July 3, 1969, Baikonur Cosmodrome. Soviet in the foreground moon rocket N-1 (product No. 5L). In the background is a fitting rocket for testing ground systems launch (note that the try-on rocket does not have an emergency escape system).
The closure of the Soviet manned lunar flight program occurred in June 1974, at which time the entire cosmonaut corps was disbanded. The following month, the rockets ready for launch were cut into pieces. The destruction of the technological backlog led to a 15-year lag in the development of astronautics. What is to blame? Why did attempts to get to the moon stop?
It is often said that the industry of the USSR could not create spacecraft for a flight to the Moon, which did not have the appropriate technological base. They also say that it was simply impossible to compete with the USA. But the main reason for the failure of the project, which cost 4 billion at 1974 prices. rub., was the inability of various departments to agree among themselves and the personal aspirations of some leaders.
The United States began the lunar program with the sole purpose of surpassing the USSR after the Russians launched the world's first satellite and received pictures reverse side The moons were the first to launch humans into space. The landing of man on the moon was last chance. To achieve this goal, the best representatives of science were gathered, orders were given to the most suitable corporations in the absence competition. The USSR usually followed this path.
The Soviet lunar program was just a response to the United States. The Moon itself was not of interest to the leaders of OKB-1 Korolev. But the USA issued a challenge and the USSR accepted it. The N-1 rocket project became a continuation existing project, which was developed as a delivery vehicle hydrogen bomb and launching large-sized complexes into orbit, many times larger than the later Soyuz, Salyut and Mir.
Implementation lunar program was not economically feasible. But the CPSU Central Committee did not abandon it. According to the Government Decree issued in 1960, it was planned to create a new missile system for launching heavy into orbit spaceship weighing up to 60-80 tons, creating new rocket engines, control systems and space radio communications. In 1964 it was delivered new goal- a manned flight to the Moon and landing on its surface before the Americans.
The L-1 lunar project became the cause of a fierce struggle between the design bureaus of Korolev and Chelomey. The existing Proton launch vehicle could theoretically make a manned flight around the Moon, but the recollections of participants in the events indicate that Korolev refused to put cosmonauts on a poisonous rocket. The fact is that the fuel for the Proton was heptyl, the oxidizing agent was Nitric acid. In Kazakhstan, many poisonings have been recorded among local residents, who used the first stages of Protons in their business. Official information stated that the use of Proton was abandoned due to too high overloads that the astronauts could not withstand.
A difficult test for the project was the conflict between Korolev and Glushko, as a result of which the latter abandoned the development of an engine for the rocket. The work was transferred to the Kuznetsov design bureau.
It was planned that two astronauts would participate in the lunar project, and only one would descend to the surface of the Moon, while the second was supposed to remain in orbit. The first person to walk on the moon was supposed to be A.A. Leonov, Yu.A. was supposed to act as an understudy. Gagarin. The N-1 launch vehicle was designed to deliver the Soyuz spacecraft with a manned lunar module into lunar orbit.
So why didn't it happen? One of the reasons was austerity. Four N-1 launches were unsuccessful due to the first stage, for which a test stand was not built. Since all first stage engines were tested separately, it was impossible to determine the cause of stage failure.
When it became known that the Americans were about to go to the Moon, Leonov was eager to fly, but he was not allowed in, which saved his life. N-1 launched on February 21, 1969 without a crew, six months before the launch of Apollo 11. The rocket exploded shortly after the flight began. The second attempt was carried out on July 3, 1969. The rocket exploded right on the launch pad, almost completely destroying launch complex. Even then it became clear that we would not be the first to get to the Moon.
Korolev and Gagarin pass away. These two deaths were tantamount to death domestic cosmonautics. And the point is not that there were no other talented designers and trained cosmonauts. Korolev and Gagarin were members of the Kremlin and their opinions were listened to. Korolev not only argued with anyone, regardless of rank, he knew how to present his project in such a way that the military advocated the need for its implementation. The first satellite was a beacon for ballistic missiles. He convinced the military that building a base on the Moon would allow them to keep the whole world under attack. He kept silent about the almost unaffordable cost of the project for the country. The military jumped at the idea. In addition, the N-1 rocket could launch into orbit stations weighing over 100 tons, such as the Zvezda station, which was conceived for military purposes.
Korolev knew how to use the needs and desires of the military in own purposes, knocking out funds for the implementation of their projects. For Korolev himself, the flight to the Moon was only the first step towards a flight to Mars.
Change of leadership in design bureau didn't bring anything good. Funding decreased significantly, the test stand was not built. The launch complex was restored, but subsequent attempts to launch the rocket were not successful due to the same reason for the failure of the first stage. And the Americans were already accepting congratulations on the successful landing on the Moon. The Soviet lunar program was curtailed, and Mars was also forgotten.
However, another attempt was made. The hopes of the Russian cosmonautics were pinned on the Energia rocket. The tests were successful. But the rocket was buried under the collapsed roof of the assembly and testing building at Baikonur. This put an end to Russia's plans. The United States has become a leader in space exploration. There is no point in trying to compete with them, spending hundreds of billions on flights.
Russia's leadership in space is a thing of the past due to the winding down of the lunar program and a change in leadership in astronautics. Today's undisputed leader is the United States. But if the country’s leadership had not forgotten Tsiolkovsky’s words that the one who conquered space would rule the world, the situation could have turned out differently.
Who can become the leader of tomorrow? Most likely China. His space program quite fantastic, the moon landing project should be completed with the construction of a lunar base by 2021. Many do not believe in the feasibility of this project, but China has already proven that it is capable of very unexpected actions, as evidenced by the ultra-fast growth of its economy.
Photo of the secret lunar program of the USSR
These photographic materials are some of the remaining evidence today that the USSR also tried to land a man on the Moon - obviously, after they could not do this, or, more precisely, did not have time to do it, the program was forgotten.
However, fortunately, few things disappear irrevocably and without a trace. The photographs that we can see show one of the laboratories of the Moscow aviation institute, as well as aerospace equipment, including spacecraft and lunar landing module.
The history of the “Moon Race” is well known to many contemporaries: before American President John Kennedy initiated the Apollo program Soviet Union noticeably ahead of the United States in matters of lunar exploration. In particular, in 1959 an automatic interplanetary station Luna 2, and in 1966 a Soviet satellite entered its orbit.
Like the Americans, Soviet scientists developed a multi-step approach to accomplishing the task. They also had two separate modules for orbit and landing.
While the Apollo 11 crew included three members, the entire burden of the Soviet lunar program had to rest on the shoulders of one cosmonaut - thus, the weight of the equipment was significantly reduced. In addition, there were other differences that made Soviet apparatus lighter. First of all, these include the comparative simplicity of the design, the use of the same engine for landing and takeoff, as well as the lack of a direct connection between the orbital and lunar module. This meant that the astronaut would have to go out into open space, to transfer to the lander before landing and, later, to climb back into the orbital module after returning from the Moon. After this, the lunar module was disconnected, and the spacecraft was sent to Earth without it.
The main reason that prevented Soviet side to land a man on the Moon, there were failures with launch vehicles. Although the first two test launches were successful, the rocket crashed during the third. In the fourth test, conducted in 1971, the test spacecraft returned to Earth on the wrong trajectory, ending up in air space Australia, as a result of which an international scandal could arise: Soviet diplomats allegedly had to convince the Australians that the object falling on them was a test space module"Cosmos-434", not a nuclear warhead.
After several failures, the program became too expensive, and after the Americans presented the world with documentary evidence of the success of the Apollo 11 mission, it made no sense at all. As a result, space equipment has become something of a museum piece.
In July 1969, he commanded the crew of the Apollo 11 spacecraft. main task which was the first lunar landing in history. On July 20, he became the first person to set foot on the surface of the Moon. Stepping onto the surface of the Moon, Armstrong uttered the historical phrase - “This is one small step for man, but a giant leap for all mankind." Neil Armstrong and his partner Buzz Aldrin spent two and a half hours on the surface of the Moon.
Edwin Aldrin
On July 21, 1969 GMT, Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin became the second man to set foot on another heavenly body, taking a kilometer-long walk on the surface of the Moon. This was his fourth trip into airless space, breaking his previous world record. Before the Apollo 14 mission, Aldrin also held the lead in total spacewalk time. The leadership in the number of exits lasted even longer, until the Apollo 15 mission. According to numerous legends, Aldrin always wanted to be the first to set foot on the moon. Many [who?] claim that he was initially promised the first step, but due to the layout of the astronauts in the module, they still had to settle on Neil Armstrong - according to the staffing schedule, he sat closer to the exit. According to other versions of the same story, Armstrong received this right because of his incredible modesty. It is believed that NASA was interested in making sure that the first person to walk on the surface of the Moon would be a civilian. One way or another, Aldrin received his share of fame: officially, Armstrong’s words were the first to appear on the surface - “Houston, says the base in the Sea of Tranquility. The eagle has sat down." However, just before this, Buzz was saying "Light touch...okay, engine off."
Charles Conrad
Bean Alan
The second expedition to the Moon launched on November 14, 1969, Bin Alan was the lunar module pilot and became the fourth person to set foot on the surface of the Earth's satellite, following his commander Conrad on November 19. They spent 31 hours and 31 minutes on the lunar surface and exited the lunar module twice to collect soil samples, install scientific equipment and take photographs. They also dismantled some fragments of the Surveyor 3 unmanned vehicle that had landed on the Moon three years earlier, which was stationed near the landing site, and brought them to Earth to study the properties of materials after a long stay on the Moon. Living terrestrial microorganisms were found on the parts, but skeptics argued that they were introduced after the return, and the question remained open. For this flight, Bean was awarded the NASA Distinguished Service Medal in 1970.
Alan Shepard
At the age of 47, by then NASA's oldest astronaut, Alan Shepard completed his second space flight as commander of Apollo 14, which became the third successful American expedition to the Moon (January 31 - February 9, 1971).
Edgar Dean Mitchell
Edgar Dean Mitchell (born September 17, 1930, Hereford, Texas) is a US astronaut. Mitchell was part of the Apollo 14 expedition, the third landing of men on the Moon. The total duration of the lunar module's stay on the lunar surface is 33 hours 24 minutes. He is the sixth person to walk on the moon.
David Scott
David Randolph Scott (born June 6, 1932, San Antonio, Texas) is a NASA astronaut, one of the third group of astronauts named by NASA in October 1963, and the commander of the Apollo 15 spacecraft. He is one of 12 people to walk on the moon. In total, he made 5 trips into airless space, thereby setting a world record that lasted 13 years. In 1971, he placed the composition “Fallen Astronaut” on the surface of the Moon, which since then has remained the only art installation on the Moon.
James Irwin
Irwin made his flight into space as a pilot of the Apollo 15 lunar module. Participated in the fourth landing of people on the Moon. The total duration of the lunar module's stay on the lunar surface is 66 hours 55 minutes. He was the eighth man to walk on the Moon and the first to die among those who walked on it. lunar surface. In 1971, Irwin was awarded the NASA Distinguished Service Medal. After the expedition to the moon, on October 27, 1971, at the spaceport in Houston, in front of 50 thousand Baptists, he announced that on the moon he “constantly felt a connection with God, felt his presence much stronger than it was on Earth,” became a preacher and founded the mission “High Flight ”(another translation option is “Soar in the air”), which he headed together with his wife Mary.
John Young
On the fourth flight, April 16–27, 1972, John Young served as commander of Apollo 16. This was the fifth expedition of the Apollo program to land on the surface of the Moon. On April 20, 1972, John Young set foot on the surface of the Moon (for this flight, Young received his second Distinguished Service Medal). He became the second (after Lovell) man out of three who flew to the Moon twice, but at the same time the first who successfully landed on it on the second flight.
Charles Duke
In April 1966, Charles Duke became one of 19 people selected to join NASA's fifth astronaut group. In 1969, he worked on the Apollo 10 flight support team. During the Apollo 11 expedition, Duke played the role of crew communications operator (Capsule Communicator, CAPCOM).
He was part of the Apollo 16 expedition, the fifth landing of men on the Moon. The total duration of stay of the lunar module on the surface of the Moon is 71 hours 2 minutes.
Harrison Schmitt
He was part of the Apollo 17 expedition, the sixth landing of men on the Moon. The total duration of the lunar module's stay on the lunar surface is 75 hours 1 minute. In 1973, Schmitt was awarded the NASA Distinguished Service Medal.
Eugene Cernan
Currently Eugene Cernan is last person, standing on the surface of the Moon (December 14, 1972). Last words, spoken by the man on the moon, belongs to Cernan: “Bob, says Gene, I am on the surface, and, taking the last step of man from the surface [of the Moon], returning home, to return someday - but, we believe, in the not very distant future — I would just like to [say] something that I think will remain in history. That America's challenge today has determined the future destinies of humanity. And, leaving the Moon in the [area] Taurus-Littrow, we leave the same way we came and, with God's help, we will return - with peace and hope for all humanity. Good luck to the crew of Apollo 17." 8:14:00 UTC, December 14, 1972.
He inscribed his daughter's initials on the surface of the moon.
The accession to the throne of the young Emperor Alexander I was perceived in society as the beginning of a new liberal era in the history of Russia. Among many problems inner life special meaning had a question about the form government. The uniqueness of the situation was that the monarch himself became the initiator of the limitation of autocracy. Back in 1809, Alexander I instructed M.M. Speransky to develop an extensive plan government reforms. The author of the project imagined two ways to solve the problem: limiting autocracy external forms law or “limit it to the internal and essential force of regulations.” He wrote that “political slavery exists when the will of one or many constitutes the law of all” /1/.
While supporting and guiding Speransky at first, the sovereign eventually changed his point of view and abandoned large-scale reforms. Among the reasons, a number of factors can be identified. First of all, it should be noted that the development of projects was carried out by Speransky in deep secrecy, the public lived in rumors and could not get reliable information and take part in the discussion of such an important issue. In addition, Speransky faced discontent and opposition from the aristocracy and senior officials, who expressed the opinion of influential circles.
The response to the emperor’s initiatives was the note “On Ancient and new Russia» N.M. Karamzina. According to a number of researchers, in it the historian embodied the aspirations of the so-called conservative circles. He criticized Alexander I for his reform initiatives and called for abandoning those reforms that could weaken the autocracy. Based on knowledge of the country's historical past, Karamzin argued that only autocratic rule could save Russia. At the same time, the author noted that the sovereign should be more careful in new plans and think more about people than about forms. The historian’s political platform did not imply rejection or rejection of the plans of the young emperor, but a call for unification, a combination of Western European legal norms and Russian historical traditions.
Thus, in the first period of the reign, the issue of state reforms was identified by the authorities and met with caution in society. It was the latter’s reaction that did not allow Alexander I to go all the way in supporting M.M. Speransky’s program. The question of limits autocratic power remained open.
The next, already practical, decision was the promulgation of the Constitution in the Kingdom of Poland. Alexander I considered this event as the first step towards granting legal order to Russia. The emperor's statement on Russian society. Decembrist S.G. Volkonsky wrote: “...His words about his intention to spread the constitutional order of government he introduced in Russia made a strong impression in my heart...” /2/. Another author, A.A. Zakrevsky, wrote to P.D. Kiselev: “The sovereign’s speech at the Sejm was wonderful, but the consequences for Russia could be terrible...” /3/. Such judgments did not stop the emperor, and soon work began on a project for the constitutional reorganization of Russia.
In 1820, Alexander I was close to introducing a limited constitution. According to the document, the emperor was proclaimed head executive power. Legislature was transferred to the All-Russian Sejm. But this project remained an example of failed hopes. The reason for this was both events within the country and in Europe. Pointing to the situation in Spain and Italy in 1820, Alexander I noted: “I love constitutional institutions and think that every good citizen should love them, but can they be approved in all countries without exception? Not all nations are ready to to the same degree for their acceptance" /4/.
During the same period secret societies the question of the legal foundations of power, the fate of the autocracy and the future was discussed and resolved in different ways political structure Russia, documents were developed. N. Muravyov wrote in the draft “Constitution” that the power of autocracy is destructive both for rulers and for society. Therefore, Russia had to become, according to the author, constitutional monarchy, the source of all state life the people were proclaimed. According to P. Pestel’s project “Russian Truth”, Russia was declared a republic. As the author wrote, “the Russian people do not belong to any person or family. On the contrary, the government belongs to the people, and it was established for the benefit of the people, and the people do not exist for the benefit of the government” /5/.
The problem of the need for government reforms and, above all, the limitation of autocratic power, was indeed urgent and relevant for the country. It was actively discussed in various social circles, bringing to life historical, philosophical and political writings. At the same time, the emperor, who considered the decisive force public opinion, mistook for such a judgment narrow circle nobles and abandoned reformist ideas. As N.I. Turgenev noted, “Alexander, apparently, died a despot, but he was born to become something better” /6/.
Notes:
- Speransky M.M. Projects and notes. M.-L., 1961. P.837.
- Quote By: Mironenko S.V. Autocracy and reforms. Political struggle in Russia in early XIX V. M., 1989.
- Quote by: Ekshtut S.A. In search of a historical alternative: Alexander I. His companions. Decembrists. M., 1994. P. 123.
- Quote A
- r: Hartley J.M. Alexander I. Rostov-on-Don, 1998. P. 213.
- Selected social and political m philosophical works Decembrists. M. 1951. T. 2. P. 145.
- Turgenev N.I. Russia and Russians. M., 2001. P. 519.
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