All liquid and solid substances according to the nature of the action on them electrostatic field divided into conductors, semiconductors and dielectrics.
Dielectrics (insulators)– substances that conduct poorly or do not conduct at all electricity. Dielectrics include air, some gases, glass, plastics, various resins, and many types of rubber.
If you place neutral bodies made of materials such as glass or ebonite in an electric field, you can observe their attraction to both positively charged and negatively charged bodies, but much weaker. However, when such bodies are separated in an electric field, their parts turn out to be neutral, like the entire body as a whole.
Hence, in such bodies there are no free electrically charged particles, capable of moving in the body under the influence of an external electric field. Substances that do not contain free electrically charged particles are called dielectrics or insulators.
The attraction of uncharged dielectric bodies to charged bodies is explained by their ability to polarization.
Polarization– the phenomenon of displacement of bound electric charges inside atoms, molecules or inside crystals under the influence of an external electric field. Simplest example of polarization– the action of an external electric field on a neutral atom. In an external electric field, the force acting on the negatively charged shell is directed opposite to the force acting on the positive core. Under the influence of these forces, the electron shell is slightly displaced relative to the nucleus and is deformed. The atom remains generally neutral, but the centers of positive and negative charge in it no longer coincide. Such an atom can be considered as a system of two point charges of equal magnitude opposite sign, which is called a dipole. 
If you place a dielectric plate between two metal plates with charges of opposite signs, all dipoles in the dielectric under the influence of an external electric field turn out to have positive charges facing the negative plate and negative charges facing the positively charged plate. The dielectric plate remains generally neutral, but its surfaces are covered with bound charges of opposite signs.
In an electric field, polarization charges on the surface of the dielectric create an electric field in the opposite direction to the external electric field. As a result of this, the electric field strength in the dielectric decreases, but does not become equal to zero.
The ratio of the modulus of intensity E 0 of the electric field in a vacuum to the modulus of intensity E of the electric field in a homogeneous dielectric is called dielectric constant ɛ of the substance:
ɛ = E 0 / E
When two point electric charges interact in a medium with dielectric constant ɛ as a result of a decrease in field strength by ɛ times Coulomb force also decreases by ɛ times:
F e = k (q 1 q 2 / ɛr 2)
Dielectrics are capable of weakening an external electric field. This property is used in capacitors.
Capacitors- This electrical devices for the accumulation of electrical charges. The simplest capacitor consists of two parallel metal plates separated by a dielectric layer. When imparting charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign to plates +q and –q an electric field with a intensity is created between the plates E. Outside the plates, the action of electric fields directed in oppositely charged plates is mutually compensated, the field strength is zero. Voltage U between plates is directly proportional to the charge on one plate, so the charge ratio q to voltage U
C=q/U
is a constant value for the capacitor at any charge value q. It's an attitude WITH is called the capacitance of the capacitor.
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G.A. Vorobyov, Yu.P. Pokholkov, Yu.D. Korolev, V.I. Merkulov
dielectrics
(strong field region)
Caf. EIKT ELTI
Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation
Tomsk Polytechnic University
G.A. Vorobyov, Yu.P. Pokholkov,
Yu.D. Korolev, V.I. Merkulov
Physics of dielectrics
(strong field region)
TPU Publishing House
The manual contains basic information on physics gas discharge, including RF, microwave and optical breakdown. Theoretical ideas about the mechanism of breakdown of solid and liquid dielectrics, their aging processes are considered and some experimental data are presented on the features of their breakdown depending on various factors. The manual is intended for students in the field of “Electrical engineering, electromechanics, electrical technology” and can be useful to specialists involved in the design of high-voltage structures.
Reviewers
Doctor technical sciences, professor TGASU
G.G. Volokitin
Doctor of Physics and Mathematics, Professor TGASU
L.A. Lisitsina
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PREFACE
It is known that all substances according to the electrical properties of the subdivisions
are divided into conductors, semiconductors and dielectrics. The latter are perhaps the least studied. There are numerous monographs on the physics of breakdown of dielectrics. Of these, the most fundamental are the monographs of V. Franz (1961) and G.I. Scanavi (1958). But these books are already outdated, and their scope goes beyond the scope of the programs academic disciplines universities In addition, these books have become a bibliographic rarity and are practically inaccessible to students.
There are also books by A.A. Vorobyova, Yu.P. Raiser, G.S. Kuchinsky, B.I. Sazhina, V.Ya. Ushakova, Yu.N. Vershinina and others, which reflect individual issues breakdown of gaseous, solid or liquid dielectrics. Therefore, these books can only be used by students for more in-depth study individual sections of the course, but not as a teaching aid. The book by G.A. is widely known. Vorobyov (1977) on the physics of dielectrics (the region of strong fields), which is in demand among students, but now it has also become a bibliographic rarity and its republication is required.
The presented manual is based on the already mentioned book by G.A. Vorobyov, as well as materials from lectures on the course “Physics of Dielectrics (High Field Region)”, which have been given for many years by Yu.P. Pokholkov and V.I. Merkulov for students of the specialty “Electrical insulating, cable and capacitor technology” in Tomsk Polytechnic University. When writing individual sections on gas breakdown, materials provided by Yu.D. were used. Korolev.
Due to the numerous issues addressed in this manual, during its preparation, S.G. was involved in consultations. Ekhanin, P.E. Troyan, V.V. Lopatin, Yu.I. Kuznetsov et al., who were directly involved in the study of the breakdown of dielectrics and to whom the authors express deep gratitude.
Please send any comments that readers may have by email.
resu: 634050, Tomsk, Lenin Ave., 30, TPU.
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INTRODUCTION
IN Dielectrics, like other substances, always contain charged particles. If a weak electric field is applied to the dielectric, then the processes occurring in it associated with the movement of charged particles do not cause its destruction. Such phenomena constitute the physics of dielectrics, the region of weak fields. If a much stronger electric field is applied to a dielectric, in which charged particles ultimately cause the destruction of the dielectric, then such phenomena constitute the physics of dielectrics, the region of strong fields. In strong electric fields, qualitatively new phenomena occur in dielectrics that were impossible in weak electric fields. These fields are characterized by the presence of high kinetic energy charged particles acquired when moving in an electric field, which becomes comparable to the excitation energy of atoms and molecules and their ionization energy.
IN In most cases, a very strong electric field causes a sharp increase in electrical conductivity, due to which the dielectric loses its electrical insulating properties. This phenomenon is called dielectric breakdown. According to GOST 21515–76, breakdown is the phenomenon of formation of a conducting channel in a dielectric under the influence of an electric field. Minimum electrical voltage, applied to a dielectric, leading to breakdown, is called breakdown and is denoted U pr. The corresponding minimum tension is
The natural electric field leading to breakdown of the dielectric is called electrical strength (breakdown voltage). In a uniform electric field it is equal to: E pr = U np d (where d –
dielectric thickness). In the case of a non-uniform electric field, the value of E av. = U pr d is called the average breakdown voltage
The mechanism of destruction of a dielectric under the influence of an electric field is quite complex and diverse and can proceed differently depending on the type of applied voltage, the time of its application, the type of dielectric, its structure, temperature and other test conditions. This may be the development of impact ionization, a violation of thermal stability and overheating of the dielectric due to high dielectric losses, or electrochemical aging processes under prolonged exposure to an electric field. It can also be said that dielectric breakdown is a combination of many physical processes(electrical, thermal, optical, mechanical, etc.), the predominant development of which is determined by its mechanism.
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The type of dielectric has the most significant influence on the breakdown mechanism and its development. For example, the breakdown of gaseous and liquid dielectrics differs from the breakdown of solid dielectrics in the absence of a second stage, i.e. stages of destruction. This stage is characterized by residual changes in the dielectric caused by thermal or mechanical destruction, leading to the appearance of a conductive channel. After the breakdown of gaseous and liquid dielectrics, such irreversible changes are practically not observed, i.e. self-healing of their electrical strength takes place, unless, of course, chemical change substances.
The breakdown of a dielectric usually causes an emergency state of an electrical device, and it is very important to design the electrical device so that it has minimal dimensions and does not break down during the required operating time when exposed to operating voltage. At the same time, the phenomena accompanying the breakdown of dielectrics are found practical use when developing new technologies. Such examples are the use of gas discharge in gas-discharge devices, in gas lasers, in devices with explosive emission, in electric spark processing of structural materials, during electric pulse destruction and grinding rocks, when obtaining lubricating oils, etc. In all cases, it is important to know the patterns of breakdown of dielectrics.
The most studied is the breakdown of gases, so it is discussed in the first section. In addition, many ideas about gas discharge are widely used to explain the breakdown of solid and liquid dielectrics. Next in terms of degree of study is the breakdown of solid and liquid dielectrics, which is discussed in the second and third sections.
Unlike the book by G.A. Vorobyov “Physics of dielectrics (region of strong fields)”, in this manual the volume of the section on gas discharge has been significantly increased. This was facilitated by the appearance in 1987 of a fundamental monograph on the physics of gas discharge, published by Yu.P. Riser. Collision issues are discussed in more detail atomic particles, features of gas breakdown in different frequency ranges, features of glow, arc and corona discharges.
All sections on the breakdown of solid dielectrics have been revised taking into account their importance from the standpoint of modern theoretical concepts. The volume of sections in which the theories of thermal breakdown by Wagner, A.F. are presented has been significantly reduced. Walter and N.N. Semenov, strict theory of V.A. Foka, classical theories electrical breakdown of Rogowski and Ioffe and other theories representing for the most part historical interest. The volume of sections in which
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The quantum mechanical theories of the electrical breakdown of solid dielectrics by the non-impact mechanism of Zener, Frenkel and Fowler and the quantum mechanical theories by the impact mechanism of A. Hippel and G. Fröhlich are presented.
When explaining the mechanism of electrical breakdown of solid dielectrics in the literature, there are two theories: scientific directions. Most experimental data show that electrical breakdown of solid dielectrics is caused by impact ionization by electrons. However, in the works of Yu.N. Vershinin and his collaborators deny the possibility of the development of impact ionization by electrons in solid dielectrics. They approach the explanation of the mechanism of electrical breakdown of solid dielectrics from the position of overheating electrical instability and electronic detonation during the destruction of solid dielectrics. These issues are discussed in a separate section.
Issues of breakdown of solid dielectrics in the region of ultra-strong electric fields (electrical hardening, electronic currents and glow in micron layers, dislocations and cracks before breakdown, etc.) are highlighted in a separate section and significantly expanded, which do not contradict the mechanism of electrical breakdown by impact ionization by electrons. Sections on the breakdown of dielectric films and molded MDM systems have been introduced.
Some features of the breakdown of polymer dielectrics are considered according to the works of Artbauer, Stark, Garton, S.N. Kolesova. The section on electrical aging of solid dielectrics under the influence of partial discharges has been expanded according to G.S. Kuchinsky and S.N. Koikova.
The section on the breakdown of liquid dielectrics has been supplemented with new data on the development of a discharge in a liquid and the effect of ultrasound on its electrical strength. Features and patterns of implementation are considered electrical discharge into a solid dielectric immersed in a liquid.
5.2. Dielectrics
In 1880, French physicists Pierre and Jacques Curie discovered the piezoelectric effect.
The piezoelectric effect is as follows. If a plate is cut out of a quartz crystal (quartz dielectric) in a certain way and placed between two electrodes, then when the quartz plate is compressed, charges of equal magnitude but different in sign will appear on the electrodes.
If you change the direction of the force acting on the plate (instead of squeezing the quartz they will stretch it), then the signs of the charges on the electrodes also change: on the electrode where, during compression, a positive charge, when stretched, a negative one will appear. In this case, the greater the force that compresses or stretches the plate, the greater the amount of charges arising on the electrodes.
In the middle of the 19th century. dielectrics have also been discovered that exhibit similar remanent polarization. Such dielectrics, by analogy with the term “magnet,” were called electrets.
The most characteristic property electrets - the ability to carry on one's own opposite sides charges different sign, which can persist for a very long time. Thus, for electrets made of carnauba wax and its mixtures, this time is years, ceramic electrets retain a charge for two years, electrets made of polymers have a lifetime of months.
Explain this extensive experimental material about electrical properties dielectrics became possible when a theory appeared that explained the structure of solids and the connections between their structural particles.
There are solid bodies whose centers are positive and negative charges individual atoms or molecules coincide.
If such substances are placed in an electric field, then “electrical deformation” of the structural particles occurs, i.e. electric field shifts electric charges, included in the dielectric, from the positions they occupied in the absence of a field. So, for example, if a dielectric consists of neutral atoms, then in the presence of a field their electronic shells are displaced relative to positively charged nuclei. If crystal cell A solid body consists of positively and negatively charged ions, for example, a NaCl lattice, then in an electric field ions of equal signs are displaced relative to each other. As a result of the elastic displacement of each pair of charges, a system is formed that has some additional moment p=ql, and the entire dielectric is polarized.
The polarization of a dielectric is numerically characterized by the dipole moment per unit volume P, which equal to the product the number of elementary dipoles N containing per unit volume of a substance, by the magnitude of the moment of an elementary dipole. That the dipole moment of a unit volume of a dielectric is proportional to the electric field strength inside the dielectric.
In addition to non-polar dielectrics, there is a large class of dielectrics, the molecules of which have a dipole moment even in the absence of an external electric field. Many molecules whose centers of symmetry of their constituent positive and negative charges do not coincide with each other can have a permanent dipole moment. Typical representatives of a polar solid dielectric are ice, solid hydrochloric acid, organic glass, etc.
When a polar dielectric is placed in an electric field, the polar molecules are oriented so that their axes coincide with the direction of the electric field strength lines. However, the thermal motion of particles of matter prevents such orientation. As a result of the action of the field and thermal movement an equilibrium state is established in which the polar molecules acquire on average a certain directional orientation, and the entire dielectric due to this acquires a dipole moment in the direction of the field, i.e. polarized.
The type of polarization considered is called orientational or dipole. In this type of polarization, in contrast to displacement polarization, the temperature of the dielectric plays a significant role.
The dielectric constant of polar dielectrics is greater than that of non-polar dielectrics, since they essentially exhibit both types of polarization: orientational and elastic displacement polarization.
If the external field is removed, then polar and non-polar dielectrics are depolarized, i.e. their polarization practically disappears.
There is a third type of dielectrics that exhibit spontaneous polarization. In this case, inside the dielectric, without any influence external field, uniformly polarized regions, so-called domains, spontaneously arise. In the absence of an external field, the directions of the dipole moments of the regions are different. When a field is applied, the domains “orient” and the entire dielectric becomes polarized. Since each domain has a large dipole moment, then the dielectric constant of such dielectrics is usually very large, on the order of 10 4 . dielectrics of this type are called ferroelectrics.
Ferroelectrics differ from other dielectrics nearby specific properties.
If for polar and non-polar dielectrics the dipole moment per unit volume of a substance is proportional to the electric field strength E, then for ferroelectrics this linear dependence between P and E exists only in weak fields (Figure 30). As the field strength increases, the dipole moment P increases in accordance with the AB curve, and at a certain value of E, the change in the dipole moment stops. This state is called saturation. In the saturation state, all ferroelectric domains are located along the field, and a further increase in the field E no longer leads to an increase in polarization. If you then begin to reduce the field strength to zero, then the polarization of the crystal will change not along the initial OB curve, but along the BD curve, and at a field strength equal to zero, the crystal will remain polarized.
This phenomenon is called dielectric hysteresis. The amount of polarization determined by the segment OD at E = 0 is called residual polarization.
Thus, the dependence of polarization on the alternating electric field strength for ferroelectrics is described by the BDFLHB curve, called the hysteresis loop. The magnitude of spontaneous polarization can be determined from the hysteresis loop.
However, as the temperature increases, the properties of ferroelectrics change and at a certain temperature, called the Curie temperature, spontaneous polarization disappears.
Ferroelectrics are used in the manufacture of lasers and in the storage devices of electronic computers.
And tourmaline. Of the numerous crystallographic modifications of quartz, low-temperature a-quartz, stable up to a temperature of 573°C, is most often used as a piezoelectric. The piezoelectric and pyroelectric properties of crystals have been used in technology for many years. One of the applications of piezoelectrics is known to literally everyone. These are the pickups in our turntables that...
Only if, for example, you heat the crystal so that it begins to melt. Order, regularity, periodicity, symmetry of the arrangement of atoms - this is what is characteristic of crystals. In all the crystals, in everything solids the particles are arranged in a regular, clear pattern, arranged in a symmetrical, regular repeating pattern. As long as this order exists, a solid body, a crystal, exists. Violated...
Temperature fluctuations, either with an increase in the concentration of a substance in a solution or gas, which leads to an increase in the probability of particles meeting each other, that is, to the formation of nuclei. Thus, crystal growth can be considered as a process by which the smallest crystal particles– embryos – reach macroscopic sizes. Moreover, crystallization does not occur during...
From this we can conclude that the fact of the presence of colloidal precipitates in blue salt and their sizes, obtained by optical spectroscopy, are confirmed by direct observation of the chipped surface in an atomic force microscope. Thus, as a result of studying the optical absorption of halites, it is possible to make the following conclusions. In colorless samples there are no color centers. In blue painted...
A dielectric is a material or substance that practically does not allow electric current to pass through. This conductivity is due to the small number of electrons and ions. These particles are formed in a non-conducting material only when high temperature properties are achieved. What a dielectric is will be discussed in this article.
Description
Each electronic or radio conductor, semiconductor or charged dielectric passes electric current through itself, but the peculiarity of the dielectric is that even at high voltages above 550 V, a small current will flow in it. Electric current in a dielectric is the movement of charged particles in a certain direction (can be positive or negative).
Types of currents
The electrical conductivity of dielectrics is based on:
- Absorption currents are the current that flows in a dielectric at DC until it reaches a state of equilibrium, changing direction when turning on and applying voltage to it and when turning off. With alternating current, the voltage in the dielectric will be present in it the entire time it is in the action of the electric field.
- Electronic conductivity is the movement of electrons under the influence of a field.
- Ionic conductivity is the movement of ions. Found in solutions of electrolytes - salts, acids, alkalis, as well as in many dielectrics.
- Molion electrical conductivity is the movement of charged particles called molions. Is in colloidal systems, emulsions and suspensions. The phenomenon of the movement of molions in an electric field is called electrophoresis.
Classified by state of aggregation And chemical nature. The former are divided into solid, liquid, gaseous and solidifying. Based on their chemical nature, they are divided into organic, inorganic and organoelement materials.
According to the state of aggregation:
- Electrical conductivity of gases. U gaseous substances fairly low current conductivity. It can occur in the presence of free charged particles, which appears due to the influence of external and internal, electronic and ionic factors: X-ray and radioactive radiation, collisions of molecules and charged particles, thermal factors.
- Electrical conductivity of a liquid dielectric. Dependence factors: molecular structure, temperature, impurities, presence of large charges of electrons and ions. The electrical conductivity of liquid dielectrics largely depends on the presence of moisture and impurities. The conductivity of electricity in polar substances is also created using a liquid with dissociated ions. When comparing polar and non-polar liquids, the former have a clear advantage in conductivity. If you clean a liquid of impurities, this will help reduce its conductive properties. With an increase in conductivity and its temperature, a decrease in its viscosity occurs, leading to an increase in ion mobility.
- Solid dielectrics. Their electrical conductivity is determined by the movement of charged dielectric particles and impurities. IN strong fields electric current reveals electrical conductivity.
Physical properties of dielectrics
When the specific resistance of the material is less than 10-5 Ohm*m, they can be classified as conductors. If more than 108 Ohm*m - to dielectrics. There may be cases when resistivity will be many times greater than the conductor resistance. In the range of 10-5-108 Ohm*m there is a semiconductor. Metal material is an excellent conductor of electric current.
Of the entire periodic table, only 25 elements are classified as non-metals, and 12 of them may have semiconductor properties. But, of course, in addition to the substances in the table, there are many more alloys, compositions or chemical compounds with the property of a conductor, semiconductor or dielectric. Based on this, it is difficult to draw a definite line of meaning various substances with their resistances. For example, at a reduced temperature factor, a semiconductor will behave like a dielectric.
Application
The use of non-conductive materials is very extensive, because it is one of the most popular classes of electrical components. It has become quite clear that they can be used due to their properties in active and passive form.
In their passive form, the properties of dielectrics are used for use in electrical insulating materials.
IN active form They are used in ferroelectrics, as well as in materials for laser emitters.
Basic dielectrics
Commonly encountered types include:
- Glass.
- Rubber.
- Oil.
- Asphalt.
- Porcelain.
- Quartz.
- Air.
- Diamond.
- Pure water.
- Plastic.
What is a liquid dielectric?
Polarization of this type occurs in the field of electric current. Liquid non-conducting substances are used in technology for pouring or impregnating materials. There are 3 classes of liquid dielectrics:
Petroleum oils are slightly viscous and mostly non-polar. They are often used in high-voltage equipment: high-voltage water. is a non-polar dielectric. Cable oil has found application in the impregnation of insulating paper wires with a voltage of up to 40 kV, as well as metal-based coatings with a current of more than 120 kV. Transformer oil has a purer structure than capacitor oil. This type dielectric received wide use in production, despite the high cost compared to analogue substances and materials.
What is a synthetic dielectric? Currently, it is banned almost everywhere due to its high toxicity, as it is produced on the basis of chlorinated carbon. And the liquid dielectric, which is based on organic silicon, is safe and environmentally friendly. This type does not cause metal rust and has low hygroscopic properties. There is a liquefied dielectric containing an organofluorine compound, which is especially popular due to its non-flammability, thermal properties and oxidative stability.
And the last view is vegetable oils. They are weakly polar dielectrics, these include flax, castor, tung, and hemp. Castor oil is highly hot and is used in paper capacitors. The remaining oils are evaporable. Evaporation in them is not due to natural evaporation, but chemical reaction called polymerization. Actively used in enamels and paints.
Conclusion
The article discussed in detail what a dielectric is. Were mentioned different kinds and their properties. Of course, in order to understand the subtlety of their characteristics, you will have to study the physics section about them in more depth.
DIELECTRIC BODIES
DIELECTRIC BODIES
Otherwise, insulators, i.e. bodies that do not conduct electricity, are not a conductor.
Complete dictionary foreign words, which have come into use in the Russian language. - Popov M., 1907 .
DIELECTRIC BODIES
non-conducting electricity, insulators.
, 1907 .
INSULATORS OR DIELECTRIC BODIES
in general, all bodies that conduct electricity poorly and serve to insulate conductors; in particular, this name refers to glass or porcelain glasses, used. on telegraph line for insulating the wire at the points where it is attached to the poles.
Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. - Pavlenkov F., 1907 .
See what "DIELECTRIC BODIES" are in other dictionaries:
The name given by Michael Faraday to bodies that do not conduct, or, otherwise, poorly conduct electricity, such as air, glass, various resins, sulfur, etc. Such bodies are also called insulators. Before Faraday's research, carried out in the 30s... ...
The name given by Michael Faraday to bodies that are non-conducting or, in other words, poorly conducting electricity, such as air, glass, various resins, sulfur, etc. Such bodies are also called insulators. Before Faraday's research in the 1930s... Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron
Poor conductors of electricity and therefore used to insulate conductors. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. INSULATORS OR DIELECTRIC BODIES in general, all bodies that are poorly conductive... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language
Substances that do not conduct electricity well. The term "D." (from the Greek diá through and English electric electric) introduced by M. Faraday (See Faraday) to designate substances through which they penetrate electric fields. In any substance... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
ULTRA-SHORT WAVES- were first used in Schliephake therapy. Alternating currents, used in diathermy, are characterized by a frequency of 800,000 to 1 million vibrations per second with a wavelength of 300,400 m. At the present time, currents with a frequency of 10 ... Great Medical Encyclopedia
electric- 3.45 electric [electronic, programmable electronic]; E/E/PE (electrical/electronic/programmable electronic; E/E/PE) based on electrical and/or electronic and/or programmable electronic technology. Source … Dictionary-reference book of terms of normative and technical documentation
encyclopedic Dictionary F. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron
One of the departments of the study of electrical phenomena, which includes studies of the distribution of electricity, subject to its equilibrium, on bodies and the determination of those electrical forces, which arise in this case. The foundation of E. was laid by the work... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron
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