobin into the environment.

Hemophilia- A hereditary disease characterized by increased bleeding, which is explained by a lack of blood clotting factors.

Hemocyanin- The respiratory pigment of the hemolymph of some invertebrate animals, which ensures the transport of oxygen in their bodies, is a copper-containing protein that gives the blood a blue color.

Hemerythrin- The respiratory pigment of the hemolymph of a number of invertebrate animals, this is an iron-containing protein that gives the blood a pink tint.

Genetics- A discipline that studies the mechanisms and patterns of heredity and variability of organisms, methods of controlling these processes.

Genome- A set of genes contained in a haploid (single) set of chromosomes.

Genotype- The totality of all genes received from parents.

Gene pool- A set of genes of a group of individuals of a population, a group of populations or a species, within which they are characterized by a certain frequency of occurrence.

Geobotany- A scientific branch that studies plant communities, their composition, development, classification, dependence on the environment and influence on it, features of the phynocoenotic environment.

Geotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of gravity.

Geotropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of gravity.

Geophilia- The ability of shoots or roots of some perennial plants to retract or grow into the soil to overwinter.

Hermaphroditism- The presence of male and female reproductive systems in one animal.

Herpetology- Branch of zoology that studies amphibians and reptiles.

Heterozygote- The person who gives different types gametes.

Heterosis- “hybrid vigor”, accelerated growth, increased size, increased vitality and fertility of first-generation hybrids compared to the parental forms of plants or animals.

Heteroploidy- Multiple changes in the number of chromosomes.

Gibberellin- A substance that stimulates plant growth.

Hybrid- An organism resulting from crossing.

Gigantism- The phenomenon of abnormal growth of a person, animal, plant, exceeding the norm characteristic of the species.

Hygiene- Science that studies the impact of living and working conditions on human health and develops disease prevention measures.

Hygrophiles- Terrestrial animals adapted to living in conditions of high humidity.

Hygrophytes- Terrestrial plants adapted to living in conditions of excess humidity.

Hygrophobes- Terrestrial animals that avoid excess moisture in specific habitats.

Hydrolysis- The third stage of energy metabolism, cellular respiration.

Hydroponics- Growing plants without soil in aqueous solutions of minerals.

Hydrotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of humidity.

Hypertension- A disease caused by high blood pressure.

Physical inactivity- Lack of physical activity.

Hypoxia- Reduced oxygen content in the tissues of the body, observed with a lack of oxygen in the air, certain diseases and poisoning.

Hypotension- A disease caused by low blood pressure.

Histology- Section of morphology that studies tissues multicellular organisms.

Glycolysis- An oxygen-free process of carbohydrate breakdown.

Holandric trait- A trait found only in men (XY).

Homozygote- An individual that produces one type of gametes.

Homeotherm- An animal with a constant body temperature, practically independent of the ambient temperature (warm-blooded animal).

Homologous organs- Organs that are similar to each other in structure and origin, but perform different functions, the result divergence.

Hormone- Biologically active substance, produced in the body by specialized cells or organs and having a targeted effect on the activities of other organs and tissues.

Granulocyte- A leukocyte containing grains (granules) in the cytoplasm protects the body from bacteria.

Colorblindness- Hereditary inability to distinguish between certain colors, most often red and green.

Degeneration

Deletion- Chromosomal mutation, as a result of which a section of the chromosome in its middle part is lost; a gene mutation that results in the loss of a section of a DNA molecule.

Demecology- A branch of ecology that studies the relationship of populations with their environment.

Dendrology- A branch of botany that studies woody and shrubby plants.

Depression- Decrease in the number of individuals of a population, species or group of species caused by intrapopulation, biocenotic or abiotic reasons associated with human activity; depressed, painful state of the individual; general decrease in vitality.

Definition- Chromosomal mutation, which results in the loss of the end sections of chromosomes (lack).

Divergence- Divergence of signs.

Dihybrid cross- Crossing individuals according to two pairs of traits.

Dissimilation

Dominant trait- Predominant sign.

Donor- A person who donates blood for transfusion or organs for transplantation.

Genetic drift- Change in the genetic structure of the population as a result of any random reasons; genetic-automatic process in a population.

Splitting up- The process of division of the zygote without the growth of blastomeres.

Duplication- Chromosomal mutation in which any part of the chromosome is repeated.

Eugenics- The doctrine of human hereditary health and ways of its preservation and improvement. The basic principles of the doctrine were formulated in 1869 by the English anthropologist and psychologist F. Galton. F. Galton proposed studying factors that improve the hereditary qualities of future generations (genetic prerequisites for mental and physiological health, mental abilities, giftedness). But some ideas of eugenics were distorted and used to justify racism, genocide; the presence of social inequality, mental and physiological inequality of people. In modern science, the problems of eugenics are considered within the framework of human genetics and ecology, especially the fight against hereditary diseases.

Reserve- A section of territory or water area within which certain forms of human economic activity are permanently or temporarily prohibited to ensure the protection of certain types of living beings.

Reserve- A specially protected area, completely excluded from any economic activity in order to preserve natural complexes intact, protect living species and monitor natural processes.

Zygote- Fertilized egg.

Zoogeography- A scientific branch that studies the patterns of geographical distribution of animals and their communities on the globe.

Zoology- A scientific discipline that studies the animal world.

Idiomatic adaptation- The path of evolution without increasing the general level of organization, the emergence of adaptations to specific environmental conditions.

Insulation- A process that prevents individuals of different species from interbreeding and leads to divergence of characteristics within the same species.

Immunity- Immunity, resistance of the body to infectious agents and foreign substances. There are natural (congenital) or artificial (acquired), active or passive immunity.

Imprinting- Strong and quick fixation in the animal’s memory of the signs of an object.

Inbreeding- Inbreeding.

Inversion- Chromosomal mutation, as a result of which its part rotates 180°.

Insertion- A gene mutation that results in the insertion of a segment of a DNA molecule into the gene structure.

Interferon- A protective protein produced by the cells of mammals and birds in response to infection by viruses.

Intoxication- Poisoning of the body.

Ichthyology- Branch of zoology that studies fish.

Carcinogen- A substance or physical agent capable of causing or contributing to the development of malignant neoplasms.

Karyotype- A diploid set of chromosomes in the somatic (non-reproductive) cells of the body, a typical set of their characteristics for a species: a certain number, size, shape and structural features, constant for each species.

Carotenoids- Red, yellow and orange pigments found in plant and some animal tissues.

Catabolism- Energy metabolism, breakdown of substances, ATP synthesis.

Catagenesis- The path of evolution associated with the transition to a simpler habitat and leading to a simplification of the structure and lifestyle, morphophysiological regression, the disappearance of active life organs.

Tenancy- Close cohabitation (coexistence) of organisms of different species, in which one of the organisms benefits for itself (uses the organism as an “apartment”) without causing harm to the other.

Kyphosis- Curvature of the spine, convexity facing backwards.

Clone- Genetically homogeneous offspring of one cell.

Commensalism- Permanent or temporary cohabitation of individuals of different species, in which one of the partners derives unilateral benefit from the other without causing harm to the owner.

Complementarity- Spatial complementarity of molecules or their parts, leading to the formation of hydrogen bonds.

Convergence- Convergence of signs.

Competition- Rivalry, any antagonistic relationship determined by the desire to achieve a goal better and faster than other members of the community.

Consumer- Organism-consumer of finished organic substances.

Conjugation- Bringing chromosomes together during meiosis; sexual process involving partial exchange hereditary information, for example, in ciliates.

Copulation- The process of fusion of sex cells (gametes) into a zygote; the union of individuals of the opposite sex during sexual intercourse.

Crossbreeding- Interbreeding of domestic animals.

Crossing over- Exchange of sections of homologous chromosomes.

Xanthophylls- A group of yellow coloring pigments contained in the buds, leaves, flowers and fruits of higher plants, as well as in many algae and microorganisms; in animals - in the liver of mammals, chicken yolk.

Xerophile- An organism adapted to life in dry habitats, in conditions of moisture deficiency.

Xerophyte- A plant of arid habitats, common in steppes, semi-deserts, and deserts.

Lability- Instability, variability, functional mobility; high adaptability or, conversely, instability of the body to environmental conditions.

Latent- Hidden, invisible.

Leukoplasts- Colorless plastids.

Lysis- Destruction of cells through their complete or partial dissolution, both under normal conditions and during the penetration of pathogenic organisms.

Lichenology- Branch of botany that studies lichens.

Locus- The region of the chromosome in which the gene is localized.

Lordosis- Curvature of the spine, convexity facing forward.

Macroevolution- Evolutionary transformations that occur at the supraspecific level and determine the formation of increasingly larger taxa (from genera to types and kingdoms of nature).

Mediator- A substance whose molecules are able to react with specific receptors cell membrane and change its permeability to certain ions, causing the occurrence of an action potential - an active electrical signal.

Mesoderm- Middle germ layer.

Metabolism- Metabolism and energy.

Metamorphosis- The process of transformation of a larva into an adult animal.

Mycology- Scientific branch that studies mushrooms.

Mycorrhiza- Mushroom root; symbiotic habitation of fungi on (or in) the roots of higher plants.

Microbiology- Biological discipline that studies microorganisms - their systematics, morphology, physiology, biochemistry, etc.

Microevolution- Evolutionary transformations within a species at the population level, leading to speciation.

Mimicry- Imitation of non-poisonous, edible and unprotected species by poisonous and well-protected animals from attack by predators.

Modeling- Research and demonstration method various structures, physiological and other functions, evolutionary, ecological processes through their simplified imitation.

Modification- Non-hereditary change in the characteristics of an organism that occurs under the influence of environmental conditions.

Monitoring- Tracking any objects or phenomena, including those of a biological nature; a multi-purpose information system, the main tasks of which are observation, assessment and forecast of the state of the natural environment under the influence of anthropogenic influence in order to warn about emerging critical situations that are harmful or dangerous to human health, the well-being of other living beings, their communities, natural and man-made objects, etc. d.

Monogamy- Monogamy, the mating of a male with one female for one or more seasons.

Monohybrid cross- Crossing individuals based on one pair of traits.

Monospermia- Penetration of only one sperm into the egg.

Morganida- A unit of distance between two genes in the same linkage group, characterized by the crossover frequency in %.

Morula- Early stage of embryo development, which is an accumulation of a large number of blastomere cells without a separate cavity; In most animals, the morula stage is followed by the blastula stage.

Morphology- A complex of scientific branches and their sections that studies the form and structure of animals and plants.

Mutagenesis- The process of mutation occurrence.

Mutation- Abrupt changes in genes under the influence of physical, chemical and biological factors.

Mutualism- A form of symbiosis in which one partner cannot exist without the other.

Heredity- The property of organisms to repeat similar characteristics and properties over a series of generations.

Freeloading- One of the forms of beneficial-neutral relationships between organisms, when one organism receives nutrients from another without causing harm to it.

Neyrula- Stage of development of the embryo of chordates, at which the formation of the neural tube plate (from the ectoderm) and axial organs occurs.

Neutralism- Lack of mutual influence of organisms.

Noosphere- Part of the biosphere in which human activity manifests itself, both positive and negative, the sphere of “mind”.

Nucleoprotein- Complex of proteins with nucleic acids.

Obligate- Required.

Metabolism- Consistent consumption, transformation, use, accumulation and loss of substances and energy in living organisms during life, allowing them to self-preserve, grow, develop and self-reproduce in environmental conditions, as well as adapt to it.

Ovulation- Release of eggs from the ovary into the body cavity.

Ontogenesis- Individual development of the body.

Fertilization- Fusion of germ cells.

Organogenesis- The process of formation and development of organs during ontogenesis.

Ornithology- Branch of zoology that studies birds.

Paleontology- A scientific discipline that studies fossil organisms, their living conditions and burial conditions.

Natural monument- An individual rare or interesting object, living or inanimate nature, due to its scientific, cultural, educational and historical and memorial significance, it deserves protection.

Parallelism- Independent acquisition by organisms during evolution similar features structures based on features (genome) inherited from common ancestors.

Parthenogenesis- Development of an embryo from an unfertilized egg, virgin reproduction.

Pedosphere- The shell of the Earth formed by the soil cover.

Pinocytosis- Absorption of substances in dissolved form.

Pleiotropy- Dependence of several traits on one gene.

Poikilotherm- An organism that is unable to maintain internal body temperature, and therefore changes it depending on the temperature of the environment, for example, fish, amphibians.

Polygamy- Polygamy; mating of a male with many females during the breeding season.

Polymerism- Dependence of the development of one and the same trait or property of an organism on several genes independent in action.

Polyploidy- Multiple increase in the number of chromosomes.

Breed- A set of domestic animals of the same species, artificially created by man and characterized by certain hereditary characteristics, productivity and appearance.

Protistology- The branch of biology that studies protozoa.

Processing- Chemical modification of substances (fermins and hormones) that are synthesized in the EPS channels in an inactive form.

Radiobiology- A branch of biology that studies the effects of all types of radiation on organisms and ways to protect them from radiation.

Regeneration- Restoration by the body of lost or damaged organs and tissues, as well as restoration of the whole organism from its parts.

Decomposer- An organism that converts organic substances into inorganic ones in the course of its life.

Rheotaxis- The movement of some lower plants, protozoa and individual cells towards the flow of liquid or the position of the body parallel to it.

Rheotropism- The property of the roots of multicellular plants, when they grow in a flow of water, to bend in the direction of this current or towards it.

Retrovirus- A virus whose genetic material is RNA. When a retrovirus enters a host cell, the process of reverse transcription occurs. As a result of this process, DNA is synthesized from viral RNA, which is then integrated into the host DNA.

Reflex- The body's response to external irritation through the nervous system.

Receptor- Sensitive nerve cell that perceives external stimuli.

Recipient- An organism that receives a blood transfusion or organ transplant.

Rudiments- Underdeveloped organs, tissues and characteristics that were present in a developed form among the evolutionary ancestors of a species, but lost their significance in the process phylogeny.

Selection- Breeding new and improving existing varieties of plants, animal breeds, strains of microorganisms through artificial mutagenesis and selection, hybridization, genetic and cellular engineering.

Symbiosis- Type of relationship between organisms of different systematic groups: coexistence, mutually beneficial, often obligatory, cohabitation of individuals of two or more species.

Synapse- The place where nerve cells come into contact with each other.

Synecology- A branch of ecology that studies biological communities and their relationships with their environment.

Taxonomy- A section of biology devoted to the description, designation and classification into groups of all existing and extinct organisms, establishing family relationships between certain types and groups of species.

Scoliosis- Curves of the spine, facing to the right or left.

Variety- A set of cultivated plants of the same species, artificially created by man and characterized by certain hereditary characteristics, productivity and structural characteristics.

Spermatogenesis- Formation of male reproductive cells.

Splicing- The process of editing mRNA, in which some labeled sections of mRNA are cut out, and the remaining ones are read into one strand; occurs in the nucleoli during transcription.

Succulent- A plant with succulent, fleshy leaves or stems, easily tolerates high temperatures, but does not withstand dehydration.

succession- Consistent change of biocenoses (ecosystems), expressed in changes in species composition and community structure.

Serum- The liquid part of the blood without formed elements and fibrin, formed during the process of their separation during blood clotting outside the body.

Taxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of a unilaterally acting stimulus.

Teratogen- Biological effects, chemicals and physical factors, causing the development of deformities in organisms during ontogenesis.

Thermoregulation- A set of physiological and biochemical processes that ensure the constancy of body temperature in warm-blooded animals and humans.

Thermotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of temperature.

Thermotropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of heat.

Textile- A collection of cells and intercellular substance that performs a specific role in the body.

Tolerance- The ability of organisms to tolerate deviations of environmental factors from optimal ones.

Transcription- Biosynthesis of mRNA on a DNA matrix is ​​carried out in the cell nucleus.

Translocation- Chromosomal mutation, which results in the exchange of sections of non-homologous chromosomes or the transfer of a section of a chromosome to the other end of the same chromosome.

Broadcast- Synthesis of the polypeptide chain of protein is carried out in the cytoplasm on ribosomes.

Transpiration- Evaporation of water by the plant.

Tropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of some stimulus.

Turgor- Elasticity of plant cells, tissues and organs due to the pressure of the cell contents on their elastic walls.

Phagocyte- A cell of multicellular animals (humans), capable of capturing and digesting foreign bodies, in particular microbes.

Phagocytosis- Active capture and absorption of living cells and non-living particles by unicellular organisms or special cells of multicellular organisms - phagocytes. The phenomenon was discovered by I. I. Mechnikov.

Phenology- Body of knowledge about seasonal phenomena nature, the timing of their occurrence and the reasons that determine these timing.

Phenotype- The totality of all internal and external signs and properties of an individual.

Enzyme- Biological catalyst, according to chemical nature- a protein that is necessarily present in all cells of a living organism.

Physiology- Biological discipline that studies the functions of a living organism, the processes occurring in it, metabolism, adaptation to the environment, etc.

Phylogenesis- Historical development of the species.

Photoperiodism- Reactions of organisms to the change of day and night, manifested in fluctuations in the intensity of physiological processes.

Phototaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of light.

Phototropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of light.

Chemosynthesis- The process of formation by some microorganisms of organic substances from inorganic ones due to the energy of chemical bonds.

Chemotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of chemicals.

Predation- Feeding on animals that were alive up to the moment of their transformation into a food object (with their capture and killing).

Chromatid- One of two nucleoprotein strands formed during the doubling of chromosomes during cell division.

Chromatin- A nucleoprotein that forms the basis of a chromosome.

Cellulose- A carbohydrate from the group of polysaccharides, consisting of residues of glucose molecules.

Centromere- A section of a chromosome that holds its two strands (chromatids) together.

Cyst- A form of existence of unicellular and some multicellular organisms, temporarily covered with a dense membrane that allows these organisms to survive unfavourable conditions environment.

Cytology- Cell science.

Schizogony - Asexual reproduction by dividing the body into a large number of daughter individuals; characteristic of sporozoans.

Strain- A pure single-species culture of microorganisms, isolated from a specific source and possessing specific physiological and biochemical characteristics.

Exocytosis- Release of substances from the cell by surrounding them with outgrowths plasma membrane with the formation of membrane-surrounded vesicles.

Ecology- A field of knowledge that studies the relationships of organisms and their communities with the environment.

Ectoderm- Outer germ layer.

Embryology- A scientific discipline that studies the embryonic development of an organism.

Endocytosis- Absorption of substances by surrounding them with outgrowths of the plasma membrane with the formation of membrane-surrounded vesicles.

Endoderm- Inner germ layer.

Ethology- The science of animal behavior in natural conditions.

Autolyse, autolysis, self-digestion of tissues, cells or their parts under the action of enzymes in animals, plants and microorganisms.

Autotrophic organisms autotrophs, organisms that use carbon dioxide as the sole or main source of carbon to build their bodies and have both an enzyme system for assimilating carbon dioxide and the ability to synthesize all the components of the cell. Autotrophic organisms include terrestrial green plants, algae, phototrophic bacteria capable of photosynthesis, as well as some bacteria that use the oxidation of inorganic substances - chemoautotrophs.

Adenosine diphosphate, ADP, a nucleotide consisting of adenine, ribose and two phosphoric acid units. Being an acceptor of phosphoryl group in the processes of oxidative and photosynthetic phosphorylation, as well as phosphorylation at the substrate level and a biochemical precursor of ATP - a universal energy accumulator, adenosine diphosphate plays an important role in the energy of a living cell.

Adenosine monophosphate, AMP, adenylic acid, a nucleotide consisting of adenine, ribose and one phosphoric acid residue. In the body, adenine monophosphate is found in RNA, coenzymes and in free form.

Adenosine triphosphate, ATP, adenylpyrophosphoric acid, a nucleotide containing adenine, ribose and three phosphoric acid residues; a universal carrier and main accumulator of chemical energy in living cells, released during the transfer of electrons in the respiratory chain after the oxidative breakdown of organic substances.

Aleurone grains(from the Greek aleuron - flour), grains of storage protein in the cells of the storage tissues of the seeds of legumes, buckwheat, cereals and other plants. Occurs as amorphous or crystalline deposits (0.2 to 20 µm) various shapes and buildings. They are formed during seed ripening from drying vacuoles and are surrounded by an elementary membrane-tonoplast. Large complex aleurone grains consist of a protein crystalloid and a non-protein part (phytin), some of them contain calcium oxalate crystals. When seeds germinate, aleurone grains swell and undergo enzymatic breakdown, the products of which are used by the growing parts of the embryo.

Allele(from the Greek allelon - each other, mutually), allelomorph, one of the possible structural states of a gene. Any change in the structure of a gene as a result of mutations or due to intragenic recombinations in heterozygotes for two mutant alleles leads to the appearance of new alleles of this gene (the number of alleles for each gene is almost incalculable). The term “allele” was proposed by V. Johansen (1909). Different alleles of the same gene can lead to the same or different phenotypic effects, which has given rise to the concept of multiple allelism.

Amyloplasts(from the Greek amylon - starch and plastos - fashioned), plastids (from the group of leucoplasts) of a plant cell that synthesize and accumulate starch.

Amino acids, organic (carboxylic) acids, usually containing one or two amino groups (-NH 2). About twenty amino acids are usually involved in the construction of protein molecules. The specific sequence of alternation of amino acids in peptide chains, determined by the genetic code, determines the primary structure of the protein.

Amitosis, direct division of the interphase nucleus by constriction without the formation of chromosomes, outside the mitotic cycle. Amitosis can be accompanied by cell division, and can also be limited to nuclear division without division of the cytoplasm, which leads to the formation of bi- and multinucleated cells. Amitosis occurs in various fabrics, in specialized cells doomed to death.

Anabolism(from the Greek anabole - rise), assimilation, a set of chemical processes in a living organism aimed at the formation and renewal of the structural parts of cells and tissues. The opposite of catabolism (dissimilation), it involves the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones with the accumulation of energy. The energy required for biosynthesis (mainly in the form of ATP) is supplied by catabolic reactions of biological oxidation. Anabolism occurs very intensively during the growth period: in animals - in at a young age, in plants - during the growing season. Most important process anabolism, which has planetary significance - photosynthesis.

Anticodon, a section of a transfer RNA molecule consisting of three nucleotides and recognizing the corresponding section of three nucleotides (codon) in the messenger RNA molecule, with which it interacts complementarily. The specific codon-anticodon interaction that occurs on ribosomes during translation ensures the correct arrangement of amino acids in the synthesized polypeptide chain.

Outbreeding(from English out - outside and breeding - breeding), crossing or a system of crossing unrelated forms of the same species. On the basis of outbreeding, heterotic forms are obtained by conducting interline and interbreeding (intervarietal) crossings. Outbreeding is contrasted with inbreeding.

Autosomes, all chromosomes in the cells of dioecious animals, plants and fungi, with the exception of sex chromosomes.

Acidophilia, ability cellular structures stained with acidic dyes (eosomin, acid fuchsin, picric acid, etc.) due to the basic (alkaline) properties of the coloring structures.

Aerobic organisms aerobes (from the Greek aer - air and bios - life), organisms that can live and develop only in the presence of free oxygen in the environment, which they use as an oxidizing agent. All plants, most protozoa and multicellular animals, almost all fungi, i.e., belong to aerobic organisms. the vast majority of known species of living things.

basal body, kinetosome (corpusculum basale), an intracellular structure of eukaryotes that lies at the base of cilia and flagella and serves as a support for them. The ultrastructure of basal bodies is similar to the ultrastructure of centrioles.

Basophilia, the ability of cellular structures to be stained with basic (alkaline) dyes (azur, pyronine, etc.), due to acidic properties staining cell components, mainly RNA. An increase in cell basophilia usually indicates intense protein synthesis. Basophilia is characteristic of growing, regenerating, tumor tissues.

Basophils, cells containing granular structures in the protoplasm that are stained with basic dyes. The term “basophils” refers to one of the types of granular leukocytes (granulocytes) in the blood (normally, basophils in humans make up 0.5-1% of all leukocytes), as well as one of the types of cells of the anterior pituitary gland.

Backcross(from English back - back, back and cross - crossing), return crossing, crossing of a first-generation hybrid with one of the parent forms or a form similar in genotype.

Squirrels, proteins, high-molecular organic compounds built from amino acid residues. They play a primary role in life, performing numerous functions in their structure, development and metabolism. Molecular mass proteins from about 5000 to many millions. The infinite variety of protein molecules (proteins usually include 20 a-L-amino acids), due to the different sequence of amino acid residues and the length of the polypeptide chain, determines the differences in their spatial structure, chemical and physical properties. Depending on the shape of the protein molecule, fibrillar and globular proteins are distinguished, from the functions they perform - structural, catalytic (enzymes), transport (hemoglobin, ceruloplasmin), regulatory (some hormones), protective (antibodies, toxins), etc.; from the composition - simple proteins (proteins consisting only of amino acids) and complex (proteins, which, along with amino acids, include carbohydrates - glycoproteins, lipids - lipoproteins, nucleic acids - nucleoproteins, metals - metalloproteins, etc.); depending on solubility in water, solutions of neutral salts, alkalis, acids and organic solvents - albumins, globulins, glutelins, histones, protamines, prolamines. The biological activity of proteins is due to their unusually flexible, plastic and at the same time strictly ordered structure, which makes it possible to solve problems of recognition at the molecular level, as well as to carry out subtle regulatory effects. The following levels are distinguished: structural organization proteins: primary structure (sequence of amino acid residues in the polypeptide chain); secondary (laying of the polypeptide chain into a-helical regions and structural formations); tertiary (three-dimensional spatial packaging of a polypeptide chain) and quaternary (association of several individual polypeptide chains into a single structure). The primary structure of the protein is the most stable; the rest are easily destroyed by increased temperature, sudden changes in the pH of the environment and other influences. This violation is called denaturation and, as a rule, is accompanied by a loss of biological properties. The primary structure of a protein determines the secondary and tertiary structure, i.e. self-assembly of a protein molecule. Proteins in the cells of organisms are constantly renewed. The need for their constant renewal underlies metabolism. Nucleic acids play a decisive role in protein biosynthesis. Proteins are the primary products of genes. The sequence of amino acids in proteins reflects the sequence of nucleotides in nucleic acids.

Bivalent(from Latin bi-, in compound words - double, double and valent - strong), a pair of homologous chromosomes connected (conjugated) to each other in meiosis. It is formed at the zygotene stage and persists until anaphase of the first division. In the bivalent between chromosomes, X-shapes- chiasmata that hold the chromosomes in a complex. The number of bivalents is usually equal to the haploid number of chromosomes.

Bio...(from the Greek bios - life), part of complex words corresponding in meaning to the words “life”, “living organism” (biography, hydrobios) or the word “biological” (biocatalysis, biophysics).

biogenetic law a generalization in the field of relationships between ontogenesis and phylogeny of organisms, established by F. Muller (1864) and formulated by E. Haeckel (1866): the ontogeny of any organism is a brief and condensed repetition (recapitulation) of the phylogeny of a given species.

Nutrients, chemical elements that are constantly included in the composition of organisms and are necessary for their life. Living cells typically contain traces of almost all the chemical elements present in the environment, but about 20 are essential for life. nutrients- oxygen (accounts for about 70% of the mass of organisms), carbon (18%), hydrogen (10%), nitrogen, potassium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sulfur, chlorine, sodium. These so-called universal biogenic elements are present in the cells of all organisms. Some nutrients are important only for certain groups living beings (for example, boron and other biogenic elements are necessary for plants, vanadium for ascidians, etc.).

Biological membranes(Latin membrana - skin, shell, membrane), structures limiting cells (cellular, or plasma membranes) and intracellular organelles (membranes of mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, etc.). They contain lipids, proteins, heterogeneous macromolecules (glycoproteins, glycolipids) and, depending on the function performed, numerous minor components (coenzymes, nucleic acids, amino acids, carotenoids, inorganic ions, etc.). The main functions of biological membranes are barrier, transport, regulatory and catalytic.

Fermentation, anaerobic enzymatic redox process of transformation of organic substances, through which organisms obtain the energy necessary for life. Compared to processes occurring in the presence of oxygen, fermentation is an evolutionarily earlier and energetically less favorable form of extracting energy from nutrients. Animals, plants and many microorganisms are capable of fermentation (some bacteria, microscopic fungi, protozoa grow only due to the energy obtained during fermentation).

Vacuoles(French vacuole from Latin vacuus - empty), cavities in the cytoplasm of animal and plant cells, bounded by a membrane and filled with liquid. In the cytoplasm of protozoa there are digestive vacuoles containing enzymes and, performing the functions of osmoregulation and excretion, contractile vacuoles. Multicellular animals are characterized by digestive and autophagy vacuoles, which are part of the group of secondary lysosomes and contain hydrolytic enzymes.

In plants, vacuoles are derivatives endoplasmic reticulum, surrounded semi-permeable membrane- tonoplast. The entire system of vacuoles in a plant cell is called a vacuome, which in a young cell is represented by a system of tubules and vesicles; As the cell grows and differentiates, they enlarge and merge into one large central vacuole, occupying 70-95% of the volume of the mature cell. Cell sap vacuoles - a watery liquid with a pH of 2-5, contains organic and inorganic salts dissolved in water (phosphates, oxalates, etc.), sugars, amino acids, proteins, final or toxic metabolic products (tannins, glycosides, alkaloids) and some pigments (eg anthocyanins). Functions of vacuoles: regulation of water-salt metabolism, maintenance of turgor pressure in the cell, accumulation of low molecular weight water-soluble metabolites, storage substances and removal of toxic substances from metabolism.

Spindle, achromatin spindle, a system of microtubules in a dividing cell that ensures the segregation of chromosomes in mitosis and meiosis. The spindle is formed in prometaphase and disintegrates in telophase.

Cell inclusions, components of the cytoplasm, which are deposits of substances temporarily removed from metabolism or its final products. The specificity of cell inclusions is associated with the specialization of the corresponding cells, tissues and organs. The most common trophic inclusions of cells are drops of fat, lumps of glycogen, and yolk in eggs. In plant cells, cell inclusions are mainly composed of starch and aleurone grains and lipid droplets. Cell inclusions also include secretory granules in the glandular cells of animals, crystals of certain salts (mainly calcium oxalates) in plant cells. A special type of cell inclusions - residual bodies - are products of lysosome activity.

Gas exchange, a set of gas exchange processes between the body and the environment; consists of the body consuming oxygen, releasing carbon dioxide, a small amount of other gaseous substances and water vapor. The biological significance of gas exchange is determined by its direct participation in metabolism, the transformation of the chemical energy of absorbed nutritional products into the energy necessary for the life of the body.

Gamete(from Greek gamete - wife, gametes - husband), sex cell, reproductive cell of animals and plants. The gamete ensures the transmission of hereditary information from parents to offspring. The gamete has a haploid set of chromosomes, which is ensured complex process gametogenesis. Two gametes fuse during fertilization to form a zygote with a diploid set of chromosomes, which gives rise to a new organism.

Gametogenesis, development of germ cells (gametes).

Gametophyte, the sexual generation in the life cycle of plants developing with alternating generations. Formed from a spore, has a haploid set of chromosomes; produces gametes either in ordinary vegetative cells of the thallus (some algae), or in specialized organs of sexual reproduction - gametangia, oogonia and antheridia (lower plants), archegonia and antheridia (higher plants with the exception of flowering plants).

Haploid(from the Greek haplos - single, simple and eidos - species), an organism (cell, nucleus) with a single (haploid) set of chromosomes, which is designated Latin letter n. In many eukaryotic microorganisms and lower plants, the haploid normally represents one of the stages of the life cycle (haplophase, gametophyte), and in some species of arthropods, males are haploid, developing from unfertilized or fertilized eggs, but in which one of the haploid sets of chromosomes is eliminated. In most animals (and humans), only the germ cells are haploid.

Haplont(from the Greek haplos - single, simple and on - being), an organism in which all cells contain a haploid set of chromosomes, and only the zygote is diploid. Some protozoa (for example, coccidia), fungi (oomycetes), many green algae.

Hemicelluloses, a group of polysaccharides from higher plants that, together with cellulose, make up the cell wall.

Gene(from the Greek genos - genus, origin), hereditary factor, functionally indivisible unit of genetic material; a section of a DNA molecule (in some RNA viruses) encoding the primary structure of a polypeptide, transport and ribosomal RNA molecules, or interacting with regulatory protein. The set of genes of a given cell or organism constitutes its genotype. The existence of hereditary discrete factors in germ cells was hypothetically postulated by G. Mendel in 1865 and in 1909. V. Johansen called them genes. Further ideas about genes are associated with the development of the chromosomal theory of heredity.

...genesis(from Greek genesis - origin, emergence), part of complex words meaning origin, process of formation, for example ontogenesis, oogenesis.

Genetic information, information about the properties of an organism that is inherited. Genetic information is recorded by the sequence of nucleotides of nucleic acid molecules (DNA, and in some viruses also RNA). Contains information about the structure of all (about 10,000) enzymes, structural proteins and RNA of the cell, as well as the regulation of their synthesis. Various enzymatic complexes of the cell read the genetic information.

Genetic map of a chromosome, scheme relative position genes in the same linkage group. To compile a genetic map of chromosomes, it is necessary to identify many mutant genes and conduct numerous crosses. The distance between genes on the genetic map of chromosomes is determined by the frequency of crossing over between them. The unit of distance on the genetic map of chromosomes of meiotically dividing cells is the morganide, corresponding to 1% crossing over.

Genetic code, a unified system for recording hereditary information in nucleic acid molecules in the form of a sequence of nucleotides, characteristic of living organisms; determines the sequence of inclusion of amino acids in the synthesized polypeptide chain in accordance with the nucleotide sequence of the gene. Implementation of the genetic code in living cells, i.e. the synthesis of the protein encoded by the gene is carried out using two matrix processes - transcription and translation. General properties genetic code: triplet (each amino acid is encoded by a triplet of nucleotides); non-overlap (codons of one gene do not overlap); degeneracy (many amino acid residues are encoded by several codons); unambiguity (each individual codon encodes only one amino acid residue); compactness (between codons and mRNA there are no “commas” - nucleotides not included in the codon sequence of a given gene); universality (the genetic code is the same for all living organisms).

Genetic material cell components, the structural and functional unity of which ensures the storage, implementation and transmission of hereditary information during vegetative and sexual reproduction.

Genome(German Genom), a set of genes characteristic of the haploid set of chromosomes of a given type of organism; basic haploid set of chromosomes.

Genotype, genetic (hereditary) constitution of an organism, the totality of all hereditary inclinations of a given cell or organism, including alleles of genes, the nature of their physical linkage in chromosomes and the presence of chromosomal structures.

Gene pool, a set of genes that are present in individuals of a given population, group of populations or species.

Heterogamy, 1) type of sexual process, male and female gametes that merge during fertilization are different in shape and size. Higher plants and multicellular animals, as well as some fungi, are characterized by oogamy; In relation to the copulating and conjugating individuals of a number of protozoa during the sexual process, the term “anisogamy” is used. 2) Change in the function of male and female flowers or their location on the plant (as an anomaly).

Heterozygote, an organism (cell) in which homologous chromosomes carry different alleles (alternative forms) of a particular gene. Heterozygosity, as a rule, determines the high viability of organisms and their good adaptability to changing environmental conditions and is therefore widespread in natural populations.

Heterotrophic organisms heterotrophs, organisms that use exogenous organic substances as a carbon source. As a rule, these same substances also serve as a source of energy for them (organotrophy). Heterotrophic organisms, as opposed to autotrophic organisms, include all animals, fungi, most bacteria, as well as non-chlorophyll land plants and algae.

Heterochromatin, areas of chromatin that are in a condensed (tightly packed) state throughout the cell cycle. They are intensely stained with nuclear dyes and are clearly visible in a light microscope even during interphase. Heterochromatic regions of chromosomes, as a rule, replicate later than euchromatic ones and are not transcribed, i.e. genetically very inert.

Hyaloplasma, basic plasma, cytoplasmic matrix, complex colorless colloidal system in a cell, capable of reversible transitions from sol to gel.

Glycogen, a branched polysaccharide whose molecules are built from α-D-glucose residues. Molecular weight 10 5 -10 7 . The quickly mobilized energy reserve of many living organisms accumulates in vertebrates mainly in the liver and muscles.

Glycocalyx(from Greek glykys - sweet and Latin callum - thick skin), a glycoprotein complex associated with the outer surface of the plasma membrane in animal cells. The thickness is several tens of nanometers. Extracellular digestion occurs in the glycocalyx, many cell receptors are located in it, and cell adhesion apparently occurs with its help.

Glycolysis, Embden-Meyerhoff-Parnas pathway, enzymatic anaerobic process of non-hydrolytic breakdown of carbohydrates (mainly glucose) to lactic acid. Provides the cell with energy under conditions of insufficient oxygen supply (in obligate anaerobes, glycolysis is the only process that supplies energy), and under aerobic conditions, glycolysis is the stage preceding respiration - the oxidative breakdown of carbohydrates to carbon dioxide and water.

Glycolipids, lipids containing a carbohydrate moiety. Present in the tissues of plants and animals, as well as in some microorganisms. Glycosphingolipids and glycophospholipids are part of biological membranes, play an important role in the phenomena of intercellular adhesion, and have immune properties.

Glycoproteins, glycoproteins, complex proteins containing carbohydrates (from fractions of a percent to 80%). Molecular weight from 15,000 to 1,000,000. Present in all tissues of animals, plants and microorganisms. Glycoproteins that make up the cell membrane are involved in cell ion exchange, immunological reactions, tissue differentiation, intercellular adhesion phenomena, etc.

Globular proteins proteins whose polypeptide chains are folded into compact spherical or ellipsoidal structures (globules). The most important representatives of globular proteins are albumins, globulins, protamines, histones, prolamins, glutelins. Unlike fibrillar proteins, which play mainly a supporting or protective role in the body, many globular proteins perform dynamic functions. Globular proteins include almost all known enzymes, antibodies, some hormones and many transport proteins.

Glucose, grape sugar, one of the most common monosaccharides of the hexose group, is the most important source of energy in living cells.

Homogamety, a characteristic of an organism (or group of organisms) that has a pair or several pairs of homologous sex chromosomes in its chromosome set and, as a result, forms gametes with the same set of chromosomes. The sex represented by such individuals is called homogametic. In mammals, fish and some plant species (hemp, hops, sorrel), homogamety is characteristic of the female sex, and in birds, butterflies and some types of strawberries - for the male sex.

Homozygote, a diploid or polyploid cell (individual), the homologous chromosomes of which carry identical alleles of a particular gene.

Homologous chromosomes contain the same set of genes, are similar in morphological characteristics, and conjugate in meiotic prophase. In a diploid set of chromosomes, each pair of chromosomes is represented by two homologous chromosomes, which can differ in the alleles of the genes they contain and exchange sections during the process of crossing over.

Gram-positive bacteria prokaryotes, whose cells stain positively using the Gram method (able to bind basic dyes - methylene blue, gentian violet, etc., and after treatment with iodine, then alcohol or acetone, retain the iodine-dye complex). In modern literature, gram-positive bacteria include bacteria from the division Firmicutes with the so-called gram-positive type of structure cell walls. Gram-positive bacteria are characterized by: sensitivity to certain antibiotics (not effective on gram-negative bacteria), some features of the composition and structure of the membrane apparatus, the composition of ribosomal proteins, RNA polymerase, the ability to form endospores, true mycelium, and other properties.

Deoxyribonucleic acids, DNA, nucleic acids containing deoxyribose as a carbohydrate component, and adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T) as nitrogen bases. They are present in the cells of any organism and are also part of the DNA molecule. The sequence of nucleotides in an unbranched polynucleotide chain is strictly individual and specific for each natural DNA and represents a code form for recording biological information (genetic code).

Division, a form of reproduction of some organisms and many cells that make up the body of multicellular organisms.

Denaturation(from the Latin de- prefix meaning removal, loss and natura - natural properties), loss of natural (native) configuration by molecules of proteins, nucleic acids and other biopolymers as a result of heating, chemical treatment, etc. is caused by the rupture of non-covalent (weak) bonds in biopolymer molecules (weak bonds maintain the spatial structure of biopolymers). Usually accompanied by a loss of biological activity - enzymatic, hormonal, etc. It can be complete or partial, reversible and irreversible. Denaturation does not break strong covalent chemical bonds, but due to the unfolding of the globular structure, it makes radicals located inside the molecule accessible to solvents and chemical reagents. In particular, denaturation facilitates the action of proteolytic enzymes, giving them access to all parts of the protein molecule. The reverse process is called renaturation.

Differentiation, the emergence of differences between homogeneous cells and tissues, their changes during the development of an individual, leading to the formation of specialized cells, organs and tissues.

Idioblasts(from the Greek idios - special, peculiar), single cells included in any tissue and differing from the cells of this tissue in size, function, shape or internal contents, for example, cells with calcium oxalate crystals or thick-walled supporting cells in the parenchyma of a leaf (sclereids ).

Idiogram(from the Greek idios - special, peculiar and gramma - drawing, line) a unique generalized image of a karyotype in compliance with average quantitative relationships between individual chromosomes and their parts. The idiogram depicts not only the morphological characteristics of chromosomes, but also their features primary structure, spiralization, regions of heterochromatin, etc. Comparative analysis Idiograms are used in karyosystematics to identify and assess the degree of relatedness of different groups of organisms based on the similarities and differences of their chromosome sets.

Isogamy, a type of sexual process in which the fused (copulating) gametes do not differ morphologically, but have different biochemical and physiological properties. Isogamy is widespread among unicellular algae, lower fungi and many protozoa (radiolaria rhizomes, lower gregarines), but are absent in multicellular organisms.

Interphase(from Latin inter -between and Greek phasis -appearance), in dividing cells, the part of the cell cycle between two successive mitoses; in cells that have lost the ability to divide (for example, neurons), the period from the last mitosis to the death of the cell. Interphase also includes the temporary exit of a cell from the cycle (resting state). In interphase, synthetic processes occur, both associated with the preparation of cells for division and ensuring the differentiation of cells and the performance of specific tissue functions. The duration of interphase, as a rule, is up to 90% of the time of the entire cell cycle. Distinctive feature interphase cells - despiralized state of chromatin (with the exception of polytene chromosomes of dipterans and some plants, which persist throughout the entire interphase).

Intron(English intron, from intervening sequence - literally intermediate sequence), a section of a gene (DNA) of eukaryotes, which, as a rule, does not carry genetic information related to the synthesis of the protein encoded by this gene; located between other structural gene fragments - exons. The regions corresponding to the intron are presented, along with exons, only in the primary transcript - the precursor of mRNA (pro-mRNA). They are removed from it by special enzymes during mRNA maturation (the exons remain). A structural gene can contain up to several dozen introns (for example, there are 50 introns in the chicken collagen gene) or not contain them at all.

ion channels, supramolecular systems of membranes of a living cell and its organelles, having a lipoprotein nature and ensuring the selective passage of various ions through the membrane. The most common channels are for Na +, K +, Ca 2+ ions; Proton-conducting systems of bioenergy complexes are often classified as ion channels.

Ion pumps, molecular structures built into biological membranes and carrying out the transfer of ions towards a higher electrochemical potential (active transport); function due to the energy of ATP hydrolysis or energy released during the transfer of electrons along the respiratory chain. Active transport of ions underlies the bioenergetics of the cell, the processes of cellular excitation, absorption, and removal of substances from the cell and the body as a whole.

Karyogamy, the fusion of the nuclei of male and female germ cells in the nucleus of the zygote during the process of fertilization. During karyogamy, the pairing of homologous chromosomes, carrying genetic information from the maternal and paternal gametes, is restored.

Mitosis(from karyo nucleus and Greek kinesis - movement), division of the cell nucleus.

Karyology, a branch of cytology that studies the cell nucleus, its evolution and individual structures, including sets of chromosomes in different cells- karyotypes (cytology of the nucleus). Karyology emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. after establishing the leading role of the cell nucleus in heredity. The ability to establish the degree of relatedness of organisms by comparing their karyotypes determined the development of karyosystematics.

Karyoplasm, karyolymph, nuclear juice, the contents of the cell nucleus in which the chromati are immersed, as well as various intranuclear granules. After extraction of chromatin by chemical agents, the so-called intranuclear matrix is ​​preserved in the karyoplasm, consisting of protein fibrils 2-3 nm thick, which form a framework in the nucleus connecting the nucleoli, chromatin, pore complexes of the nuclear envelope and other structures.

Karyosystematics, a branch of systematics that studies the structures of the cell nucleus in different groups of organisms. Karyosystematics developed at the intersection of systematics with cytology and genetics and usually studies the structure and evolution of the chromosome set - the karyotype.

Karyotype, a set of characteristics of a chromosome set (number, size, shape of chromosomes) characteristic of a particular species. The constancy of the karyotype of each species is supported by the laws of mitosis and meiosis. Changes in karyotype can occur due to chromosomal and genomic mutations. Typically, a description of the chromosome set is made at the stage of metaphase or late prophase and is accompanied by counting the number of chromosomes, morph