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T. N. MIKHELSON
N. V. USPENSKAYA
HOW TO WRITE IN ENGLISH
SCIENCE ARTICLES,
ABSTRACTS
REVIEWS
ISBN 5-7571-0015-X
"SPECIAL LITERATURE"
SAINT PETERSBURG
PREFACE................................................... ........................................................ ..................2 PART ONE SUBJECT OF STUDY................................. .........................................4 I. COMMUNICATION ABOUT THE TOPIC OF THE WORK. ........................................................ ....................................4 II. EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS.................................................... ...........................................17 III. WAYS, METHODS.................................................... ........................................................ ..... IV. GOAL, PURPOSE.................................................... ........................................................ ..... V. SCOPE OF APPLICATION............................................... ........................................................ ....VI. MAIN FEATURES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SUBJECT OF RESEARCH.................................................... ........................................................ ........................................................ ...VII. OPPORTUNITIES THAT THE SUBJECT OF RESEARCH PROVIDES................................... VIII. GRADE................................................. ........................................................ .................... IX. COMPARISON......................................................... ........................................................ ....... PART TWO RESEARCH RESULTS.................................................... .................... I. REPORT ON THE RESULTS OF THE WORK.................................... ................................................... II. STARTING POINTS................................................................... ................................................ III . CONSISTENCIES AND DIFFERENCES.................................................... ........................... IV. INTERPRETATION................................................. ........................................................ ....... V. CONNECTION, DEPENDENCE, INFLUENCE.................................... ........................................... VI. CONCLUSIONS. CONCLUSIONS........................................................
PART THREE REVIEW.................................................... ........................................................ .... MAIN SECTIONS OF THE REVIEW................................................... ........................................ I. CHARACTERISTICS AND DESCRIPTION OF THE WORK.... ........................................................ ....... II. STRUCTURE OF WORK. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE BOOK AND ITS SECTIONS.................................................... ........................................................ ................................III. INTRODUCTORY PART. HISTORICAL REFERENCE. OUTPUT......... IV. MAIN ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WORK.................................... 1. Advantages:... ........................................................ ........................................................ ................. 2. Disadvantages. Notes........................................................ ........................................................ .... V. WORK EVALUATION, RECOMMENDATIONS. CONCLUSION........................................ RUSSIAN-ENGLISH DICTIONARY.. ........................................................ ........................... PREFACE This manual is intended for researchers, graduate students and students who want to learn how to write articles and abstracts in English in their own way. specialties.
The specificity of the English and Russian languages is such that a literal translation is impossible. In order to express your thoughts in English, you need to have a very good understanding of the lexical and syntactic structure of the English language scientific text.
Therefore, the purpose of the manual is to teach lexico-syntactic clichés that are most characteristic of the language of science.
The structure and language of a scientific text remains, in its main features, unchanged regardless of its type and size, be it an abstract, summary (summary, synopsis), abstracts of communication, review (review, book-review, recension) ) or scientific article (paper).
The manual consists of three parts, reflecting the basic structure of the abstract. Each part is divided into sections in which lexical-syntactic structures are considered in connection with their use in the abstract. Each section is an independent whole and can be used regardless of the previous ones.
Sections consist of an explanatory part and tasks. The explanatory part contains Russian-English equivalents of lexical-syntactic structures that serve to communicate the topic of research, its purpose, scope, research methodology, etc. Particular attention is paid to the variability of linguistic ways of expressing the same thought.
The assignments aim to develop students' skills in using appropriate structures and using them creatively to write essays.
The lexico-syntactic structures included in the manual are typical for any specialty in the field of natural sciences. However, the lexical content of examples, sentences and microtexts is inevitably highly specialized, like any scientific article and abstract. In this regard, all selected material should be considered only as a sample for analysis, a model for composing similar sentences and texts.
The manual is compiled on the basis of original scientific texts;
English and American magazines and their translations into Russian made by Russian specialists were used, as well as translations from Russian magazines made by native English-speaking specialists.
PART ONE SUBJECT OF STUDY I. COMMUNICATION ABOUT THE TOPIC OF THE WORK § 1. When writing an abstract, you first of all talk about the topic of the work, i.e.
report what is being studied, described, discussed, etc. Let's consider what linguistic means are typical for introducing a topic in English compared to Russian.
For the Russian language, the most typical sentences are sentences with a predicate in the passive voice of the present and past tense, and the reverse word order is used, and for the English language - sentences with a predicate in the passive voice, but with direct word order (i.e., the subject comes before the predicate).
1. The isotopic effect in crystals is studied.
crystals.
The radioactive properties of elements were studied) the properties of radioactive elements were studied.
elements.
§ 2. When presenting the topic of the work, it is possible, but less typical, to use the predicate in the active voice with the subject expressed by the personal pronoun of the 1st person plural or the noun the author (authors), as well as the nouns study, investigation, paper (article), experiment, theory, hypothesis, etc.
1. We have considered a series of standard programs. programs.
A number of standard programs were reviewed.
2. The article discusses some The paper studies some physiological effects.
physiological effects.
Note. Please note that English sentences active voice with a subject expressed by the pronoun we are often conveyed in Russian by sentences in the passive voice. With subjects expressed by such nouns as paper, study, experiment, investigation, etc., English sentences of the active voice are more often translated into Russian by sentences in which the English subject is conveyed by a noun in the indirect case, and the predicate by a verb form ending in -sya, -sya:
The investigation deals with the nature of DNA.
The study examines the nature of DNA.
Task 1. Put the predicates in the following sentences in the passive voice, while omitting the pronoun or noun denoting the character.
Sample: We investigate the structure of the cell. The structure of the cell (the cell structure) was investigated.
1. The authors developed some theoretical models.
2. We found an approach to the problem.
3. The investigation deals with the nature of DNA.
4. The author has analyzed the material obtained.
5. The paper considered a series of standard programs.
6. The author gives the diagnoses and data which are concerned with the life-cycle of the ciliates.
Task 2. Consider the following sentences. Analyze the use of the indefinite article “a” “ap” and the definite article “the” in them.
1. The author gives a general conclusion for the equilibrium shape of crystals. The conclusion is proven by a series of experiments.
2. A steamer chamber has been considered. The system consists of two identical steamer chambers.
3. A comparison of DNA contents was carried out. The comparison was made only of presynthetic nuclei.
4. A new classification of some species is given. The classification is used in morphological studies.
§ 3. When reporting on the topic or subject of research, in the abstract you should use primarily the forms of the Present tense, Present Indefinite, or in cases where it is necessary to emphasize the completed nature of the action, Present Perfect. The past tense form Past Indefinite is used when describing the work done (experiment, research, calculation), if the work served as the basis for certain conclusions.
1. The case of thin crystals is studied. The case of the thin crystals is analyzed.
2. The fine structure of the various morphological stages of T. stages of Trypanosoma raiae has been studied.
3. The deformation of the lattice was estimated lattice deformation and the formula was calculated (calculated) and the formula was used to calculate the used to calculate the parameters. parameters.
Note. The form of the predicate passive voice of the past tense can correspond in Russian to both the perfect and imperfect form.
§ 4. When reporting on the subject of your research, you will need a whole range of verbs.
Verbs with the general meaning of research: study, investigate, consider, analyze - study, investigate, examine, analyze, consider.
Study is the most widely used and means “to study, explore.”
Investigate emphasizes the thoroughness and comprehensiveness of the research; in addition to the meaning of “to study, investigate,” the verb includes the concept of investigation.
Examine, in addition to “study, examine,” means “to examine, carefully examine, check.”
Analyze - explore, study (including the moment of analysis).
Consider - study, consider (taking into account various parameters).
1. A new problem is being studied. A new problem is studied.
2. The cause of the explosion was investigated. The cause of the explosion has been investigated.
3. Ancient manuscripts were studied. Old manuscripts were examined.
4. More than 100 patients were examined. Over 100 patients were examined.
5. Several compounds were studied. Several substances were analyzed.
6. Photoelectric emission is considered.
radiation.
§ 5. Verbs with the general meaning of description - describe, discuss, outline, consider - describe, discuss, outline, consider.
Describe - describe, give a description.
Discuss - discuss, describe (sometimes with an element of polemic), expound.
Outline - briefly describe, describe (in general terms), outline.
Consider - consider, discuss (taking into account various parameters).
1. The membranes of the Golgi apparatus are described. described.
2. The design and operating conditions of the characteristics of the device are discussed. devices are discussed.
3. The drive mechanism is described. (From the article The rotation mechanism is discussed.
it is clear that not only its structure is described, but also its application, advantages, etc.) 4. The basic principles are stated. The main principles were discussed.
5. Temporal characteristics of photodetectors of photodetectors are considered. have been discussed.
6. The advantages of this method are described. (The advantages of the method are outlined.
The article talks about the advantages briefly, they are only outlined.) 7. The question of the nature of changes in plant cold-resistance of cold resistance of plants is considered. (At the same time has been considered.
all parameters are taken into account.) § 6. Verbs with the general meaning of obtaining: obtain, determine, find, establish - obtain, determine, find, establish.
Obtain "receive" has the most broad meaning(the method of obtaining is indifferent).
Determine - determine, receive, find (in any way). Sometimes determine means “to determine (by calculation), to calculate.”
Find - to find, discover.
Establish - to establish, (accurately) determine, (convincingly) show.
1. Preliminary data have been received. Preliminary data have been obtained.
2. Diffusion coefficients were determined.
diffusion.
3. Rare documents discovered. Rare documents are found.
4. The existence of two levels has been established (shown). established.
In English, verbs indicating the method of receiving are more common than in Russian:
receive (conclusions, equations, expressions, derive (equations, expressions, curves, curves, formulae, relations, etc.) formulae, relations etc).
receive (produce, create) produce (create) a compound, plasma, power connection, plasma, substance, power and etc.
The verb to receive can include the concept “obtained by calculation, calculated” - calculate, compute, estimate, evaluate.
The verbs calculate and compute are close in meaning: calculate - calculate, count, calculate, make an analytical calculation;
find, determine a value (using arithmetic operations);
compute - to count, to make calculations, to make numerical calculations (in modern usage, often with the help of computer technology).
estimate - estimate, count (approximately).
1. The energy of Stark sublevels has been calculated. calculated.
2. The density of populations was calculated. The intensity of living organisms in the lake of living organisms in Lake Ontario. Ontario was computed.
The verbs measure - to measure and weigh - to weigh indicate obtaining some quantities by measuring or weighing:
The amount of DNA in the macronucleus was measured. measured.
Verbs with the general meaning of “receive” are accompanied by the verbs estimate and evaluate, which are similar in meaning and use.
Estimate - evaluate, receive an estimate (in numbers), determine, find quantity, magnitude, degree (often in numerical expressions), calculate (approximately), determine quality.
1. The pulse intensity is determined. The pulse intensity has been estimated.
(The magnitude of the impulse in units of measurement was obtained.) 2. Estimation (determination) of constants The constants were estimated by means of was carried out according to the graph calculated by computor-calculated graphs.
by means of a computer.
3. The average value of... was estimated.
(approximately calculated).
Evaluate - evaluate (magnitude, quantity, degree, significance, role), determine, find out, find (the cause of phenomena or events).
1. The role of berylium action was evaluated.
beryllium (the degree and significance of the impact has been clarified).
2. The system performance was evaluated.
quality).
3. The grain size is determined. The grain size is evaluated.
Task 3. In the following sentences, translate the predicate into English, choosing the desired verb according to the recommendations given in brackets. Put the predicate in the indicated tense form. Remember that sentences must have direct word order.
Sample: Evoked potentials in anasthetized animals were analyzed.
1. The fine structure of muscles (Past Ind.) was studied (was analyzed).
2. A new method of integrating the equations (Pr. Ind.) is considered (its suitability is checked).
3. The development cycle of protoplasma (Pr. Ind.) is studied (in detail).
4. Blocking effects in the scattering of particles (Pr. Perf.) have been studied.
5. The electron creation rate (Pr. Ind.) is discussed.
6. The population of Drosophila (Past Ind.) has been described.
7. The role of the changed conditions (Pr.
8. The method of integrating the equation (Pr.
9. A kinetic theory for an impurity center (Past. Ind.) was discussed.
10. The thermoelectric power of antiferromagnetic metals (Past ind.) was calculated (an analytical calculation was made).
11. The DNA content in the polyploid nucleus (Past Ind.) was measured.
12. Calculated (using a computer) the percolation level for a two dimensional Gaussian potential (Pr. Perf.).
13. The degree of polarization for various conditions of recombination (Pr. Perf.) was determined (found).
14. The shift of the energy levels (Pr. Ind.) is determined (by assessment).
Task 4. Translate the following sentences according to the model, choosing verbs with the appropriate shade of meaning. Put the predicate in the correct tense form.
Sample: Induced generation of quanta is considered. The stimulated emission of rays is studied.
1. The phase transitions in polycrystals were studied.
2. High-density forms of fluorite have been studied.
3. The kinetic theory of generation is considered.
4. A study of cytoplasmic RNA (the cytoplasmic RNA) was carried out.
5. Some modern methods of rock age determination are considered (analyzed).
6. The electrostatic properties of particles were described.
7. The function of leukocytes in the human body is discussed.
8. The possibility of pumping the system was considered (taking into account the circumstances).
9. A technique for changing the amount of DNA in a macronucleus was discussed.
10. The initial magnetic permeability of ferrites was measured.
11. The temperature dependence of thermoelectric power was calculated (determined).
12. Calculation of heat resistivity was carried out.
13. The parameters of the crystal field components are isolated (using a computer).
14. The lattice formula has been calculated.
15. The effect of X-ray irradiation on the survival of cells is being clarified (determined).
Task 5. Compare the following pairs of object combinations (verb and noun).
Use them as a template when writing proposals on your topic.
Study (investigate, consider) Study phenomenon of vibration (process of vibration phenomenon (polarization process, polarization, elastic properties, developmental properties of elasticity, developmental cycle, cycle, growth mechanism) growth mechanism) Investigate temperature dependence (phase (phase transitions) , influence of transitions conditions, influence of cultural conditions) cultivation) Analyze (consider) Analyze experimental data (collected material, experimental data (collected values obtained, spectral characteristics) material, obtained values, spectral characteristics) Examine experimental conditions (spectro experimental conditions (analytical method, refrigeration chambers) spectral analysis, refrigerators) Describe a new method (obtained Describe (discuss) new method (results results, physical model, mechanism obtained, physical model, growth mechanism) of growth) Consider (discuss) the process Consider (analyze) process of dislocation (role of displacement (role changes in conditions, of changed conditions, possibility of nuclear possibility of nuclear transitions, spin transitions, spin excitation) excitation) Measure the dependence of speed on Measure distance-velocity dependence of distance (electron energy) (electron energy) Determine specific weight ( coefficients, (coefficients, analytical analytical relation, minimum yield) dependence (connection), the value of the minimum yield) Calculate (find) generation rate Calculate electron generation rates (electron percolation (level, deformation of the lattice) lattice deformation) Calculate ( Calculate (compute) the anisotropy constant (the effect of high pressure, the current volt ampere characteristics) Estimate the intensity of the pulse (the shift of pulse (magnitude shift of the energy levels) Evaluate (find out, express in numbers) Evaluate the effect of increased stress (the effect of increasing stress (action of the mechanism of growth inhibition) of the growth suppression mechanism) § 7. In Russian and English, the action can be expressed by a verb , for example, study - to study, measure - to measure, and a verbal-nominal combination, which represents a semantic unity: make a study - to conduct research (research), make measurements - to do (carry out) measurements (measure).
Since such pairs, i.e., a verb and a combination of a verb with a noun, are equivalent, then when translating into English, the choice of a verb or a verb-noun combination will not depend on how the concept of “research” or “conduct research” is expressed in Russian ", but from the structure of the English sentence and the entire English text.
Combinations like a study is made of... are found in abstracts more often than verbs with the same meaning.
1. The phenomenon of absorption was studied. The phenomenon of absorption has been studied.
2. Absorption spectra were studied. A study was made of the absorption spectrum of fluorine centers. (Conducted by fluorine centers.
study of the absorption spectra of fluorine centers.) Note 1. In sentences like a study is made, the subject of study is introduced with the preposition of. If you want to say what material was used, then you should use the preposition on:
Measurements were made of the substance density.
The density of the substance was measured.
The density of the substance was measured.
Measurements were made on purified samples.
The measurements were carried out on purified samples.
Note 2. In English, the predicate can appear not only directly after the subject, but also after the entire group of subjects, i.e. at the end of the sentence.
A short description is given of some species of ciliates.
A short description of some species of ciliates is given.
A brief description of some types of ciliates is given.
When writing an abstract, you may need the following combinations of verbs and nouns:
make, undertake, perform a study, carry out an explore, study, analyze, investigation, perform analysis of (on) conduct research, analysis... make measurements of (on) measure, make measurements...
give description of... describe, give a description, consider...
make calculation, estimation, evaluation of calculate, calculate, calculate, (on)… evaluate, estimate, find, determine § 8. To characterize how the research, measurement, calculation was carried out, you can use such specific adverbs and combinations as accurately, carefully - carefully, attentively;
thoroughly, in detail - in detail, in detail, in all details.
1. The structure of the fabric was carefully studied. The structure of the tissue was thoroughly investigated.
2. Phase transitions in polycrystals were studied in detail. investigate in detail.
Note. The adverbs accurately, carefully and thoroughly are placed between auxiliary and semantic verbs, the combination in detail is at the end of the sentence.
Task 6. Translate the following sentences into English, observing direct word order and putting the predicate in the given tense form. Be mindful of adverb placement.
Sample: The spectral distribution of photoconductivity is studied in detail. - The photoconductivity spectrum distribution is thoroughly investigated.
1. Protein synthesis was carefully studied (Pas Ind.).
2. The new integration method is discussed in detail (Pr. Ind.).
3. A thorough analysis of cancer cells was carried out (Pr. Perf.) 4. The effect of temperature on solubility was studied in detail (Pr.
5. Some rocks have been carefully analyzed (Past. Ind.).
§ 9. If the action is expressed by a verbal-nominal combination (a study is made), then to characterize it you should use adjectives: detailed - detailed;
careful, thorough - thorough;
extensive - extensive;
accurate - accurate;
comprehensive - exhaustive;
brief, short - brief;
preliminary - preliminary.
These adjectives are placed before the noun as a subject, i.e.
before study, measure, etc.
A thorough study of the phenomenon was A thorough study of this made. phenomena.
This phenomenon has been carefully studied.
Note. In phrases like a study is made, when the subject is expressed by a singular noun, the indefinite article is usually used:
A brief description of some species is given.
A short description is given of some species.
Task 7. Compare the following pairs of Russian and English sentences, paying attention to how they express the concepts of “study, consider, measure,” as well as the definition with the subject and the articles.
1. Sudden explosions have been widely studied A comprehensive study of the sudden outbursts of comets. of the comets was made.
2. An extensive study was performed of the excitation of sound in a superconducting film.
3. The types were carefully studied. A detailed analysis of the type of conduction of single crystal films has been carried out.
4. Given exact description number of nerve cells An accurate description of a number of nerve cells. cells has been given.
5. Preliminary measurements on many specimens of conductivity were carried out on many Cu2O samples. of Cu2O have been made.
Task 8. Remake the following sentences according to the example and give your own version of the resulting sentence.
Sample: The Hall emf in silicon iron single crystal was accurately measured.
Accurate measurements were made of the Hall emf in silicon iron single crystal.
Your option: Accurate quantitative measurements of the DNA content in the macronucleus of Paramecium caudatum were made.
1. The electrical properties of the material were investigated in detail.
2. The plasma-nuclear ratio in cells is preliminarily calculated.
3. Some new types of transistors have been carefully studied.
4. The mechanism of reproduction has been thoroughly analyzed.
5. Many substances have been comprehensively studied.
Task 9. Translate the sentences into English using verb-noun combinations like a study is made.
1. Several new types of transistors have been studied.
2. Various forms of materials are considered.
3. The mechanism of electron transfer was studied.
4. Thermal resistance of metals was measured.
5. The study of the nuclear cycle was carried out on various types of ciliates.
3 a d e 10. Analyze Russian and English abstracts, paying attention to the order of words in sentences and the tense form of predicates. Answer the questions:
what is being studied? What is being considered? what is being discussed?
1) Cytological and cytochemical Studies on studies of Tripanasoma Raiae Tripanosoma Raiae The ultrastructure of various The fine structure of the various morphological stages of development stages of development in vitro culture of Tripanosoma Raiae, cultivated in vitro, was studied. Tripanosoma Raiae has been studied. An Ultrastructural analysis is considered is made of the ultrastructural location of the localization of hydrolytic enzymes in hydrolic enzymes with regard to the fate of connection with the fate of the exogenous material. exogenous material. The results of Cytochemical investigation on various studies of various mitochondrial enzymes are discussed.
mitochondrial enzymes.
§ 10. Here are a few more verbs that may be useful for you to communicate about the topic of the work:
develop (method, technology, device) - develop (method, technology, device);
design (device, scheme) - design (device, scheme);
construct, fabricate, create (a device) - to manufacture, create, build, construct (device), assemble (device) - assemble (device);
solve (problem, equation) - solve (problem, equation);
make, carry out, perform (expeiment, study, work) - conduct (do, stage) an experiment.
§ 11. Any message is characterized by its own types of sentences. When talking about the topic of work, research, etc., you can widely use sentences with homogeneous members.
1. Construction details and performance results of the study of working measurements are reported.
characteristics (device) (homogeneous subjects).
2. An analyzer was developed and manufactured. An analyzer has been designed and constructed.
3. Designed, constructed and tested Many different flash lamps have been installed.
(homogeneous predicates).
Sentences reporting on the topic of research are characterized by paired construction.
Two cases of current commutation are considered and expressions for output power are considered, and expressions for power output power are obtained. are developed.
§ 12. In the very first sentence of the abstract (or in the first two) you can talk about the topic of research and the results of the work you have done. To report your results you will need verbs show- show, find - discover, conclude - draw a conclusion.
1. The spectrum of recombination was considered. An analysis was made of the spectrum of the radiation. It was discovered that it changes by recombination. It was found that the under the influence of light. illumination can alter the spectrum.
2. Pellicular membranes were examined and it was shown that they were thicker than those in other cells. other cells. Pellicular membranes were examined and shown to be thicker than those in other cells.
3. The conclusion is drawn (they come to It is concluded that the model provides a very conclusion) that the model is quite a good fit to the experimental data.
corresponds to all experimental data.
4. It was concluded (a conclusion was made) that the change in the spectrum depends on the thermal the changes in the spectrum depend on the processing of the samples. thermal treatment about the samples.
In is shown that the spin-wave distance in crystals is nonadditive.
The spin-wave distance in crystals is shown to be nonadditive.
1. It is shown that the radicals are small. The radicals are shown to be small.
2. It was discovered that under the influence of light The illumination is found to change the impact, the conditions of threshold ionization change. ionization threshold.
It has been shown (discovered) that light changes the threshold conditions for impact ionization.
Task 11. Convert complex sentences into simple ones with an infinitive phrase, make similar sentences using vocabulary in your specialty.
Sample: It is found that the spectrum exists only for small energies. The spectrum is found to exist only for small energies.
Your option: The thermal factor is found to play an important part in ecological adaptations.
1. It has been shown that the phenomenon is due to uninoacids.
2. It is found that the corresponding transition in the normal crystal is of the second type.
3. It is postulated that a capacity requirement is about 9.5 metric tons.
4. It has been found that the results explain the proton superfine structure.
Task 12. Compare pairs of sentences. Find in them a message about what was found and what conclusion to draw. Look at the means by which this is conveyed in Russian and English.
1. The current-voltage characteristic of a sample is calculated and it is shown that it has a negative resistance region.
resistance.
2. The initial plasmons and phonons were studied and it was shown that under certain and shown to depend on each other under damping conditions they depend on certain conditions of damping.
3. The spectrum of recombination was considered. An analysis was made of the spectrum of the radiation. It was found that the recombination spectrum. It was found that the recombination radiation can illumination can alter the spectrum of the change under the influence of light. recombination.
4. It was found that the ratio of the content of The ratio of DNA content in the macronucleus DNA in the macronucleus and in the micronucleus to that of micronucleus of the vegetative herbivores is different. animals are found to be different.
Task 13. Translate the predicates and start the second sentences with impersonal offers like “it is shown”.
1. Describes a method for neutron activation analysis. It is shown that it can be used as gas chromatography technique.
2. The ratio of the thickness of elastic twin was measured. It was discovered that its length was small.
3. The magnetic impurities were analyzed. The conclusion is that they can lead to resonance peaks.
4. The effects of ions on the mechanism for synergic solvent were studied. The study was also1 conducted on the extraction of the Fe III. Found that the effects were the same.
5. Measurements were taken of the Hall emf. It was shown that the direction of the primary current and the measured emf were reversed, and also came to the conclusion that the Hall field was of tensor nature.
Task 14. Combine the following pairs of sentences into one.
Sample. The radicals were examined. It was shown that their values were small. - The radicals were examined and their values were shown to be small.
1. The phenomenon of mutation was studied. It was found that UV-induced mutations repair gaps in DNA.
2. The current-voltage characteristic of a sample is calculated. It is shown that its resistance region is negative.
3. Some models of crystals were studied. It was found that they provided a very good fit to the experimental data.
4. Some fundamental changes of cytoplasma were investigated. It is shown that they are due to protein colloids of cytoplasma.
5. The basic results of the work are discussed. It is found that they are explained on the basis of a model of a solid.
Task 15. Translate the following sentences into English using infinitive phrases.
1. The theory of the drag of electrons was considered.
This theory is shown to explain the observed effect.
2. Two species of protozoa (Protozoa species) were considered. It was shown that electron microscopic data for both species are identical.
3. Hall emf measurements were carried out, and it was discovered that the Hall field has a tensor nature.
In an English sentence, also - also comes before the semantic verb of the predicate.
4. The basic theory of this effect is discussed and shown to be substantially consistent with experiment.
5. The nature of cytophysiological processes was discussed, and it was shown that these phenomena are associated with changes in protoplasmic protein (protein colloids of cytoplasma).
Task 16. Write out from an English article on your specialty those sentences that say 1) what was studied, researched, discussed, measured, counted;
2) what is found is shown. Shorten these sentences, leaving only the subject and predicate group with the words related to them. Compose a short abstract from the proposals you received.
Task 17. Fill in the dots with vocabulary in your specialty.
Sample. A study is made of... and... are also investigated.
A study is made of cytoplasmic RNA and its properties are also being investigated.
1...was studied and measured.
2....was analyzed and... was calculated.
3. A study is made of... and... properties are also investigated.
4. Measurements (calculations) are made of... It is found that....
5.... has been studied and shown to be....
Task 18. Analyze the Russian and English versions of the abstracts, paying attention to word order, voice, and tense forms. Write down the English equivalents for Russian words and combinations of words with the meanings: “formulate, take into account, not take into account (not evaluate)”;
"to depend on something;
to be in agreement with something."
Write a short essay on your specialty.
1. A theory of the ground magnetic state is formulated for some mixed ferrites. formulated for some mixed ferrites. Equations The formulas for the dependence are obtained for the dependences of the magnetic moment and Curie t° on the magnetic moment and Curie t° on the content of non-magnetic cations. concentration of nonmagnetic cations. The calculated values of the magnetic moment and and Curie t° are found to be in good agreement with the experiment. with the experimental results.
2. In the summer of 1970, a general study of the ecology of a number of ecological studies of a number of lakes, lakes, lying north-west of Eirikjokull, was carried out during the summer of 1970. . Data for previous years data of previous years were not taken into account. account were investigated. The characteristics of the plankton were not investigated, but the estimate of the order was the rate of its formation. of production was left out of consideration.
§ 14. If, when reporting on the work done or the results obtained, you need to logically highlight something, then you can use the following verb combinations: pay (give) attention to... - pay attention to..., emphasize, give emphasis to, place emphasis on... - emphasize.
§ 15. The meaning of combinations § 14 can be strengthened with the following adjectives and adverbs: particular, special, specific - special, great - large;
primary - paramount;
especially, particularly, specially, specifically - especially (exclusively);
with particular emphasis on... (with special attention to...) - and special attention is paid (addressed to..., especially emphasized).
1. Buffer solutions were studied. Special The buffer solutions were studied. Special attention was paid to the phosphorus concentration in the buffer solution. concentration in buffer solution.
2. Nerve cells were described with particular attention to the structure of their nuclei.
special attention was paid to the structure of their nuclei.
3. The structure of rocks is considered. The structure of rocks is studied. Granitic Granitic rocks are especially studied. rocks are especially studied.
Task 19. Compare the following pairs of sentences, paying attention to the place of adjectives and adverbs that strengthen the statement.
1. Particular (special) attention is given to the conservation of energy. energy law.
2. Attention is primarily given to the optimal operating conditions of the device. operating conditions of the device.
3. Particular (special) emphasis is given to the attention. optimal operating conditions.
4. A photon detector is described with particular emphasis on its advantages and disadvantages. limitations.
5. The findings are discussed and special account is taken of their practical implication.
application.
Task 20. Using the adjectives special, specific, particular, make the statement more emphatic.
Example: Attention is given to the excitation conditions.
Particular attention is given to the excitation conditions.
1. Attention is given to the technology of obtaining high energy resolution.
2. An account is taken of the role of major planets.
3. Certain emphasis is placed on the geometrical efficiency of the system.
4. The domain structure has been studied and attention is given to the excitation conditions.
Task 21. Translate the following sentences, observing the word order characteristic of the English language.
1. Particular attention is paid to the use of this device.
2. The measurement results are specially taken into account.
3. An improved form of optical interferometer is discussed, with special attention paid to its design and operation.
Task 22. Compare the English and Russian versions of the abstracts, note what logically stands out in them and by what means.
On the question of the shape of crystals of the new phase In Reference to the Shape of Crystals of the New Phase A variation problem is formulated for the equilibrium shape of crystals of the new phase equilibrium shape of crystals of the new phase in the case of phase transformations, especially for martensitic phase transitions especially.
for martensitic type. Mainly Special account is taken of the slight deviation of the slip from invariant plane. A thorough dislocation glide from invariant. analysis is made of the case of thin crystals of Cases of thin martensite are considered in detail. Special attention is given to the martensite crystals. Particular attention is paid to the dislocation description of the kinetics of the process which is found to be of great interest.
kinetic process, which is of significant interest.
Task 23. 1) Translate abstract 1 into Russian.
1. A modified form of a compressor is described. The operation of the compressor is given in detail. The design and performance are also discussed. Special emphasis is given to the application.
2) Translate abstract 2 into English, using abstract 1 as a sample.
2. A new and improved type of detector has been manufactured. Its design and performance characteristics are described in detail. Particular attention is paid to its advantages and disadvantages. His work is also discussed.
II. CONDITIONS OF THE EXPERIMENT § 1. If you need to indicate under what conditions (temperature, pressure, voltage, etc.) the research (experiment, measurement) is carried out or a certain phenomenon occurs, you can use combinations of the corresponding nouns with the preposition at:
at the temperature (of) at the temperature at the pressure (of) at the pressure at the voltage (of) at the voltage at the energy (of) at the energy at the concentration (of) at the concentration at the frequency (of) at (on) frequency at the speed (of) at the speed (with speed) at the wavelength (of) at the wavelength at the angle (of) at the angle at the point (of) at the point at the altitude (of) at the height § 2. When specifying the temperature, pressure and other conditions under which you are conducting research, you can use adjectives: certain, definite - certain;
usual, ordinary - ordinary;
given - given;
same - same, identical;
different, various - different, different, excellent, different, various;
similar - similar, similar;
variable - changing, changeable, variable;
stable - stable;
high, higher - large, high;
low, lower - small, low;
increased, elevated - increased;
moderate - moderate;
primary - primary;
final - final.
1. Infrared absorption has been investigated at different temperatures. different temperatures.
2. Measurements carried out at the point Measurements at the point of solidus have led solidus gave different results. to different results.
3. By calculation, the possibility is shown. Calculations indicate that oscillations at oscillations at frequencies up to 3000 MHz. frequencies as high as 3000 mc may be possible.
Note 1. If the nouns specified in §1 are preceded by an adjective that defines it, then the noun is consumed with the indefinite article. An exception is the adjective same, which requires a definite article: at a definite energy, at a different speed, at the same voltage.
Note 2. The specified temperature is design temperature, the specified volume is design volume, the specified pressure is design pressure, etc.
Task 1. a) Indicate which of the above examples report experimental conditions, results or conclusions;
b) following the examples, write three or four sentences in which you indicate the conditions of the experiment. Use lexical units from the literature in your specialty.
§ 3. When indicating the amount of pressure, voltage, etc., you must put numerical units after the corresponding noun - pressure, voltage, temperature, etc.:, at the temperature of about 90 °C - at a temperature approximately equal to 90 °C;
at the pressure of 170 atm - at a pressure of 170 atm;
at a voltage as high as 170 volts - at (high) voltages up to 170 volts;
at a voltage as low as 10 volts - at (low) voltages up to 10 volts.
Task 2. a) Indicate how the sentences in the following microtexts are interconnected in meaning. In which of them, in addition to reporting the subject of research, the experimental conditions are specified, the phenomena are interpreted, and the results are presented;
b) translate or write similar short texts in English related to the topic of your work.
1. The conductivity of a pure MgBr sample was studied;
The experiments were carried out at a frequency of 10 MHz.
2. Collinear interaction between light and acoustic waves was studied. The frequencies at which collinear interaction is possible (is possible) have been determined2.
3. The propagation of electromagnetic waves near the cyclotron-phonon resonance was studied.
It is shown that coupled electron-phonon waves appear at frequencies close to ce+0.
4. The possible mechanism of the formation of helices is discussed (analyzed). Their occurrence is associated with relaxation internal stresses(internal stresses) in places (points) of their concentration.
§ 4. When you want to indicate under what experimental conditions measurements, observations, etc. were carried out or under the influence of what factors a certain phenomenon occurs, the following combinations of nouns with the preposition under may be useful to you:
under the influence of... under the action of... under the influence of some under (in) some (certain) conditions, under some (circumstances) conditions under excitation under the influence of excitation , under excitation under irradiation under irradiation conditions, under irradiation, under irradiation under illumination under the influence of lighting, under illumination under (in) vacuum under vacuum conditions, in a vacuum under (a/the) load under load, under the influence of load Remember that In English, word order is straight.
under control under control under (in) idealization in conditions of idealization Note. The nouns condition and action are often omitted in English: under conditions (under the influence of) ionization - under ionization.
§ 5. If you want to clarify the experimental conditions, you can use the following adjectives and combinations of words: proper - proper;
appropriate - appropriate;
carefully controlled - carefully regulated;
normal operating conditions - normal operating conditions, normal operating modes.
Experiments were carried out under carefully controlled conditions. controlled conditions.
Note. See also the adjectives given in § 2.
Task 3. Translate the following sentences. Using their example, compose sentences in English in which you report on the subject of the study, the conditions of the experiment and its results. Find the necessary vocabulary in the literature in your specialty. Your proposals must be specific, that is, you name the material you are studying, its properties and the conditions of your experiment.
1. The material was tested under a load and found to be highly resistive.
2. The samples were examined under illumination and were shown to change color.
3. Conductivity was measured under carefully controlled conditions. It was found to be greatest at 340 °K.
Task 4. Translate the following sentences and write similar sentences in English, the content of which is related to the topic of your work.
1. The electrical conductivity of this compound was studied and it was found that under proper conditions it did not change.
2. The properties of samples oxidized under isothermal conditions were determined.
3. Several samples have been tested and shown to be unstable under polymerization conditions.
4. An improved source was developed and manufactured. This device operates under relatively clean vacuum conditions.
5. Distinctive features of the phase system are studied with the usual idealization.
§ 6. When describing the experimental conditions, you can | The following combinations of nouns with the preposition in may be useful:
in (under) conditions (circumstances) in a magnetic (electric) field in the presence (absence) of... in the presence (absence) in (with) some approximation with some approximation, with some degree of approximation, in some approximation in vacuum (under vacuum) in the region (of the spectrum) It is shown that the line of the spectrum It is shown that in a magnetic field broadens in the magnetic field. the spectral line expands.
Note. The combination of words - region of the spectrum - region (part) of the spectrum in English is often omitted, since it does not carry additional information: in ultraviolet - in the ultraviolet (region of the spectrum);
in the infrared region of the spectrum - in the infrared;
in the visible part of the spectrum - in the visible:
Photos taken in the infrared showed...
Images from the infrared region of the spectrum showed...
Task 5. Translate the following sentences or write similar sentences in English in which you would indicate the conditions of your experiment.
1. Observations were carried out in the infrared region of the spectrum.
2. Energies were calculated with monopole approximation.
3. The studies were carried out at T=90 °K in the external magnetic field of 450.
4. The influence of elastic interaction is studied. In the isotropic approximation, it was found that this interaction leads to an increase in the total concentration of point defects.
§ 7. If you need to indicate in what interval (range) of pressures (temperatures, stresses, etc.) the research was carried out or certain phenomena and processes occurred, then you can use the following combinations:
in (over) the range of... in the interval, in the range, in the area within the range of... within the range from... within the range from... to... § 8. Pay attention to the place of definitions , clarifying the noun range:
over all (pressure) ranges - in all ranges (pressure);
over a wide range of (magnetic fields) - in a wide range (of magnetic fields);
in (the temperature) range from 20 to 100 °C - in the (temperature) range (interval) from 20 to 100 °C;
in the 19–150 °С range - in the range of 19–150 °С;
in the appropriate (temperature) range - in the appropriate (temperature) interval (range), in the appropriate area (temperatures).
1. Absorption spectra have been investigated in the region 470–20-1 cm. the 470–20-1 cm range.
2. In the appropriate temperature range, this substance has large substance shows (exhibits) high density.
density.
Task 6. a) Translate the following sentences;
b) indicate which sentences, in addition to reporting the conditions of the experiment, contain a characteristic of the subject of research or draw a conclusion (conclusion).
1. In the range of 90–300 °C, small values of thermopower (thermo-emf) are observed.
2. The magnetic properties of this alloy have been studied over a wide range of magnetic fields and temperatures.
3. The instrument operates at a frequency (frequency range) of 12 Hz.
4. The resistivity of this substance has been studied over a wide temperature range. It was found (observe, show, find) that it reaches a maximum at 70°.
5. A new device has been designed that allows measurements in vacuum and at low temperatures.
6. The viscosity of this substance has been studied under various conditions. Good agreement with theory was obtained in the region of low to moderate temperatures.
7. We present formulas for bremsstrahlung (for Bremstrahlung) in the Cramer approximation for two simple cases.
8. Measurements were carried out under carefully controlled conditions in the temperature range from 700 to 900 °K.
9. In the temperature range 77-200°, the data agree reasonably well with theory (agree reasonably well with...;
show good agreement with...).
Task 7. Look through an English article on your specialty and write out sentences from it that indicate the experimental conditions. Use them in a short report of your experiences.
Task 8. Compare the texts of Russian and English abstracts. Pay attention to the relationship between the title of the article and the first sentence. Note any structural discrepancies in both texts (place of adverbial group and predicate).
AFMR linewidth in Linewidth of Antimagnetic Resonance in antiferromagnets with magnetic Antiferromagnets Having an “Easy Plane” anisotropy. Anisotropy.
In a wide range of temperatures and The linewidth of the anti-magnetic resonance magnetic fields, the widths are calculated for both branches of the spectrum of an antifer-romagnet with an “easy plane”
antiferromagnet with magnetic anisotropy in a wide range of temperatures and anisotropy of the “easy plane” type, magnetic fields. It is assumed that the linewidth due to the interaction processes is entirely due to the interaction of spin waves. Both three- and spin waves are considered. Both three- and four-magnon and four-magnon processes. scattering processes are considered.
Task 9. Read the abstract (no need to translate it). Name the subject of the study, experimental conditions and conclusions (conclusions, results).
Infrared Absorption, Photoconductivity, and Impurity States in Germanium Infrared absorption and photoconductivity in p-type Ge with Au and Cu impurities have been investigated at various temperatures. Photoconductivity in Au-doped Ge at liquid-nitrogen and liquid-helium temperatures shows a long-wavelength tail beyond the fundamental absorption edge, which falls off sharply at about 6 microns corresponding to 0.21 eV. For Cu-doped Ge at low temperatures both absorption and photoconductivity show a maximum at about 22 microns corresponding to 0.055 eV.
Task 10. Write a short summary of the article you read in English, following the following plan: subject of research, experimental conditions, result (conclusions). Use the vocabulary of the article.
Task 11. Look at the abstracts of articles in English in your specialty, which report on the experimental conditions. Use them to write the abstract of your paper where you talk about the experimental conditions.
III. METHODS, METHODS § 1. You may find useful nouns that denote 1) method, method of conducting research and 2) device, means.
1) Words with the meaning “method, method, technique, technique, approach, procedure, operation” - method, technique, procedure, approach, way - do not have unambiguous correspondences in Russian and English. For example, the word method can be expressed as method, technique, procedure, approach. It all depends on what meaning you put into this concept, and you must take into account that the word method means “method, method”;
technique - “method, method, technique, technique (of conducting an experiment)”;
techniques - “technique”;
procedure - “method, technique, procedure, operation (not in the medical sense of the word)”;
approach (to) “method, approach (to a solution), consideration (from a certain point of view).” When choosing English noun one must also take into account which word is usually used in a given particular case. For example, the differential method is the differential method, the isotope method is the isotopic technique, the trial and error method is the trial-and-error procedure (or hit-or-miss method).
Note. In Russian we can say approach to the question (“approach to the problem”), in English it is recommended in these cases to avoid the words question, problem.
A new approach to the problem of phase transition is presented.
A new approach to phase transition is discussed.
2) Let's consider words with the meaning “device, apparatus, instrument, fixture, device, equipment, installation” - device, apparatus, instrument, equipment, design, set, set up, installation, unit, construction. These nouns also do not have complete analogies in Russian and English. The word device can be expressed by the words device, apparatus, instrument. In this case, device usually means “small device”, instrument - “measuring device”. The nouns device, device usually correspond to the nouns device, apparatus, equipment, construction, set, set up;
apparatus, equipment - apparatus, instrument, equipment;
equipment - equipment, apparatus;
installation - set, set up, apparatus;
instrument - instrument;
unit - set, unit;
unit (block) of installation - unit (unit also means a certain unity, consisting of a number of parts, and a part of the whole);
construction - construction, design - design. In addition, in the English language there are two nouns that summarize the concept of “means”: tool - tool, tool, means, device and facility - equipment, pieces of equipment, equipment, device, device (it includes the concept of everything that can facilitate ( facilitate) work).
Note 1. Words such as method, device, in English, as in Russian, can be interchanged in order to avoid repetition of a previously mentioned noun or the name of a specific method or device:
A new method is proposed for solving the question of the nature of condensation centers and mechanisms. This approach is applicable to the system under study.
A new approach to the nature and condensation mechanism of centers is presented. This method is applied to the system.
Note 2. The nouns method, methodology, etc. in Russian are omitted if it is clear that we're talking about about a method, not about a process or phenomenon. For example: By modeling it is shown, ..., i.e.
modeling method is shown... In English, the words method, technique, approach are absent more often than in Russian: X-ray diffraction analysis - X-ray diffraction analysis method, electron paramagnetic resonance - paramagnetic resonance method:
The study of cobalt diffusion in silicon was carried out by the method of sequential removal of layers.
The diffusion of cobalt in silicon was investigated by the successive removal of layers.
Task 1. Explain the use of the words design, device and Instrument in the following microtext:
The Crayford Eyepiece Mount is described. The design is suitable for amateurs. However the device lends itself to sophisticated development. With suitable modifications the instrument can become a really first-class mount.
§ 2. To characterize the method (methodology, device, device) that you use, you can use the following adjectives: main, chief, basic, principal - main, chief;
general - general;
additional - additional, auxiliary;
modern, current, up-to-date - modern;
out-of-date - outdated, out of use;
usual, conventional - usual, generally accepted;
unconventional - non-standard;
important - important;
valuable - valuable;
satisfactory - satisfactory, good, useful - useful;
convenient - convenient;
appropriate - suitable, appropriate;
reliable - reliable;
sensitive - sensitive;
exact, accurate - exact;
crude - imprecise;
direct, straightforward - straight;
indirect - indirect;
effective - effective, efficient, effective;
elaborate - carefully developed3, rigorous - strict (accurate);
efficient - economical;
To develop (method, theory, etc.) - develop;
the method developed earlier.
expensive - expensive;
inexpensive - inexpensive;
versatile - versatile, applicable (in different cases);
valid - applicable (to a given case), valid, fair, justified;
adequate - suitable, meeting the requirements, suitable, adequate;
promising, perspective - promising, promising;
same - the same;
another, different - different, different;
alternative - opposite, alternative;
improved, modified - improved, modified, modified.
§ 3. If the nouns method, theory, effect, device, etc. are preceded by a proper name in the genitive case, then the article is not used: Seitz's hypothesis, Whipple's model. If a proper name is in the general case, then the definite article is used: the Hall effect, the Boltzman factor, the Schmidt camera, the Gerrish drive, the Coulomb field etc. Sometimes the article may be absent even if there is a proper noun in the general case. If the sentence does not contain the words approach, theory, method, etc., the article is not used before the name of the method.
1. The DNA was examined by the Klein -Smith method.
2. Wilson's model has been applied.
3. We used electromagnetic coupling.
Task 2. Explain how you understand the author’s use of articles or the absence of an article before italicized nouns.
1. Transition energies are calculated in the monopole-monopole approximation.
2. The results have been obtained with the semiclassical theory.
3. The Hodgkin - Huxley equations modified by Dodge have been solved.
4. A phenomenological theory has been developed which is consistent with the observed dependence on intensity.
5. Conclusion is made according to classical nucleation theory.
6. There are essentially only two approaches to the general optimization problem, the classical methods of variational calculus, and the functional-equation technique of dynamic programming.
7. Measurements performed on Bi–Te alloys are compared with Seeback coefficients (S) using Kelvin"s second relation P = ST.
§ 4. When you need to report what method, method you carried out the research or what device you used to carry out the experiment, you can use the following combinations of words and structure: by, with, using, by means of + nouns meaning method, theory, device , etc.
1. This system is studied by Smith's method (using (using Smith's method, through Smith's method).
Smith's method, using the Smith's method, using the Smith's method).
2. Conductivity was measured with (by means of, (using, using an ammeter). using) an ammeter.
Note. With nouns like method, the preposition with is possible. With nouns denoting large and complex devices, it is possible to use the prepositions by and on: on a monochromator (using a monochromator) - on (by) a monochromator.
The prepositions with, through are used with the nouns microscope and telescope.
§ 5. When reporting a method of research, when you name the action by which this research was carried out, you can use following structures: by+Gerung (+Noun), by+Noun (+of Noun). In Russian this corresponds to structures with a gerund or verbal noun.
We obtained our value by (by the comparison of the data).
(comparing data).
Note. After a verb in the Gerund form, a noun is used without a preposition if the corresponding verb takes a direct object: calculate the value - calculate the value by calculating the value - counting the value, by counting the value. After a verbal noun, the complement is used with the preposition of: the calculation of the value, by the calculation of the value. In this regard, in English, in the presence of an object, it is recommended to use Gerund to avoid the need to use the preposition of, and in the absence of an object, a verbal noun:
By measuring the volume accurately it was shown that...
Through precise volume measurements it was shown that...
By accurate measurement it was shown that...
Through precise measurements it has been shown that...
§ 6. The method of research can be conveyed by an adverb or nouns such as way, manner, which corresponds in Russian to an adverb or adverbial group with the nouns image, way, way.
This value is derived (derived) The value is derived theoretically (in a theoretical way).
§ 7. If the semantic center of the statement is not the method (method, device), but the object of research, then the latter is placed at the end of the sentence. Let's compare two sentences:
1. Optical constants are studied by (using) the multiple scattering method. multiple-scattering method.
2. The multiple-scattering method is used to study optical constants are studied. (in the study of) optical constants.
Using the multiple-scattering method optical constants are studied.
In the first sentence, the meaning of the statement is focused on the method by which optical constants were studied (they were studied by the multiple scattering method, and not by another method). The second sentence focuses on what has been studied by multiple scattering (optical parameters studied, not other properties).
Since abstracts usually focus on the subject of the study, such structures are very common. However, it happens that the accents in Russian and English texts are different.
The state of tin impurity in nickel oxides was studied by Mossbower spectroscopy (emphasis on the subject - on the method of research).
research).
Task 3. a) Highlight in the following sentences the structures indicating the research method;
b) give possible options for their translation;
c) suggest, where possible, your own ways of conveying the same information in English.
1. The difficulty is removed be simplifying the equation.
2. The ultrastructure has been investigated using an electron microscope.
3. Temperature structure coefficients were measured with temperature sensors.
4. The width of the paramagnetic resonance line was measured by means of a standard microwave spectrometer.
5. The valence band method was used to calculate the free valence.
Task 4. Translate the following adverbial groups answering the questions “how?”, “by what means?”, “in what way?” research has been carried out. Use a gerund or a verbal noun (see note on page 38 [in §5]).
1. By (using) measuring potential.
2. Through carefully designed measurements.
3. Through precise calculations.
4. By calculating energy levels (level).
5. By observing numerous events.
6. Through repeated observations.
7. By eliminating (eliminate, eliminate) friction other undesirable effects (undesirable effects).
8. By repeating the operation.
Task 5. Instead of ellipsis, insert words that indicate the subject that you are researching, the method of your research and the conditions of the experiment.
Sample: Studies were made of... by... using... Studie were made of the reactivity of functional groups by infrared spectroscopy using an improved type of a spectrophotometer.
1.... was investigated by... 2.... was treated using... 3. … is incresed by means of... 4.... is solved using... 5.... has has been reached with... 6.... has been obtained with... 7. Studies were made of (on)... at a definite temperature using.... 8. Measurements were made of... using. .. 9.
Experiments were carried out on... in the temperature range from... to... using... 10... have been investigated under... by means of...
Task 6. Based on the sentences proposed in the task, create structural models according to the sample. For these models, write your proposals, the content of which is related to the topic of your work.
Example: By heating the Ge over 850 °C and by quenching it by means of radiation cooling, about 1014 acceptors per cm3 were introduced.
By heating... by means of... were introduced.
By using gamma-spectroscopy and measuring beta-activity by means of Geiger counter the disequilibrium concentration of thorium-234 was determined.
1. The electron and beam plasma instabilities in one-dimensional finite-length system are studied by computor stimulation methods using the discrete charge-sheet model.
2. A system is described which controls the supply to an induction furnace by means of a resistance thermometer bridge and a servometer.
1. 3. The lattice thermal conductivity for the case of semiconductors is evaluated utilizing a Maxwellian distribution for the conduction electrons.
3. Computor methods were used to calculate needed corrections and to evaluate the quality of the corrections needed.
Task 7. a) Translate the following sentences into English or b) compose similar sentences in English, the content of which is related to the topic of your work.
1. Resistivity(the resistivity) was measured using the usual balance method.
2. The precipitation of a solid solution of chromium in silicon was studied by the method of paramagnetic resonance (electron paramagnetic resonance, the word method is omitted).
3. The electron thermal conductivity is evaluated using a Maxwellian distribution.
Task 8. Compare Russian and English sentences. Please note that with different syntactic structure they convey the same idea.
1. A pulse method was used in a study of the relaxation mechanisms in a single crystal. mechanism of relaxation in a single crystal.
2. A kinetic method is used to derive a general expression for... expression for...
3. The standard-problem method is used to construct the wave functions in an analytical form using the standard problem method: construct the wave function for Coulomb of a Coulomb particle in a uniform particles in a uniform electric field in an analytical electric field. form.
Task 9. a) Translate the following sentences and microtexts into Russian;
use them as a model for making proposals on the topic of your work;
b) the first sentence talks about the subject of the study and the research method.
State what the remaining sentences say.
1. The capacitance probe method was used to study the electric field.
2. The deutron approximation is used in the calculation of the biexciton wave function.
3. Gamma resonance spectroscope was used in an investigation of dilute paramagnets. The investigation was carried out at T=90 °K in an external magnetic field.
4. Measurements were made on specimens grown by zone refining (recrystallization method). Particular attention was given to the composition and degree of homogeneity of the crystals.
Task 10. a) Read an English article about your specialty;
write down from it the structures with which the author expressed the methods and means of research;
b) use them in a short written report about the methods and means used.
Task 11. Extract from the short abstracts that precede English articles in your specialty, structures expressing methods and means of research, and use them as a model for communicating about the methods and means that you use in your work.
Task 12. Compare the following Russian and English abstracts;
write out from English abstracts those lexical and syntactic combinations that you could use when compiling an abstract of an article on the topic of your work. Pay attention to the relationship between the first sentence of the abstract and the title of the article. What is reported in the abstracts (about the subject of research, method, etc.)? Pay attention to the differences in the structure of the Russian and English text.
1. Surface vibrations in quartz Surface Vibrations in Quarz A modified version of the frustrated total internal reflection in detail internal reflection method was used in the spectrum of surface adetailed investigation of the spectrum of the lattice vibrations in quartz. Surface optical vibrations of the lattice of two types of surface phonons were discovered. quartz Surface phonons of two types were The results of the experiment are recorded. The experimental results were found to be in satisfactory agreement with the calculation. to be in good agreement with the calculations.
2. Double Frequency Measurements of the Phase relaxation in yttrium iron garnet. Relaxation in Yttrium Iron Garnet.
A pulse method was used in a study of the mechanisms of reversible and irreversible phase relaxation in a single crystal of yttrium iron garnet at room iron garnet. The investigation was carried out temperature at frequencies of 10 and 40 GHz. at room temperature at frequencies of 10 and 40 GHs.
Task 13. Read the following abstracts (no need to translate them). Specify the structures by which the subject of the study and the way it is conducted are communicated. What do the abstracts say?
1. Measurements of Minority Carrier Lifetime and Contact Injection Ratio on Transistor Materials Lifetime is determined by observing the decay of resistance of a filament of the material during an injection pulse. By using a bridge circuit incorporating a RC network electrically analogous to the filament, the lifetime can be read directly on a calibrated dial. The measurement range extends down to 1 microsec, with an accuracy usually to within about 5 per cent.
Here you can download the book for free: Mikhelson T. M. Uspenskaya N. In “A Practical Course of English Grammar”.
Description:“A Practical Course of English Grammar” can serve as a manual both for systematic studies of English grammar, and as a self-instruction manual for repetition or familiarization with a particular linguistic phenomenon. The course included only those sections of grammar that present a certain difficulty for students of English as a language of science.
To adequately transfer the content of an English scientific text into Russian, it is necessary to know and be able to select the appropriate Russian equivalents of one or another construction in the English language. Therefore, this manual includes sections: 1) passive voice; 2) non-finite forms of the verb (infinitive, gerund, participle); 3) subjunctive mood, conditional sentences, various cases of use verbs should and would, modal verbs; 4) emphatic constructions; 5) pronouns and substitute words; 6) conjunctions and relative pronouns.
After all sections there is a general repetition, where a number of mixed exercises are given for all the material covered.
At the very end of the book there is a Russian-English dictionary reference book.
Each section is provided with brief comments on the grammatical phenomenon being studied, a large number of examples, lists of necessary vocabulary and exercises.
The exercises consist of individual sentences designed for adequate translation from English into Russian. The material for the exercises is taken from the original English and American general scientific and specialized literature. Sentences that include everyday vocabulary are used to a small extent.
Year of issue: 1995
Preface 3
I. PASSIVE VOICE
1. Different ways of translating the predicate in the passive voice
2. Features of translating the subject with a predicate in the passive voice
3. Features of the translation of the passive voice of verbs with a prepositional object
4. Features of the translation of the passive voice of English transitive verbs, which in Russian correspond to verbs that take a prepositional object
5. Features of the translation of the passive voice from a combination of a verb with a noun like take care of
6. Repetition of various methods and features of translation of the passive voice
II. INFINITIVE AND INFINITIVE PURPOSES
1. Infinitive forms
2. Infinitive as a subject
3. The infinitive as a function of the circumstance of the goal, consequence and accompanying conditions
4. Comparison of the infinitive in the function of the adverbial goal with the infinitive in the function of the subject
5. Infinitive in a compound predicate (verb be + infinitive)
6. Infinitive in a compound predicate with a modal meaning (be + infinitive)
7. Comparison of the verb be in a modal meaning with the verb be as a copula followed by an infinitive
8. Infinitive in a compound predicate in sentences like The book is easy to read
9. Perfect infinitive after modal verbs
10. Infinitive as a definition
11. Comparison of the infinitive in the defining function with the infinitive in the compound modal predicate after the verb be
12 Comparison of the infinitive in the function of definition with the participle in the same function
13. Infinitive in the function of the second object (meanings of the verbs cause, get, lead, make + infinitive)
14. Features of the translation of the passive infinitive after the verbs allow, permit, enable
15. Infinitive as an introductory member of a sentence
16. Comparison of the infinitive, which stands at the beginning of the sentence and performs the functions of the subject, adverbial purpose or introductory member of the sentence
17. Repetition of syntactic functions of the infinitive
18. The phrase “for + noun (pronoun) + infinitive” (for - phrase)
19. Comparison of the infinitive in different functions with the phrase “for + noun (pronoun) + infinitive”
20. Infinitive in a complex object (turnover “objective case with infinitive”)
21. Complex object in some subordinate and emphatic clauses
22. Comparison of the translation of a complex object with the translation of an infinitive in the definition function
23. Infinitive in a compound verbal predicate (turnover “nominative case with infinitive”)
24. Some features of the translation of the phrase “nominative case with infinitive”
25. Comparison of phrases with the infinitive in a complex object and in a compound verbal predicate
26. Infinitive after participle II and the words likely, sure, certain
27 Comparison of the infinitive after participle II with the infinitive in the compound verbal predicate
28. Repetition of infinitives and infinitive phrases
III. PARTICIPLES AND PARTICIPIC PURPOSES
1. Forms of participles
2. Participles in the function of definition
3. Determinative participial phrases
4. Comparison of participle II with Past Indefinite Active verbs in which these forms coincide (such as invited, sent, made, etc.)
5. Features of the translation of attributive phrases with passive participles formed from verbs, which in Russian correspond to verbs that are intransitive or take a prepositional object
6. Comparison of the translation of attributive phrases with participle I of the active voice with the translation of attributive phrases with participle II
7. Adverbial participial phrases
8. Adverbial participial phrases with preceding conjunctions
9. Independent participle construction (absolute participial construction)
10. Comparison of dependent and independent participial phrases
11. Adverbial phrases “participle I + as it does (did)” and “participle II + as it is (was)”
12. Participial phrase as an introductory member of a sentence
13. Sentences with participle I or II coming first in the sentence and being part of the predicate
14. Comparison of participial phrases at the beginning of a sentence and performing the functions of an adverbial clause, an introductory member or part of a predicate
15. Participle in a complex object (turnover “objective case with participle”)
16. Participle in a compound verbal predicate (turnover “nominative case with participle”)
17. Constructions with participles like “have + noun + participle II”
18. Repetition of participles and participial phrases
IV. GERUND AND GERUNDIALS
1. Gerund forms
2. Signs of the gerund and its translation
3. Gerund as a subject
4. Gerund as a direct object
5. Gerund as a complement with a preposition
6. Gerund as a function of circumstance
7. Gerund in definition function
8. Gerundial phrases
9. Repetition of gerunds and gerundial phrases
10. Comparison of gerund with participle
V. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, CONDITIONAL SENTENCES AND VARIOUS CASES OF USING SHOULD AND WOULD
1. Forms of the subjunctive mood
2. Use of subjunctive forms
3. Conditional sentences
4. Repetition of conditional sentences
5. Analysis of conditional sentences from the point of view of the use of subjunctive forms in them
6. Use and translation of the verb should
7. Use and translation of the verb would
8. Repetition of the use of the verbs should and would
9. Use and translation of verbs may (might), can (could), ought, must, need
10. General repetition of the subjunctive mood, conditionals and verbs should, would, may, might and could
VI. EMPHATIC CONSTRUCTIONS (EMPHASE)
1. Strengthening do
2. Reverse word order
3. Emphatic concessional sentences
4. Double negative
5. Emphatic combination it is... that (which, who)
6. Repetition of emphatic constructions
VII. PRONOUNS AND SUBSTITUTE WORDS
1. Sentences with introducing there, construction with there is (there are)
2. The pronoun it, replacing the preceding noun or whole statement
3. The pronoun it, preceding the subsequent utterance
4. Repetition of the functions of the pronoun it
5. One is a noun substitute word
6. One - generalized personal pronoun
7 Repetition of one - substitute words for a noun and a generalized personal pronoun
8. Substitute word that (those)
9. Substitute word this (these)
10. Repetition of pronouns-substitutes of nouns: one (ones), that (those), this (these)
11. The verb do is a substituent of the predicate
12. Verbs-substitutes of the significant part of the predicate
VIII. CONJUNCTIONS AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS THAT, WHICH, WHAT
1. The difference between a conjunction and a relative pronoun
2. Use of the conjunction that - that; to
3. Use of the relative pronoun that - which
4. Comparison of the conjunction that - what with the relative pronoun that- which
5. The use of the conjunction that is that; to
6. Comparison of that, which is part of the emphatic phrase, with the conjunction that, standing after an indefinite personal sentence
7. Repeating the translation of the conjunction and relative pronoun that
8. Use of the relative pronoun which - which
9. Use of the relative pronoun which - that
10. Use of the relative pronoun which - which
11. Relative pronoun which, defining nouns like extent, manner, way
12. Repeating the translation of the relative pronoun which
13. The use of what - a question word and the relative pronoun that; such; what
14. Using what as a noun determiner and as a relative pronoun - which, what for, what
15. Comparison of the translation of the pronoun what - what is it, what is it (what is it) and what
16. The use of what - a relative pronoun introducing subordinate clauses
17. Special cases of using the relative pronoun what
18. Relative pronoun what, conveying a connotation of emphasis
19. Repeating the translation of the relative pronoun what
IX. ADDITIONAL GRAMMAR DIFFICULTIES
1. Construction with paired conjunctions the ... the
2. Attribution of two prepositions to one noun
3. Application
X. GENERAL REPETITION
1. Repetition of the passive voice and impersonal forms of the verb
2. Repetition of the passive voice, impersonal forms of the verb and the subjunctive mood
3. Repetition of the passive voice, impersonal forms of the verb, subjunctive mood and emphasis
Lexical reference
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This collection of exercises is a reissue of the “Collection of exercises on the main sections of English grammar”, published by the Academy of Sciences in 1961 (2nd ed., 1965; 3rd ed., 1967; 4th ed., 1978). The general structure of the benefit remained unchanged. Some wording has been clarified and some examples have been excluded and replaced. The manual is supplied with brief information on English grammar, necessary for translating scientific literature. It is intended for graduate students and researchers specializing in the field of physics, chemistry, astronomy and preparing to take candidate exam in English language. The collection can also be used for work in student groups when teaching translation in the same specialties, as well as as a guide for those wishing to independently deepen their knowledge of English grammar and master the translation of specialized literature.
Passive voice.
The passive voice shows that the action of the predicate verb is directed to the person or thing expressed by the subject:
A new theory has been put forward.
A new theory was put forward.
Various ways of translating the predicate into the passive voice.
A. 1) The passive voice when translated into Russian can be translated:
a) a short passive past participle with the suffix -н or -т (with or without the auxiliary verb to be), i.e. the Russian passive voice;
b) a verb ending in -sya in the appropriate tense, person and number;
c) an active verb in the appropriate tense, 3rd person mp. numbers that are part of an indefinite sentence:
The experiments were made last year.
a) The experiments (were) carried out last year.
b) The experiments were carried out last year.
c) Conducts experiments last year.
2) Sentences with combinations of “modal verb + passive infinitive” are recommended to be translated with the words can, must, should, etc.:
The problem must be solved.
This problem needs to be solved.
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- How to write scientific articles, reviews, abstracts in English, Mikhelson T.N., Uspenskaya N.V., 1995 - How to write scientific articles, reviews, abstracts in English, Mikhelson T.N., Uspenskaya N.V., 1995. This manual is intended for researchers, graduate students and ... Books on English
- Practical course of English grammar, Mikhelson T.N., Uspenskaya N.V., 1995 - A practical course of English grammar can serve as a manual both for systematic lessons in English grammar and as a self-instruction manual for ... Books on English
- Collection of exercises on translating humanitarian texts from English into Russian - Malchevskaya T.N. - A collection of exercises on translating humanitarian texts from English into Russian. Malchevskaya T.N. 1970. This collection of exercises is a practical... Books on English
- Textbook of the English language, Gundriser V., Landa A.S., 1963 - This textbook is intended for teaching English to beginners in technical universities and is designed for 140 hours of classroom work. ... Books on English
The following textbooks and books:
- Workbook, 3rd grade, To the textbook Yu.A. Komarova, I.V. Larionova, J. Perrett “English language”, Komarova Yu.A., Larionova I.V., Perrett J., 2016
St. Petersburg: Special literature, 1995. - 255 p.
A guide to understanding scientific literature in English. The course includes only those sections of grammar that pose a known difficulty for students of English as the language of science. To adequately transfer the content of an English scientific text into Russian, it is necessary to know and be able to select the appropriate Russian equivalents of one or another construction in the English language. Therefore, this manual includes sections: 1) passive voice; 2) non-finite forms of the verb (infinitive, gerund, participle); 3) subjunctive mood, conditional sentences, various uses of the verbs should and would, modal verbs; 4) emphatic constructions; 5) pronouns and substitute words; 6) conjunctions and relative pronouns. After all sections there is a general repetition, where a number of mixed exercises are given for all the material covered. At the very end of the book there is a Russian-English dictionary reference book. Preface.
Passive voice.
Various ways of translating the predicate into the passive voice.
Peculiarities of translation of the subject with the predicate in the passive voice.
Features of the translation of the passive voice of verbs with a prepositional object.
Features of the translation of the passive voice of English transitive verbs, which in Russian correspond to verbs that take a prepositional object.
Features of the translation of the passive voice from the combination of a verb with a noun like take care of.
Repetition of various methods and features of translating the passive voice.
Infinitive and infinitive phrases.
Infinitive forms.
The infinitive functions as a subject.
The infinitive functions as a circumstance of purpose, consequence and accompanying conditions.
Comparison of the infinitive in the function of the adverbial goal with the infinitive in the function of the subject.
Infinitive in a compound predicate (verb to be + infinitive).
An infinitive in a compound predicate with a modal meaning (to be + infinitive).
Comparison of the verb to be in a modal meaning with the verb to be as a copula followed by an infinitive.
The infinitive in a compound predicate in sentences like The book is easy to read.
Perfect infinitive after modal verbs.
The infinitive functions as a definition.
Comparison of the infinitive in the attributive function with the infinitive in the compound modal predicate after the verb to be.
Comparison of the infinitive in the function of definition with the participle in the same function.
The infinitive functions as the second object (meanings of the verbs cause, get, lead, make + infinitive).
Features of the translation of the passive infinitive after the verbs allow, permit, enable.
The infinitive functions as an introductory member of a sentence.
Comparison of the infinitive, which stands at the beginning of a sentence and performs the functions of the subject, adverbial goal or introductory member of the sentence.
Repetition of the syntactic functions of the infinitive.
The phrase “for + noun (pronoun) + infinitive” (for-phrase).
Comparison of the infinitive in different functions with the phrase “for + noun (pronoun) + infinitive”.
Infinitive in a complex object (turnover “objective case with infinitive”).
Complex object in some subordinate and emphatic clauses.
Comparison of the translation of a complex object with the translation of an infinitive in the definition function.
Infinitive in a compound verbal predicate (turnover “nominative case with infinitive”).
Some features of the translation of the phrase “nominative case with infinitive”.
Comparison of phrases with the infinitive in a complex object and in a compound verbal predicate.
Infinitive after participle II and the words likely, sure, certain.
Comparison of the infinitive after participle II with the infinitive in the compound verbal predicate.
Repetition of infinitives and infinitive phrases.
Participles and participial phrases.
Forms of participles.
Participles in the function of definition.
Determinative participial phrases.
Comparison of participle II with Past Indefinite Active verbs in which these forms coincide (such as invited, sent, made, etc.).
A peculiarity of the translation of attributive phrases with passive participles formed from verbs, which in Russian correspond to verbs that are intransitive or take a prepositional object.
Comparison of the translation of attributive phrases with participle I of the active voice with the translation of attributive phrases with participle II.
Adverbial participial phrases.
Adverbial participial phrases with preceding conjunctions.
Independent participial phrase (absolute participial construction).
Comparison of dependent and independent participial phrases.
The adverbial phrases “participle I + as it does (did)” and “participle II + as it is (was)”.
Participial phrase as an introductory part of a sentence.
Sentences with participle I or II coming first in the sentence and being part of the predicate.
Comparison of participial phrases that appear at the beginning of a sentence and perform the functions of an adverbial clause, an introductory member or part of a predicate.
Participle in a complex object (turnover “objective case with participle”).
Participle in a compound verbal predicate (turnover “nominative case with participle”).
Constructions with participles like "have + noun".
+ participle II".
Repetition of participles and participial phrases.
Gerund and gerundial phrases.
Gerund forms.
Signs of a gerund and its translation.
Gerund as a subject.
Gerund as a direct object.
Gerund as a complement with a preposition.
Gerund as a function of circumstance.
Gerund in the function of definition.
Gerundial phrases.
Repetition of gerunds and gerundial phrases.
Comparison of gerund with participle.
Subjunctive mood, conditionals and various cases usage should and would.
Forms of the subjunctive mood.
The use of subjunctive forms.
Conditional sentences.
Repetition of conditional sentences.
Analysis of conditional sentences from the point of view of the use of subjunctive forms in them.
Usage and translation of the verb should.
Use and translation of the verb would.
Repetition of the verbs should and would.
Use and translation of the verbs may (might), can (could), ought, must, need.
General repetition of the subjunctive mood, conditionals and the verbs should, would, may, might and could.
Emphatic constructions (emphase).
Strengthening do.
Reverse word order.
Emphatic concessional sentences.
Twice no.
The emphatic combination it is. that (which, who).
Repetition of emphatic constructions.
Pronouns and substitute words.
Sentences with introducing there, construction with “there is (there are)”.
The pronoun it, replacing a preceding noun or whole statement.
The pronoun it, which precedes the subsequent utterance.
Repetition of the functions of the pronoun it.
One is a substitute word for a noun.
One is a generalized personal pronoun.
Repetition of one - a substitute word for a noun and a generalized personal pronoun.
The substitute word is that (those).
The substitute word is this (these).
Repetition of pronouns-substitutes of nouns.
one (ones), that (that), this (these).
The verb do is a predicate substitute.
Verbs are substitutes for the significant part of the predicate.
Conjunctions and relative pronouns that, which, what.
The difference between a conjunction and a relative pronoun.
The use of the conjunction that - that; to.
The use of the relative pronoun that - which.
Comparison of the conjunction that - that with the relative pronoun that - which.
The use of the conjunction that is that; to.
Comparison of that, which is part of the emphatic phrase, with the conjunction that, standing after an indefinitely personal sentence.
Repeating the translation of the conjunction and relative pronoun that.
The use of the relative pronoun which - which.
The use of the relative pronoun which - that.
The use of the relative pronoun which - which.
Relative pronoun which, defining nouns like extent, manner, way.
Repeating the translation of the relative pronoun which.
The use of what is a question word and the relative pronoun that; such; what.
Using what as a noun determiner and.
as a relative pronoun - which, which, which.
Comparison of the translation of the pronoun what - what it is, what it is (what it is) and which one.
The use of what is a relative pronoun introducing subject clauses.
Special cases of using the relative pronoun what.
The relative pronoun what, conveying a connotation of emphasis.
Repeating the translation of the relative pronoun what.
Additional grammatical difficulties.
Construction with paired conjunctions the.the.
Attribution of two prepositions to one noun. Appendix. General repetition.
Repetition of the passive voice and impersonal forms of the verb.
Repetition of the passive voice, impersonal forms of the verb and the subjunctive mood.
Repetition of the passive voice, impersonal forms of the verb, subjunctive mood and emphasis. Lexical reference book.
“A Practical Course of English Grammar” can serve as a manual both for systematic studies of English grammar, and as a self-instruction manual for repetition or familiarization with a particular linguistic phenomenon. The course included only those sections of grammar that present a certain difficulty for students of English as a language of science.
To adequately transfer the content of an English scientific text into Russian, it is necessary to know and be able to select the appropriate Russian equivalents of one or another construction in the English language. Therefore, this manual includes sections: 1) passive voice; 2) non-finite forms of the verb (infinitive, gerund, participle); 3) subjunctive mood, conditional sentences, various uses of the verbs should and would, modal verbs; 4) emphatic constructions; 5) pronouns and substitute words; 6) conjunctions and relative pronouns.
Infinitive as a subject
The infinitive functions as a subject if it comes at the beginning of a sentence where there is no other word that could be the subject. Translated by infinitive or verbal noun:
Then read books is useful. Reading books is useful. Reading books is useful.
Note 1: Note that any noun (in this example books) that comes after a verb is the object of the verb and therefore cannot be the subject.
Note 2. If, with a subject in the form of an infinitive, the predicate is expressed by a linking verb be + infinitive, then the link is translated as:
Then understand this phenomenon is to understand the structure of atoms.
To understand this phenomenon means to understand the structure of atoms.
Find the predicate and subject in the following sentences, indicate the complement. Translate:
1. To explain this simple fact is not so very easy.
2. To give a true picture of the surrounding matter is the
task of natural science.
3. To compare the flow of electricity along a conductor
with that of a liquid in a pipe has become familiar.
CONTENT
Preface 3
I. PASSIVE VOICE 5
1. Different ways of translating the predicate in the passive voice 5
2. Features of translating the subject with a predicate in the passive voice 8
3. Features of the translation of the passive voice of verbs with a prepositional object 9
4. Features of the translation of the passive voice of English transitive verbs, which in Russian correspond to verbs that take a prepositional object 11
5. Features of the translation of the passive voice from a combination of a verb with a noun like take care of 14
6. Repetition of various methods and features of translation of the passive voice 16
II. INFINITIVE AND INFINITIVE PURPOSES 19
1. Infinitive forms 19
2. Infinitive as a subject 19
3. The infinitive as a function of the circumstance of the goal, consequence and accompanying conditions 20
4. Comparison of the infinitive in the function of the adverbial goal with the infinitive in the function of the subject 24
5. Infinitive in a compound predicate (verb be + infinitive) 25
6. Infinitive in a compound predicate with modal meaning (be + infinitive) 26
7. Comparison of the verb be in a modal meaning with the verb be as a copula followed by an infinitive 29
8. Infinitive in a compound predicate in sentences like The book is easy to read 30
9. Perfect infinitive after modal verbs 30
10. Infinitive as a definition 31
11. Comparison of the infinitive in the determining function with the infinitive in the compound modal predicate after the verb be 36
12 Comparison of the infinitive in the function of definition with the participle in the same function 37
13. Infinitive in the function of the second object (meanings of the verbs cause, get, lead, make + infinitive) 38
14. Features of the translation of the passive infinitive after the verbs allow, permit, enable 39
15. Infinitive as an introductory member of sentence 40
16. Comparison of the infinitive, which stands at the beginning of the sentence and performs the functions of the subject, adverbial purpose or introductory member of the sentence 42
17. Repetition of syntactic functions of the infinitive 43
18. The phrase “for + noun (pronoun) + infinitive” (for-phrase) 44
19. Comparison of the infinitive in different functions with the phrase “for + noun (pronoun) + infinitive” 47
20. Infinitive in a complex object (turnover “objective case with infinitive”) 47
21. Complex object in some subordinate and emphatic clauses 50
22. Comparison of the translation of a complex object with the translation of an infinitive in the definition function 52
23. Infinitive in a compound verbal predicate (turnover “nominative case with infinitive”) 52
24. Some features of the translation of the phrase “nominative case with infinitive” 57
25. Comparison of phrases with the infinitive in a complex object and in a compound verbal predicate 63
26. Infinitive after participle II and the words likely, sure, certain 64
27 Comparison of the infinitive after participle II with the infinitive in the compound verbal predicate 65
28. Repetition of infinitives and infinitive phrases 66
III. PARTICIPLES AND PARTICIPIC PURPOSES 70
1. Forms of participles 70
2. Participles in the function of definition 70
3. Determinative participial phrases 72
4. Comparison of participle II with Past Indefinite Active verbs in which these forms coincide (such as invited, sent, made, etc.) 75
5. Features of the translation of attributive phrases with passive participles formed from verbs, which in Russian correspond to verbs that are intransitive or take a prepositional object 76
6. Comparison of the translation of attributive phrases with participle I of the active voice with the translation of attributive phrases with participle II 80
7. Adverbial participial phrases 81
8. Adverbial participial phrases with preceding conjunctions 84
9. Independent participle construction (absolute participial construction) 88
10. Comparison of dependent and independent participial phrases 91
11. Adverbial phrases “participle I + as it does (did)” and “participle II + as it is (was)” 92
12. Participial phrase as an introductory member of sentence 93
13. Sentences with participle I or II coming first in the sentence and being part of the predicate 95
14. Comparison of participial phrases at the beginning of a sentence and performing the functions of an adverbial clause, an introductory member or part of a predicate 96
15. Participle in a complex object (turnover “objective case with participle”) 97
16. Participle in a compound verbal predicate (turnover “nominative case with participle”) 98
17. Constructions with participles like “have + noun + participle II 99
18. Repetition of participles and participial phrases 100
IV. GERUND AND GERUNDIALS 105
1. Gerund forms 105
2. Signs of the gerund and its translation 105
3. Gerund as a subject 106
4. Gerund in direct object function 107
5. Gerund as a complement with preposition 109
6. Gerund as a function of circumstance 111
7. Gerund in the function of definition 113
8. Gerundial revolutions 114
9. Repetition of gerunds and gerundial phrases 117
10. Comparison of gerund with participle 119
V. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, CONDITIONAL SENTENCES AND VARIOUS CASES OF USING SHOULD AND WOULD 122
1. Forms of the subjunctive mood 122
2. Use of subjunctive forms 123
3. Conditional sentences 128
4. Repetition of conditional sentences 131
5. Analysis of conditional sentences from the point of view of the use of subjunctive forms in them 132
6. Use and translation of the verb should 134
7. Use and translation of the verb would. 135
8. Repetition of the use of the verbs should and would 137
9. Use and translation of verbs may (might), can (could), ought, must, need 138
10. General repetition of the subjunctive mood, conditionals and verbs should, would, may, might and could 141
VI. EMPHATIC CONSTRUCTIONS (EMPHASE) 143
1. Amplifier do 143
2. Reverse word order 144
3. Emphatic concessional sentences 148
4. Double negative 149
5. Emphatic combination it is... that (which, who) 150
6. Repetition of emphatic constructions 151
VII. PRONOUNS AND SUBSTITUTE WORDS 154
1. Sentences with introducing there, construction with there is (there are) 154
2. The pronoun it, replacing the preceding noun or whole statement 155
3. The pronoun it, preceding the subsequent utterance 156
4. Repetition of the functions of the pronoun it 163
5. One - noun substitute word 164
6. One - generalized personal pronoun 164
7 Repetition of one - word-substitute for a noun and generalized personal pronoun 168
8. Substitute word that (those) 168
9. Substitute word this (these) 169
10. Repetition of pronouns-substitutes of nouns: one (ones), that (those), this (these) 170
11. The verb do is a substituent of the predicate 171
12. Verbs-substitutes of the significant part of the predicate 173
VIII. CONJUNCTIONS AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS THAT, WHICH, WHAT 175
1. The difference between a conjunction and a relative pronoun 175
2. Use of the conjunction that - that; to 175
3. Use of the relative pronoun that - which 177
4. Comparison of the conjunction that - which with the relative pronoun that - which 179
5. The use of the conjunction that is that; to 179
6. Comparison of that, which is part of the emphatic phrase, with the conjunction that, standing after the indefinite sentence 181
7. Repeating the translation of the conjunction and relative pronoun that
8. Use of the relative pronoun which - which 183
9. Use of the relative pronoun which - that 184
10. Use of the relative pronoun which - which 185
11. Relative pronoun which, defining nouns like extent, manner, way 186
12. Repeating the translation of the relative pronoun which 188
13. The use of what - a question word and the relative pronoun that; such; what 189
14. Using what as a noun determiner and as a relative pronoun - which, what for, what 190
15. Comparison of the translation of the pronoun what - what is it, what is it (what is it) and what is it 191
16. The use of what - a relative pronoun introducing subordinate clauses 192
17. Special cases of using the relative pronoun what 193
18. Relative pronoun what, conveying a tone of emphasis 195
19. Repeating the translation of the relative pronoun what 197
IX ADDITIONAL GRAMMAR DIFFICULTIES 199
1. Construction with paired unions the...the 199
2. Attribution of two prepositions to one noun 201
3. Appendix 202
X TOTAL REPETITION 203
1. Repetition of the passive voice and impersonal forms of the verb 203
2. Repetition of the passive voice, impersonal forms of the verb and the subjunctive mood 204
3. Repetition of the passive voice, impersonal forms of the verb, subjunctive mood and emphasis 206
Lexical reference 217
Download the e-book for free in a convenient format, watch and read:
Download the book A Practical Course of English Grammar, Mikhelson T.N., Uspenskaya N.V., 1995 - fileskachat.com, fast and free download.
- How to write scientific articles, reviews, abstracts in English, Mikhelson T.N., Uspenskaya N.V., 1995 - How to write scientific articles, reviews, abstracts in English, Mikhelson T.N., Uspenskaya N.V., 1995. This manual is intended for researchers, graduate students and ... Books on English
- Collection of exercises on the main sections of English grammar, Mikhelson T.N., Uspenskaya N.V., 1989
- Collection of exercises on translating humanitarian texts from English into Russian - Malchevskaya T.N. - A collection of exercises on translating humanitarian texts from English into Russian. Malchevskaya T.N. 1970. This collection of exercises is a practical... Books on English
- Textbook of the English language, Gundriser V., Landa A.S., 1963 - This textbook is intended for teaching English to beginners in technical universities and is designed for 140 hours of classroom work. ... Books on English
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